Music

Japanese netsuke figures - types of netsuke - meaning and meaning. All about netsuke Netsuke figures and what they mean

10.09.2023

Shopping, talking on the phone, watching TV and other household chores can be used as an alternative to fitness to achieve the goal of a beautiful, toned figure.

When fear ceases to perform a protective function, it turns into an obstacle that must be eliminated, otherwise you can forget about a full life. Psychologists have found several effective ways to overcome fear, and now we will talk about this.

How to lose weight in winter at home

There are some tricks that will help you easily lose weight in winter without stress, “wild” diets, and especially hunger strikes. We always need health, and therefore we do not need to expose our body to the serious danger of lacking the nutrients it needs, everything is much simpler.

Juices and cocktails for immunity

Lifestyle and proper balanced nutrition play key roles for health and in the formation of strong immunity, and one of the most effective methods of protection against winter infections is healing the body and strengthening the immune system with the help of delicious drinks - juices and cocktails.

Maldives: climate, recreation, hotels

Just the word “Maldives” evokes a pleasant feeling and makes you think of bliss in one of the paradise corners of the planet. This is true. If someone wants to truly relax body and soul, then there is no better place.

Fatty acids: types, role and sources

Despite the differing opinions of various experts, the role of fatty acids in our lives is very important, and they should always be present in sufficient quantities in the diet of any person. Without fatty foods in the diet, we cannot talk about health. However, only high quality products are considered healthy.

Human pride: signs and how to get rid of it

We have learned to justify our behavior and even, seeing its negative consequences on our lives, to prove that it is one of our benefactors. The pride of a person will not shout about his superiority, but will very subtly use any situation to elevate himself among others.

How to stop being jealous of other people's successes?

Some argue that slight envy is good; without it, no one would strive to develop. Others believe that you need to have only good feelings towards others and in no way envy. Do you want to learn to live in harmony with yourself and the world around you? Then read tips on how to stop being jealous of other people's successes.

Fashionable outerwear winter 2019-2020: photos of new products and trends

Perhaps one of the main acquisitions for winter can be considered warm outerwear. Without a quality coat, jacket or down jacket, you can forget about a comfortable stay on the street. To be fashionable, see photos of the latest new products and trends in women's outerwear for winter 2019-2020.

Dietary zucchini dishes: delicious and simple recipes

Zucchini is called a dietary vegetable for good reason. Regular consumption of zucchini dishes allows you not only to maintain a slim figure, but also to get rid of many diseases. Dietary dishes from zucchini on the menu mean normal water-salt metabolism, absence of edema and prevention of cellulite, prevention of arthritis and atherosclerosis.

Nutrition and foods that are good for the liver

The fundamental factor in the health and stable functioning of the liver is nutrition. This is why it is so important to include liver-healthy foods in your daily diet.

Body shaping and skin rejuvenation products

Creams, gels, lotions and oils to improve skin turgor, silhouette-sculpting serums, anti-cellulite preparations - you won’t see any kind of figure correction products on the shelves in cosmetic stores.

Pyatigorsk: attractions, hotels and entertainment

Pyatigorsk is an ideal place for nature lovers. This is a picturesque place on the banks of the river, surrounded by majestic mountains and surrounded by greenery. And for those who want to improve their health, in Pyatigorsk there are more than 40 mineral water sources that differ in composition.

How to brew tea correctly and traditional recipes

There is probably no person who does not love real tasty tea, moderately strong, tart, invigorating. Of course, I’m not talking about tea bags now, with which the shelves of all stores and supermarkets are simply “littered.” I'm talking about real, natural loose leaf tea.

Creatine: what is it for, is it good for health, how to take it correctly

For several decades now, a drug called creatine has been actively and successfully promoted on the market of nutritional supplements for athletes. This supplement is positioned as increasing the body's ability to produce energy under heavy loads: athletes taking creatine can withstand such loads much longer.

Responsibility for other people: what they are and types

Probably one of the most controversial concepts in our lives is the feeling of responsibility for other people. Both insufficient and excessive manifestations of it create situations that directly affect our relationships with our family and people around us.


Netsuke (根付) is a miniature sculpture, a work of Japanese arts and crafts, which is a small carved keychain. Netsuke are small figurines carved with fine jewelry craftsmanship from ivory, walrus tusk, wood, tree root, tortoiseshell, deer antler; less often - from coral, amber, jade, soapstone or metal. Usually netsuke were small in size from 2-3 to 15 cm.

Netsuke was used as a pendant on traditional Japanese clothing, kimonono (着物) and kosode (帯鉗), which were devoid of pockets. Small things like a tobacco pouch or a key were placed in special containers called sagemono (下げ物). The containers could take the form of pouches or small wicker baskets, but the most popular were inro (印籠) boxes, which were closed using a bead that slid along an ojime (緒締め) cord. Inro were attached to the kimonono obi (帯) belt using a cord. It was tied into a ring, folded in half and passed through the belt. A netsuke was attached to one end of the resulting loop. The cord knot was hidden in one of two himotoshi (紐解) - netsuke holes connected by a through valve. Thus, netsuke served both as a kind of counterweight and as an elegant decoration for clothing.

Netsuke should not be confused with okimono (置き物, 置物) - a miniature Japanese sculpture similar to netsuke in design, subject matter, and often in size. okimono always lacks a hole for a cord, that is, these sculptures are devoid of utilitarian functions

The word okimono (“delivered thing”) is a general name for all small-sized easel sculpture intended only for interior decoration. It refers to figurines made of any material. When the term okimono is used in connection with netsuke, it refers to sculptures made of ivory and, rarely, wood. Such okimono arose later - no earlier than the 19th century and were created by craftsmen whose main specialty was netsuke carving.

The question of the origin of netsuke can be resolved in two ways: netsuke is a Japanese invention, or netsuke were borrowed. Netsuke is both a utilitarian piece of costume, having a specific shape, and a work of art, decorated in a certain style. Each of these "aspects" of netsuke can provide a different answer to the question of their origin.

Netsuke type counterbalance key fobs were used over a wide area: in Japan and Hungary, in the Far North and Ethiopia. In essence, netsuke appear where there is a suit without pockets, but with a belt. Therefore, it is risky to explain the custom of wearing items like netsuke as borrowed from outside: this custom may turn out to be local. If keychains existing in different countries show stylistic similarities, