Nihilists

Nihilism(from lat. nihil - nothing) - a worldview position, expressed in the denial of the meaningfulness of human existence, the significance of generally accepted moral and cultural values; non-recognition of any authorities. In Western philosophical thought, the term "N." introduced by the German writer and philosopher F. G. Jacobi. This concept has been used by many philosophers. S. Kierkegaard considered the crisis of Christianity and the spread of an “aesthetic” worldview to be the source of N. F. Nietzsche understood by N. the awareness of the illusory nature and inconsistency of both the Christian idea of ​​the transcendental God (“God is dead”) and the idea of ​​progress, which he considered a version of religious faith. O. Spengler N. called the feature of modern European culture, which is experiencing a period of "decline" and "senile forms of consciousness", which in the cultures of other peoples allegedly inevitably followed the state of the highest flourishing. M. Heidegger considered N. as the main movement in the history of the West, which could lead to a world catastrophe.

History of appearance

The word itself has been around for a long time. In the Middle Ages there was a teaching nihilism, anathematized by Pope Alexander III in 1179. The doctrine of nihilism, falsely attributed to the scholastic Peter Lombard, rejected the human nature of Christ.

Ideology

Nihilists hold some or all of the following statements:

No reasonable proof of a superior ruler or creator

- "real morality" does not exist

An objective secular ethic is impossible, so life, in a certain sense, has no truth, and no action is objectively preferable to any other.

Nihilism in Russia. Russian literature.

In Russian literature, the word "nihilism" was first used by N. I. Nadezhdin in the article "A host of nihilists" Vestnik Evropy "1829 in the meaning of deniers and skeptics. In 1858, a book by the Kazan professor V.V. Bervi “Psychological comparative view of the beginning and end of life” was published. It also uses the word "nihilism" as a synonym for skepticism.

The term took hold in articles and novels that were directed against the movement of the 1860s. At best, the new people who figured in the anti-nihilistic literature were shaggy, unkempt, dirty men and women who had lost all femininity of a maiden; but quite often, to these qualities, the fierce portrayers of the nihilists added blackmail, theft, and sometimes even murder. By the end of the 1860s and the beginning of the 1870s. the word nihilist almost disappears from Russian polemical literature, but resurrects in Western European literature as a designation for the Russian revolutionary movement; it is also accepted by some Russian emigrants who wrote in foreign languages ​​about the Russian revolutionary movement.

Russian nihilism

Russian nihilism is Russian maximalism, there is an inability to establish steps and gradations, to justify a hierarchy of values. This kind of nihilism flourishes easily even on completely Orthodox soil. In no nation can one find such contempt for cultural values, for human creativity, for knowledge, for philosophy, for art, for law, for relative and conditional forms of society, as among the Russian people. A Russian person is inclined to consider everything as nonsense and decay, with the exception of the one thing that is needed - for one it is the salvation of the soul for eternal life and the Kingdom of God, for the other it is a social revolution and the salvation of the world through a perfect social system. Nihilism was developed in the 19th century. The nihilists opposed the remnants of serfdom.

Notes

see also

• Negative negation

Links

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See what "Nihilists" are in other dictionaries:

NIHILISM. Nihilist (from Latin nihil "nothing": a person who does not recognize anything, a denier) is a socio-political and literary term, widespread in Russian journalism and literary literature of the 60s. In the novel by I. S. Turgenev ... ... Literary Encyclopedia

- (from the Latin nihil nothing), people who deny generally accepted spiritual values, moral norms, forms of social life. In Russia, the term became widespread after the appearance of the novel by I. S. Turgenev Fathers and Sons (1862). Publicists have ... ... Russian history

People who deny the historical foundations of modern life (family, religion, etc.). This nickname, launched by Turgenev, soon lost its original meaning and became vulgar. Dictionary of foreign words included in the Russian language. Pavlenkov F ... Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

Nihilism (nihilists) Cf. What (nihilism) consists of? In the rejection of the providence of God and the benefits brought by the powers that be ... in disrespect, disrespect, destruction and disobedience. Existing is denied, strong is revered as shaky, and bearing and weak for ... ...

nihilists- (lat. nihil - nothing), in Russia from the 2nd half of the 19th century. people who denied generally accepted values: ideals, moral norms, culture ... Russian statehood in terms. IX - beginning of XX century

Nihilists. (Deniers)- The political movement that was widespread in Russia in the 1860s. Many nihilists resorted to terror methods against tsarist reaction and entered the populist movement of the 1870s... Historical reference book of a Russian Marxist

- (English Vera; or, The Nihilists) the first melodramatic play by Oscar Wilde in 1880. The play was dedicated to the Russian terrorist and revolutionary Vera Zasulich. Productions The premiere took place in 1881 at the Adelphi Theater, but on December 17 of that ... ... Wikipedia

Wed What (nihilism) consists of? In the rejection of the providence of God and the benefits brought by the powers that be ... in disrespect, disrespect, destruction and disobedience. Existing is denied, strong is revered as shaky, and bearing and weak is given out as existing and strong ... Michelson's Big Explanatory Phraseological Dictionary

Nihilism is a philosophical concept, but psychology, which has emerged as an independent science from philosophy, is also actively studying the features of this phenomenon and the consequences of nihilism. The nihilist denies values, ideals. It is obvious that it is not easy to live in society with such opposition.

There is no unambiguous understanding of the essence of the phenomenon and a theoretical approach to it:

• For some people, this is a way of life and a style of thought, self-realization, a manifestation of individuality, defending one's point of view, and searching for something new.
• For others, nihilism is caused by violations in and adaptation of the individual.

Nihilism is most common in and around. What do these categories have in common? The need for self-expression, self-actualization, independence and opposition (excommunication from parents). For some, nihilism fades with age, while others retain a rebellious spirit for life. What is it: features or consequences of psychological problems?

Nihilism is classified and considered in a narrow sense, for example, in matters of the denial of religion or state-established rights. In addition, social, moral, cultural and other types of nihilism are distinguished. In the context of this article, it is not appropriate to consider the classification in detail, it is important to talk about the problem itself in a broad sense and its consequences for the individual. From the position of psychology, one type is interesting - demonstrative nihilism.

Demonstrative nihilism (youthful, adolescent)

The psychological syndrome of demonstrative nihilism occurs in adolescence, however, due to the peculiarities of personality development, its signs can also manifest themselves in more mature years.

Demonstrative nihilism involves the cultivation of originality and originality, the purposeful creation of an image "not like everyone else", a blind denial of all norms and standards of behavior and thinking. The demonstrative nihilist is poorly oriented in his own, he does not know his own characteristics at all, but he knows that he always needs to go against society. In this case, nihilism can hardly be called a worldview and philosophy of personality. This is a deviation in behavior, a violation of socialization and self-identification.

The demonstrative nihilist openly and covertly enters into disputes, polemics. Most often, a nihilist presents himself in a negative way, disputes from the everyday level move to the level of ideas, culture, values.

Each movement, deed, element of clothing, word of the nihilist is demonstratively opposed to those around him. Behavior is not only defiant, but also extravagant. Often extravagance borders on asociality. Those around, in turn, fix attention only on these aspects of the personality, which further consolidates in the self-consciousness of the nihilist the image he demonstrates of “not like everyone else”, a provocative, outrageous person.

Without correction, the help of a psychologist, such behavior turns into crimes, alcohol addiction, sexual promiscuity, etc. Each time it will be more and more difficult for a person to shock, the boundaries between social and antisocial behavior will be more and more blurred.

Who is a nihilist

The term "nihilism" is more often used in the field of politics, where it means "recognizing nothing." But in a broad sense, it is also used in relation to youth movements, and in relation to adolescents, and in relation to the worldview of a particular individual.

The nihilist denies social moral norms and values ​​(love, family, health), patterns of behavior, the established civil law regime. Sometimes a nihilist finds like-minded people, but with them (or without them) he finds himself cut off from real life in society.

The nihilist denies everything, even the very value of human life. He does not recognize, does not trust anyone and does not obey. Nihilism involves the rejection of modern laws and standards of life, but at the same time, the nihilist may well be guided by the orders of other communities. However, even more often the nihilist propagates his own norms of life.

The nihilist is characterized by cynical thinking, smirks, sarcastic statements and ridicule, provocations, irony, impudent behavior. He often talks about how he is "pissed off" by humanity and the very structure of the world.

Reasons for nihilism

The nihilist becomes the one who feels pressure, the need to obey, the unsatisfied need for self-realization. All people live in the same society, why then are some able to declare themselves within the framework of classical principles, while others come into confrontation with society?

The roots of nihilism go back to childhood, in which someone greatly offended the child. So he is angry at everyone, hates the whole world, denies everything in the world and despises. But in fact, he is angry and offended only by one specific person (someone from childhood), but.

Disappointment in the world and growing up, lack of and misunderstanding of one's existence are additional causes of nihilism. It is worth noting that they follow from the previous reasons.

Denial is a protective mechanism of the psyche, with the help of which a person tries to maintain health in a traumatic situation. What parents raise a nihilist:

• demanding and forbidding;
• overprotective;
• passive, detached, emotionally cold.

Any childhood perceived by a child as difficult and dangerous has the potential to form a nihilist. An adult nihilist occupies a borderline position: on the one hand, he tries to escape from the past, denies it; on the other hand, he relies on the experience of the past and negatively evaluates the present with the future (he sees the same evil and danger in them).

Awareness of the conditionality of human freedom, which occurs in adolescence, provokes the existential beginning of nihilism. When a person understands that he simultaneously feels the need for freedom and individuality, but at the same time wants to be involved in society, then an internal conflict develops with attempts to find a golden mean, to be a free and independent person within society, a group of people. With an inadequate resolution of this conflict, a desire arises to destroy oneself and the world through denial, that is, nihilism.

Afterword

The nihilist, as a rule, is not understood by the surrounding people, which is why he withdraws into himself. He becomes a hostage to his own conservatism and categoricalness, obsession with his own. Personality develops only in the process of social activity, respectively, the nihilist does not develop.

The word "nihilist" in Latin literally translates as "nothing". This is a person who does not recognize any authority. This term was widely spread in the literature and journalism of the 60s of the 19th century.

Current of social thought

In Russia, this trend gained maximum distribution after the novel by I.S. Turgenev "Fathers and Sons". Nihilism manifested itself as the public mood of the raznochintsy, who denied the established norms of morality. These people refuted everything familiar. Accordingly, a nihilist is a person who does not recognize anything. Representatives of this trend rejected religious prejudices, despotism in society, art, and literature. Nihilists advocated the freedom of the individual woman, her equality in society, and to a certain extent promoted selfishness. The program of this trend was very sketchy, and those who promoted it were too straightforward.

If we talk about nihilism as a worldview, then it cannot be called integral. A nihilist is a person who differed only in the expression of aversion to the surrounding reality. The ideas of this social trend at that time were expressed by the journal Russkoye Slovo.

Nihilism before "Fathers and Sons"

As mentioned above, the term itself became widespread after the publication of the novel Fathers and Sons. In this work, the nihilist is Evgeny Bazarov. He had followers, but more on that later. It was after the publication of the novel that the term "nihilism" spread. Prior to this, in magazines, such ideas were called the “negative direction”, and its representatives were called “whistlers”.

For opponents of the social current, a nihilist is one who sought to destroy moral foundations and promoted immoral principles.

"What is Bazarov?"

It is with this question that P.P. Kirsanov to his nephew Arkady. The words that Bazarov is a nihilist amazed brother Pavel Petrovich. For representatives of his generation, life without principles is impossible.

It is worth noting that nihilists in literature are primarily the heroes of Turgenev. The most striking, of course, is Bazarov, who had followers, Kukshin and Sitnikov.

Nihilist principles

Representatives of this movement are characterized by the main principle - the absence of any principles.

Bazarov's ideological position is most clearly reflected in disputes with Pavel Petrovich Kirsanov.

Heroes have different attitudes towards the common people. Bazarov considers these people "dark", Kirsanov is touched by the patriarchal nature of the peasant family.

Nature for Eugene is a kind of pantry in which a person can host. Pavel Petrovich admires her beauty.

The main nihilist in the novel "Fathers and Sons" has a negative attitude towards art. Reading literature for Bazarov is an empty pastime.

Evgeny and Pavel Petrovich are representatives of different social strata. Bazarov is a commoner. This largely explains his attitude towards the people and indifference to everything beautiful. He represents how hard life is for those who cultivate the land. Russian nihilists, as a rule, really were commoners. Probably, this caused their revolutionary mood and rejection of the social order.

Followers of Bazarov

To the question of which of the heroes was a nihilist in Fathers and Sons, one can, of course, answer that Arkady Kirsanov considered himself a student of Bazarov. Kukshina and Sitnikov also pretend to be his followers. However, can they be considered nihilists?

Arkady, although he is trying to imitate Bazarov, has a completely different attitude towards art, nature, and native people. He adopts only Bazarov's cold manner of communicating, speaks in a low voice and behaves cheekily. Arkady is a well-mannered young man. He is educated, sincere, intelligent. The younger Kirsanov grew up in a different environment, he did not have to earn money for his studies.

However, when Yevgeny Bazarov falls in love with Anna Odintsova, it seems that his behavior also carried a touch of pretense. Of course, he is much stronger than Arkady, shares the ideas of nihilism more deeply, but at the same time, he still could not reject all values ​​with his soul. At the end of the novel, when Bazarov awaits his own death, he recognizes the power of parental love.

If we talk about Kukshina and Sitnikov, they are portrayed by Turgenev with such irony that the reader immediately understands that they should not be taken as “serious” nihilists. Kukshina, of course, "springs", trying to seem different from what she really is. The author calls her a "creature", thus emphasizing fussiness and stupidity.

The writer pays even less attention to Sitnikov. This hero is the son of an innkeeper. He is not far off, behaves cheekily, probably copying the manner of Bazarov. He has a dream to make people happy, using the money earned by his father for this, which expresses a disrespectful attitude towards other people's work and towards parents.

What did the author want to say with such an ironic attitude towards these characters? Firstly, both heroes personify the negative aspects of the personality of Bazarov himself. After all, he does not show respect for the established values ​​that were laid down many centuries ago. Bazarov also shows disdain for his parents, who live only in love for their only son.

The second point that the writer wanted to show is that the time of the "bazaar" has not yet come.

History of the origin of the term "nihilism"

Thanks to Turgenev, the concept of nihilism became widespread, but he did not invent this term. There is an assumption that Ivan Sergeevich borrowed it from N.I. Nadezhin, who in his publication used it to negatively characterize new literary and philosophical trends.

Nevertheless, it was after the distribution of the novel "Fathers and Sons" that the term received a socio-political coloring and began to be widely used.

It must also be said that the literal translation of this word does not convey the content of this concept. Representatives of the current were not at all devoid of ideals. There is an assumption that the author, having created the image of Bazarov, shows a condemnation of the revolutionary democratic movement. At the same time, Turgenev says that his novel is directed against the aristocracy.

So, the term "nihilism" was originally conceived as a synonym for the word "revolution". However, the word gained such popularity that a seminarian who preferred to study at the university and abandoned a spiritual career, or a girl who chose her husband according to the dictates of her heart, and not according to the decree of relatives, could consider herself a nihilist.

Philosophy: Encyclopedic Dictionary. - M.: Gardariki. Edited by A.A. Ivina. 2004 .

NIHILISM

(from lat. nihil - nothing), in a broad sense - the denial of generally accepted values, ideals, moral norms, culture, etc. Sometimes this negation was undertaken with the aim of affirming and exalting c.-l. other values (for example, the denial of culture in Rousseauism, accompanied by a call for the revival of natural morality). AT Russian culture 2nd floor. 19 in. nihilists were called representatives of the radical movement of the raznochintsev of the sixties, who denied the obsolete social foundations of serfdom. Russia and religious ideology, preaching and atheism. Subsequently, the term "N." was used by the reaction to characterize all revolutions. forces of the 60s and 70s gg., which were attributed to, immoralism, anarchism. AT app. Philosophy, the concept of N. appeared in Jacobi, in the socio-cultural meaning was used by Nietzsche, who understood by N. the illusory nature and inconsistency of traditions. ideals bourgeois society. Kierkegaard considered the source of N. Christianity and the spread of "aesthetic." attitude. At Spengler, N. denoted a line modern European culture experiencing a period of "decline" and "senile" forms of consciousness, which in cultures others peoples allegedly inevitably followed the state of higher prosperity. Heidegger considered N. the main movement in the history of the West, which could have a world catastrophe as its final consequence.

Philosophical encyclopedic dictionary. - M.: Soviet Encyclopedia. Ch. editors: L. F. Ilyichev, P. N. Fedoseev, S. M. Kovalev, V. G. Panov. 1983 .

NIHILISM

NIHILISM(from lat. nihil - nothing) absolute negation ( cm. NEGATION). This term, introduced by Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi in his "Sendschreiben an Fichte", became a common expression thanks to I. S. Turgenev's novel "Fathers and Sons" (1862). Theoretical nihilism denies the very knowledge of truth ( cm. AGNOSTICISM). Ethical nihilism rejects values ​​and norms of behavior, and, finally, political nihilism opposes any social order, no matter how it is brought into being. Often it is only an extreme reaction against dogmatism, the lack of content of which has become apparent. Nietzsche means the word "nihilism", borrowed from Turgenev, associated with a reassessment of the highest values, precisely those values ​​that alone fill all the actions and aspirations of people with meaning. Nietzsche puts the following meaning into this: there is nothing more to live in and to strive for. It becomes clear that all these aspirations are completely futile. Nihilism is particularly widespread in times of crisis in socio-historical development. cm. also NOTHING.

Philosophical Encyclopedic Dictionary. 2010 .

NIHILISM

(from Latin nihil - nothing) - in the broadest sense of the word social morals. a phenomenon expressed in the denial of generally accepted values: ideals, moral norms, culture, forms of societies. life; in the bourgeois Western European philosophy - awareness of the social and spiritual crisis bourgeois. society, as a crisis of all former ideals, resulting in a denial of the meaning of human. activities. Although the concept of "N." appears even in F. Jacobi (see "Sendschreiben an Fichte") in his really cultural-historical. meaning first appears in Nietzsche, who defines N. as follows: "What does nihilism mean? The fact that the highest values ​​lose their value. There is no goal. There is no answer to the question" why "? " (Poln. sobr. soch., v. 9, M., 1910, p. 9). N., as Nietzsche rightly notes, acts as a reaction to the traditional liberal form of bourgeois. ideology, to-paradise is trying to maintain the illusion of the bourgeoisie. civilization, trying to present it as the implementation - or towards the implementation - of those ideals that were proclaimed in the era of the bourgeois. revolutions. N. affirms the illusory nature of these ideals and their incompatibility with reality. "Christianity, the abolition of slavery, rights, philanthropy, peacefulness, truth: all these great words have value only in the struggle, as banners, not as realities, but as magnificent names for something completely different (even opposite!)" (ibid., p. 53). Welcoming N., since the latter "destroys all illusions," Nietzsche tries at the same time to overcome him. Nietzsche called this his attempt "the experience of reassessing all values." According to Nietzsche, the immediate cause that caused N. is the "deification of the world", the decomposition of the Christian religion, the beginning of which coincided with the birth of bourgeois society and the complete completion of which marks its end. "God is dead," says Nietzsche (see "Thus Spoke Zarathustra", St. Petersburg, 1913, p. 329), his death immediately revealed that all that morality. world order, to-ry rested on religion. foundation, lost its support: it turned out that man himself created this world order, and therefore, he himself can destroy it. However, the disintegration of religions consciousness is, according to Nietzsche, only the immediate. the cause of the nihilistic mentality. Its deeper source is to be sought in Christ itself. religions, to-paradise split into otherworldly -, and this worldly - untrue. After the “artificial” of this “higher” world is revealed, we are left with only the “rejected” world, and this higher disappointment is put on account of its unworthiness (cf. there). Thus, the very emergence of Christianity was a potential emergence of N. Nietzsche interprets Christianity broadly, linking its appearance with the era of Socrates and Plato, when for the first time the doctrine of two worlds arises - the moral, true world, and the world of this world, transient and untrue, - the doctrine, in the basis of which, according to Nietzsche, is the desire to oppose fate. Thus, with Christianity, Nietzsche essentially identifies the entire worldview of the new time, since it only changed the old Christs. ideals, but left untouched the main thing: the desire to achieve the highest goal of mankind. Nietzsche speaks in this sense of "the continuation of Christianity by the French Revolution" (see ibid., p. 59), of the transformation of Christ. ideas into the doctrine of the progressive development of society, of the "modern form of Christianity" - socialism. To put an end to Christianity - with its "division of the world into and meaning" - means, according to Nietzsche, to put an end to N., which will lead to the triumph of a new era, the era of the "superman", for which there is no longer "good and evil", because there is no bifurcation of the world into "true" and "false" (the amoralistic Nietzsche later served as one of the sources of the ideology of German fascism). The same spiritual phenomenon, which Nietzsche designated as N., was also noted by Kierkegaard, calling it "despair". Unlike Nietzsche, Kierkegaard expresses the brewing crisis of the worldview of modern times in the form in which it is perceived by religion. consciousness, and sees the source of N. not in the "spirit of Christianity", but, on the contrary, in the absence of truly Christ. worldview. Describing "despair" as the "deadly disease" of the era, Kierkegaard compares it for clarification with "...intellectual illness - doubt... Despair - something deeper and more independent... It is an expression of the whole personality, but only thinking "("Entweder-Oder", Köln, 1960, S. 769-70). "Despair", according to Kierkegaard, like N. in Nietzsche, paralyzes a person, because in this state it turns out that all of it has no meaning. However, unlike Nietzsche, Kierkegaard declares that the source of "despair" is not religious, but "" worldview, which he characterizes as: 1) natural in the moral (spiritual); 2) pagan as opposed to true Christian; 3) natural attraction as opposed to free choice; 4) preference for nature. the beginning in man - the mind, the supernatural beginning - the will; 5) striving for unity. goals - enjoyment and confession of unities. religions are religions of beauty. Within the "aesthetic", i.e. "natural" attitude to life, according to Kierkegaard, the question of freedom cannot be raised (to-paradise is finding oneself by choosing oneself by the decision of the will), for the "aesthetician" who makes the main. the motive of their behavior is aesthetic. , only loses itself and as a result comes to "despair" (ibid., pp. 747–48). Although the model is aesthetic. attitude to life, Kierkegaard chooses the worldview of the Jena romantics (see Romanticism), in essence, he considers the entire modern world to be "aesthetic". culture (new philosophy - see "Die Krankheit zum Tode", Fr. / M., 1959, S. 76 - and even Protestant), including that historical. tradition, which led to its emergence. The term "aestheticism", therefore, is the same symbol as the Nietzsche term "". (Thus, Kierkegaard calls "aesthetician" even the representative of the "ethical" trend in ancient Greek philosophy, Socrates, since the latter did not understand that ethics should be based on the "will, willfulness" introduced by Christianity). As, according to Nietzsche, all antecedents. culture leads to N., and, according to Kierkegaard, "pagan aestheticism" always carries a "deadly disease" - despair. However, overcoming the socio-political and spiritual crisis, both thinkers are looking for in opposite directions: if Nietzsche calls to return to "genuine paganism" ("eternal return"), interpreting it as a force, as a "worldview of inequality", tragic. "love of fate," then Kierkegaard suggests looking in "genuine Christianity," which has never been achieved and can be reached only through the deepest despair. Attempts modern. bourgeois bringing Kierkegaard and Nietzsche closer together are justified only in the sense that both of them expressed the crisis of the bourgeoisie. culture and tragedy. position of a person who grew up in the bosom of this culture.

The term "N." was used by the reaction to characterize all revolutions. forces of Russia in the 60–70s. 19th century, vulgar materialism, anarchist were attributed to Crimea. denial of civilization. In this sense, the term "N." used in the office documents [reports of the 3rd department (see I. S. Turgenev, Central archive, M., 1923), materials of the Nechaev trial], reaction. journalism ("Rus. Vestnik"), in "anti-nihilistic" novels (Leskov, Krestovsky, Pisemsky, Dostoevsky). From the 70s. term "N." used in foreign bourgeois. historiography for tendentious characterization of advanced Russian. societies. thoughts (Oldenburg K., Der Russische Nihilismus von seinem Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart, Lpz., 1888; Jarmolinsky A., Road to revolution. A century of Russian radicalism, L., 1957).

Lit.: Lenin, V.I., Persecutors of Zemstvos and Annibals of Liberalism, Soch., 4th ed., vol. 5; his own, About "Milestones", ibid., vol. 16; his, Another campaign against democracy, ibid., vol. 18; [Katkov M.], About our N. Regarding Turgenev's novel, "Rus. Vestn.", 1862,; Herzen A.I., Letter to I.S. Turgenev 21 April. (1862), in the book: Poln. coll. op. and letters, vol. 15, P., 1920; Alekseev A.I., On the history of the word "N.", in the book: Sat. Art. in acad. A. I. Sobolevsky. Art. in Slavic Philology and Russian. literature, M.–L., 1928; Saltykov-Shchedrin N., Street Philosophy, Poln. coll. op. in 20 vols., v. 8, M., 1937; Antonovich M., Asmodeus of our time, in his book: Izbr. articles, L., 1938; Kozmin B.P., Two words about the word "N.", "IAN USSR. Department of Literature and Language", 1951, vol. 10, no. 4; Chernyshevsky N. G., Lack of money, Full. coll. soch., v. 10, M., 1951; Batyuto AI, On the question of the origin of the word "N." in the novel by I. S. Turgenev "Fathers and Sons", "IAN USSR. Department of Literature and Language", 1953, vol. 12, no. 6; Belinsky V., [Rec. on] Provincial nonsense..., Full. coll. soch., vol. 2, M., 1953; Turgenev I., Lit. and worldly memories, Sobr. soch., vol. 10, M., 1956; Pisarev D. I., Realists, Soch., vol. 3, M., 1956; Pustovoit P. G., Roman I. S. Turgenev "Fathers and Sons" and the ideological struggle of the 60s. XIX century., M., 1960; Demidova N. V., D. I. Pisarev and N. in the 1960s, Vestn. Leningrad State University. Ser. Economics, Philosophy and Law, 1965, No 5; Cyževskyj D., Literarische Lesefrüchte, "Z. für slavische Philologie", 1942–43, Bd 18, Η. 2.

A. Novikov. Leningrad.

Philosophical Encyclopedia. In 5 volumes - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia. Edited by F. V. Konstantinov. 1960-1970 .

NIHILISM

NIHILISM (from lat. nihil - nothing) - in a broad sense - the mindset associated with the installation of the denial of generally accepted values, ideals, moral norms, culture. The term "nihilism" is found in European theological literature already in the Middle Ages. In the 12th century one of the church heresies, speaking from the position of denying the dogma of the divine-human nature of Christ, was called "nihilism". In the 18th century the concept of “nihilism” as an analogue of the denial of generally accepted norms and values ​​is fixed in European languages ​​(in particular, a similar term “nihilism” is recorded in the Dictionary of New Words in the French Language, published in 1801).

In Western philosophy, the term "nihilism" appeared in the 2nd half. 19th century and became widespread thanks to the conceptual constructions of A. Schopenhauer, F. Nietzsche, O. Spengler and a number of other thinkers and philosophers. Schopenhauer created a nihilistic doctrine of "Buddhist" indifference to the world. Spengler considers nihilism as a distinctive feature of his contemporary era, characterized by the decline of European culture, which is experiencing its own decline, its transformation into a standardized, impersonal civilization. In Nietzsche's philosophy, nihilism grows into a comprehensive concept that sums up the entire European historical and cultural development, starting with Socrates, who put forward the idea of ​​the values ​​of reason, which, according to the philosopher, was the first cause of Zhgilism, which then developed on the basis of the “moral-Christian interpretation of the world ". “The most dangerous attempt on life” Nietzsche considers all the basic principles of reason formulated in the European philosophical philosophy, purpose, truth, etc. Under “slander on life”, he sums up Christianity and its entire history, leading to its self-denial through the development of a kind cult of intellectual honesty. Thus, a stable nihilistic culture in Europe is formed due to the fact that the “true world” of traditional religions, philosophy and morality is losing its vitality, but at the same time life itself, the earthly world does not find its own values, its real justification. According to Nietzsche, nihilism corresponding to this global situation is not an empirical phenomenon of culture and civilization, even if it is very stable. Nihilism is deep in the whole history of Europe, a kind of fatal “anti-life”, which paradoxically became the life of its culture, starting from both its rational Hellenic and Judeo-Christian roots. The incredible decline in the dignity and creative power of the individual in the modern mechanized era only radicalizes this logic and forces us to raise the cardinal question of overcoming nihilism. Nietzsche emphasizes that nihilism is not limited to the “death of the Christian God”, for all attempts to replace Him with the help of conscience, rationality, the cult of the public good and the happiness of the majority, or the interpretation of history as an absolute end in itself, etc., only increase the disturbing symptoms of nihilism, “of this very creepiest of all guests.” The attempt to escape from the “collapse” of higher values ​​by restoring their secularized imitations, I-biiuie resolutely exposes, pointing to the “physiological” and vital-anthropological roots of nihilism. In this regard, the modern, according to Nietzsche, is only the apogee of the indicated refinement and fall of the human type, bringing the nihilistic tendency to its extreme forms.

In the concept of nihilism in Nietzsche, one can distinguish features of both its formal similarity with the idea of ​​​​communism in Marx (even the metaphors of a “ghost” roaming Europe coincide), and a meaningful echo with the theme of “forgetfulness of being” in Heidegger, who gave his reading of the concept of nihilism in Nietzsche . Both the “forgetfulness of being” (Heidegger) and the decadence of the vital force (Nietzsche) start in the same way with Socrates and develop in parallel in Platonism and in the tradition of metaphysics in general. In both cases, the common marker of overcoming this “fate of Europe” is the prophetically preached return to mystical-Dionysian and pre-Socratic Greece. The originality of Heidegger in the interpretation of nihilism, this frightening “fate of Western peoples”, is that he considers it in the light of the problem of nothingness as a “veil of the truth of the being of being”. According to Heidegger, Nietzsche's interpretation of nihilism is that he "is not able to think about the essence of Nothing" (European nihilism. - In his book: Time and Being. M., 1993, p. 74). And therefore, secularization, together with disbelief, is not the cause of nihilism, Heidegger believes, but its consequences. Nietzsche cannot understand nihilism independently of the metaphysics he criticizes, because in his analysis he himself proceeds from the idea of ​​value, thinking “the essence of being ... in its disruption” (ibid., p. 75). As a result, he remains within the limits of nihilism and metaphysics, being, however, "the last metaphysician." Unlike Nietzsche, Heidegger connects nihilism with the project of the New Age with his idea of ​​an autonomous self-legislative subject leading to the Cartesian mechanism necessary to assert the dominance of nihilistic man over the Earth.

According to Camus, modern nihilism begins with the words of Ivan Karamazov, “everything is permitted”, since there is no God. The concept of nihilism is analyzed by him in connection with the theme of “metaphysical rebellion” (la révolte), and the romantics, Stirner, Nietzsche, Dostoevsky act as milestones in its history. “Nihilism,” Camus emphasizes, “is not only despair and denial, but above all to them” (L "homme révolte. - “Essais”. P., 1965, p. 467).

A new stage in the interpretation of the concept of "nihilism" in the social and political thought of the West was opened in the 1960s. and is associated with the names of G. Marcuse, T. Adorno and other followers of the Frankfurt school. In Western philosophy, in the worldview of the “new left” and the artistic avant-garde of the 1960s and 70s. the concept of nihilism turned out to be closely connected with the Freudian-inspired idea of ​​the potential independence of the natural “I” from its overwhelming culture, with the anarchic protest of left-radical and avant-garde circles against the “repressive culture” and “one-dimensionality” of the individual. Nowadays, the concept of nihilism is widely used by critics of modern civilization as a whole or its individual aspects, for example. Austrian philosopher and publicist W. Kraus, who distinguishes between socio-political, psychological-neurotic and philosophical nihilism, and all its types mutually support each other, increasing their negative consequences and thereby creating something like a vicious circle of nihilism. Various forms of nihilism, according to Kraus, are associated with the decline of guilt and personal responsibility in the age of the dominance of the scientific and technical picture of the world, as well as with the fact that in the structure of the inner world of modern man there is not enough influence of the super-“I” as a counterweight to the unbridled desires of the individual. Modern nihilism, according to Kraus, is the traditional nihilism described in the philosophy and literature of the 19th century, plus its neurotic manifestations, which are largely characteristic of today. New idolatry, eg. market also leads to the intensification of a variety of nihilistic tendencies that threaten human freedom, dignity and survival.

Lit.: Marciise H. One-dimensional Men. Boston, 1964; Idem. Essay on Liberation. Boston, 1969; Nihilismus. Die Anfange von Jacobi bis Nietzsche, hrsg. von D. Arendt. Koln, 1970; Der Nihilismus als Phänomen der Geistesgeschichte, hrsg. von D. Arendt. Darmstadt, 1974; Denken im Schatten des Nigilismus, hrsg. von A. Schwan. Dannstadt, 1975; Weier W. Nihilismus. Paderbom, 1980; Kraus W. Nihilismus heute oder die Geduld der Weltgeschichte. W, 1983.

NIHILISM IN RUSSIA. In Russia, the term "nihilism" was first used by N. I. Nadezhdin in an article published in Vestnik Evropy in 1829, "A host of nihilists." Somewhat later, in the 30s and 40s. 19 century, it was used by N. A. Polevoy, S. P. Shevyrev, V. G. Belinsky, M. N. Katkov and other Russian writers and publicists, while using the term in various contexts. Both positive and negative moral connotations have been associated with it. M. A. Bakunin, S. M. Stepnyak-Kravchinsky, P. A. Kropotkin, for example, put a positive meaning into the term “nihilism”, not seeing anything bad in it. The situation changed in the 2nd half. 19th century, when the term "nihilism" acquired a qualitatively new and quite definite meaning. Nihilists began to be called representatives of the radical trend of the raznochintsy-sixties, who preached a revolutionary worldview, denied social (inequality of estates and serfdom), religious (Orthodox Christian), cultural (“official philistinism”) and other official foundations of society in pre- and post-reform Russia, generally accepted canons of aesthetics and preaching vulgar materialism and atheism. A distinctive feature of Russian nihilism is an attempt in the field of understanding social phenomena to rely on the natural science theory of Darwinism and extrapolate its methodology to the processes of evolution of society (man is an animal; - the main organic world; the triumph of the species is valuable and important, but there is a value that does not deserve attention). The mouthpiece of a similarly understood nihilism in Russia early. 60s 19th century becomes the journal "Russian Word", in which D. I. Pisarev played a leading role. At the same time, however, Pisarev himself ignored the term “nihilism” and preferred to call himself and his like-minded people “realists”.

Such an interpretation of the term “nihilism” became widespread with the publication in 1862 of the novel “Fathers and Sons” by I. S. Turgenev, the main character of which the “nihilist” student Bazarov defended that “at the present time, denial is most useful,” and acted with destructive criticism of the social structure, public morality, the way of life of the ruling strata of Russian society. Subsequently, Russian literature gave a whole gallery of images of nihilists from Rakhmetov and Lopukhov in the works of Chernyshevsky (where the images of nihilist revolutionaries were written out with great sympathy) to obvious anti-heroes in the novels of Dostoevsky, Pisemsky, Leskov and others. 19th century the term "nihilism" was actively used by right-wing conservative journalism to characterize representatives of revolutionary populism in the 1860s and 70s. and the Russian liberation movement as a whole.

A new page in the history of the interpretation of the phenomenon of “Russian nihilism” was opened in the first decades of the 20th century. S. L. Frank and N. A. Berdyaev. Frank in his article “The Ethics of Nihilism” (collection “Milestones”, 1909) declared “nihilistic moralism” to be the main feature of the spiritual physiognomy of the Russian intellectual, called Peter I the first Russian nihilist, and characterized the Bolsheviks as an expression of “universal negation”. Describing Russian nihilism, Berdyaev distinguished between its narrow (“emancipation mental movement of the 60s”) and broad (currents of thought that deny “God, soul, norms and higher values”) meanings (“The origins and meaning of Russian communism”). Considering Russian nihilism as a fundamentally religious phenomenon, Berdyaev, however, defines its origins in a contradictory way, considering them either Orthodox or Gnostic. Nihilistic, declared in the images of Bazarov, Rakhmetov and others, being transformed in the course of historical development, continues in Russian communism, where, in particular, it acquires some features of theomachism in the spirit of vulgarized Nietzsche, for example. M. Gorky.

Nihilism in Russia is not an ideology or worldview; it is a specific socio-psychological, as an unreflexed, special way of responding to the most diverse phenomena of social life, characterized by hypertrophied categoricalness, “totality” of denial, non-dialectical denial, when nothing positive, rational is recognized and accepted in the denied phenomena; nihilism, as a rule, is expressed in pejorative, accusatory and even abusive terms; he is hostile to any compromise. There were nihilists of one kind or another in the most diverse social movements and currents of thought, but Ch. about. nihilism was characteristic of the extreme left and right radical directions. In the radical left and revolutionary circles of the 19th century. nihilism was most clearly manifested among the publicists of the Russian Word, headed by Pisarev, and in the “anarchist” movement, in the 20th century in anarcho-syndicalism and in such an anti-intellectual movement as “Makhaevshchina” (V.K. Makkhaisky and others) , in the first years of Soviet power in the proletarian movement. On the right flank of the spectrum of social movements in Russia in the 19th century, clearly nihilistic ones were especially characteristic of the speeches and writings of the editor of the obscurantist journal of the 1940s. “Mayak” by S. O. Burachek, publisher of a no less obscurantist journal of the 1960s. “Home conversation” by V. I. Askochensky, for Konstantin Leontiev, ideologists of the Black Hundred movement of the beginning. 20th century.

Lot.: Katkov M. About our nihilism. Regarding Turgenev's novel, - "Russian Messenger", 1862, No. 7; GogotskyS. Nihilism, he is. philosophical lexicon, vol. 3. K., 1866; De Poulet M. Nihilism as a pathological phenomenon of Russian life. - "Russian Bulletin", 1881, No. 11; Peony I. Nihilists and Nihilism. M., 1886; Strakhov IN From the history of literary nihilism 1861-65. SPb., 1890; Achekseev A.I. To the history of the word “nihilism” .- In the book: Collection of articles in honor of Acad. A. I. Sobolevsky. Articles on Slavic philology and Russian literature. M.-L., 1928; Borovsky V. V. Bazarov and Sanin. Two nihilisms. - Works, vol. 2. M., 1931; Stepnyak-Kravchinsky S. M. Nihilism.- He is. Underground Russia. M., I960; Novikov A.I. Nihilism and the Nihilist. Critical characterization experience. L., 1972; Dostoevsky F.M. Mr. Shchedrin, or the Schism in the Nihilists.- Collected. op. in 30 volumes, v. 20. L., 1980; Kozychin B.P. Two words about the word “nihilism”, - He. Literature and history. Sat. articles. M., 1982; Karlowisch N. Die Entwickelung des russischen Nihilistus. B., 1880; Oldenberg K. Der russische Nihilismus von seinen Anfängen bis zur Gegenwart. Lpz., 1888; Coquart A. Dmitri Pisarev (1840-1868) et idéologie du nihilisme rosse. P., 1946; Hi/igley R. Nihilists. Russian Radicals and Revolutionaries in the Reign f Alexander 11 (1855-81), 1967; Lubomirski J". Le nihilisme en Russie. P., 1979.

Dictionary of foreign words of the Russian language

Nihilism- Nihilism ♦ Nihilisme A nihilist is a person who doesn't believe in anything (nihil), even in what is real. Nihilism is a kind of negative religion - God died, taking with him everything that was considered the fruit of his creation - being and value ... Philosophical Dictionary of Sponville

nihilism- a, m. nihilisme lat. nihil nothing. 1. Denial of social values ​​(any norms, principles, laws) created by mankind; complete skepticism. BAS 1. 2. Direction in the Russian environment. commoners of the sixties, sharply negatively ... ... Historical Dictionary of Gallicisms of the Russian Language

Nihilism- (Latin nihil -. Eshtemoh) - қoғamdaғy zhalpy қabyldanғan, bіraқ bөgde (RAT), sotsiumde өmіrdі өndіrudің өzderіnің kүnderі bіtken formalary Nemes zhazalaytyn (repressive) tұlғadan thousand zhane қoғam individke zorlap taңғan (engіzgen) imperativter retіnde ... Philosophical terminderdin sozdigі

- (lat. nihil nothing) originally one of the characteristic features of Buddhist and Hindu philosophy. According to their inherent N. (or pessimism), in this world, in principle, there is no primordial reality, because it has no name and form; ... ... History of Philosophy: Encyclopedia

- (from the Latin nihil nothing), denial of generally accepted values, ideals, moral norms, cultural traditions, etc. Receives special distribution in crisis epochs of socio-historical development. In Russia, the term nihilism received ... ... Modern Encyclopedia

Skepticism, negation Dictionary of Russian synonyms. nihilism n., number of synonyms: 3 denial of social values ​​... Synonym dictionary

Nihilism- (from the Latin nihil nothing), denial of generally accepted values, ideals, moral norms, cultural traditions, etc. Receives special distribution in crisis epochs of socio-historical development. In Russia, the term "nihilism" received ... ... Illustrated Encyclopedic Dictionary

- (from lat. nihil nothing) denial of generally accepted values: ideals, moral norms, culture, forms of social life. Receives special distribution in crisis epochs of socio-historical development. In Russia, the term has become widespread ... ... Big Encyclopedic Dictionary

NIHILISM, nihilism, pl. no, husband. (book). 1. The mindset of a nihilist (source). 2. Naked denial of everything, logically unjustified skepticism. Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov. D.N. Ushakov. 1935 1940 ... Explanatory Dictionary of Ushakov

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A nihilist is a person who denies the significance of generally accepted values, both moral and cultural. The term "nihilist" comes from the Latin "nihil" and means "nothing". The nihilist rejects all principles, does not recognize a priori authorities. In addition to disagreeing with generally accepted values ​​and ideas, he also denies the meaningfulness of human existence. Nihilists tend to be critical thinkers and skeptics.

Who is a nihilist

The explanatory dictionary contains information that a nihilist is an individual who:

- denies the meaning of human existence;

- overthrows all recognized authorities from their pedestals;

- rejects spiritual values, ideals and common truths.

The nihilist reacts in a peculiar way to events in the world around him, showing a defensive reaction as a disagreement. The nihilist's denial often reaches the point of mania. For him, all human ideals are like ghosts that limit the freedom of the individual and prevent him from living correctly.

The nihilist recognizes in this world only matter, atoms, forming a certain phenomenon. Among the main causes of nihilism are, as well as a sense of self-preservation, which does not know the feeling of spiritual love. Nihilists claim that everything creative is unnecessary and feigned nonsense.

In psychology, a nihilist is seen as a person who is desperate in search of the causes and meaning of existence on earth.

In the conceptual provisions of E. Fromm is presented as a mechanism. Fromm believed that the main problem of an individual who did not come into this world of his own free will is the natural contradiction between being, and also the fact that a person, having the ability to know himself, others, the present and the past, goes beyond nature. According to E. Fromm, personality develops in the pursuit of freedom and the pursuit of alienation. And this development occurs by increasing freedom, but not everyone can use this path correctly. As a result, negative states and mental experiences lead the individual to alienation and loss of his self. A protective mechanism “escape from freedom” appears, leading the individual to destructiveness, nihilism, automatic, the desire to destroy the world so that the world does not destroy it.

W. Reich, analyzing the appearance and behavior of nihilists, characterizes them as arrogant, cynical, impudent with an ironic smirk. These qualities are a consequence of the action of nihilism as a defense mechanism. These features have become "character armor" and are expressed as "character". W. Reich argues that the traits of nihilists are the remnants of strong defense mechanisms in the past, separated from their initial situations and becoming permanent character traits.

A nihilist is a person who is disillusioned with life and hides the bitterness of this disappointment under a mask. But it was precisely at the turning points in the history of mankind that nihilists were the driving force behind changes and events, and the majority of the bearers of nihilistic views were young people with their desire for maximalism.

Nihilist views

The doctrine of nihilism arose in the twelfth century, but was soon regarded as heretical and anathematized by Pope Alexander III.

The nihilistic movement gained particular momentum in the 19th century in the West and in Russia. He was associated with the names of Jacobi, Nietzsche, Stirner, Proudhon, Kropotkin, Bakunin and others.

The very concept of "nihilism" was introduced by the German philosopher F. G. Jacobi. The most prominent representative of nihilism was F. Nietzsche. He believed that there is no truth in the world, and its existence - pro-Christian thinkers.

Another well-known nihilist, O. Spengler, promoted the idea of ​​the decline of European culture and the destruction of former forms of consciousness.

S. Kierkegaard believed that the reason for the spread of the nihilistic movement is the crisis in the Christian faith.

In Russia in the second half of the 19th century, more supporters of nihilism appeared, denying the established foundations of society. They ridiculed religious ideology and preached atheism.

The meaning of the word nihilist is most revealed in the image of Yevgeny Bazarov, the hero of I.S. Turgenev’s novel “Fathers and Sons”. A bright representative of his time, he expressed the social as well as political changes that were taking place then in society. He was a "new man", a rebel. The student Bazarov is described by Turgenev as a supporter of the most "merciless and complete denial". First of all, he opposed autocracy, serfdom, religion - all that gave rise to people's poverty, lack of rights, darkness, community, patriarchal antiquity, family oppression. Undoubtedly, this denial had a revolutionary character, such nihilism was characteristic of the revolutionary democrats of the 60s.

Among the main types of nihilism in modern society, there are several.

Legal nihilism consists in the denial of laws. This can lead to the inhibition of the legal system, illegal actions, as well as chaos.

The reasons for legal nihilism may have historical roots, it also arises from the inconsistency of laws with the interests of citizens, people's disagreement with many scientific concepts.

Moral nihilism is a meta-ethical position that says that nothing can be moral or immoral. Nihilists assume that even murder, regardless of its circumstances and reasons, cannot be regarded as a bad or good deed.

Youthful nihilism, just like youthful maximalism, is expressed with vivid emotions in the denial of everything. A growing personality often experiences disagreement with the views, habits and way of life of adults and seeks to protect himself from the negativity of real life. This kind of nihilism is often inherent not only in young men, but also in emotional people of all ages and is expressed in various areas (in religion, culture, rights, knowledge, social life).

Mereological nihilism is quite common today. This is a philosophical position that says that there are no objects that are made up of parts, but that there are only basic objects that are not made up of parts. For example, the nihilist is sure that the forest does not exist as a separate object, but as a set of plants in a limited space. And that the concept of "forest" was created to facilitate human thinking and communication.

Geographical nihilism began to stand out relatively recently. Its essence lies in the denial and incomprehension of the illogical use of geographical features of parts of the world, the substitution of geographical directions north - east - south - west and geographical parts of the world with cultural idealism.

Epistemological nihilism is a form that asserts doubt about the possibility of attaining knowledge. It arose as a reaction to the ideal and universal goal of ancient Greek thought. The Sophists were the first to support skepticism. After some time, a school was formed that denied the possibility of ideal knowledge. Then the problem of nihilism was already clear, which consisted in the unwillingness of its supporters to obtain the necessary knowledge.

The nihilism that is popular today is cultural. Its essence lies in the denial of the cultural trends of all spheres of social life. Rousseau, Nietzsche and other founders of the counterculture completely denied the whole of Western civilization, as well as bourgeois culture. The biggest criticism fell on the cult of consumerism of mass society and mass culture. Nihilists are sure that only the avant-garde is worthy of development and preservation.

Religious nihilism is a rebellion, an uprising against religion, a negative attitude towards spiritual social values. Criticism of religion is expressed in a pragmatic attitude to life, in lack of spirituality. Such a nihilist is called, for him nothing is sacred.

Social nihilism is expressed in a variety of ways. This is hostility to state institutions, reforms, social protests against various transformations, innovations and shock methods, disagreement with various political decisions, rejection of a new way of life, new values ​​and changes, rejection of Western patterns of behavior.

Among the negative aspects of nihilism is the inability to go beyond one's own views, misunderstanding among others, categorical judgments, which often harms the nihilist himself. However, it is positive that the nihilist shows his individuality, defends his own opinion, seeks and discovers something new.

Speaker of the Medical and Psychological Center "PsychoMed"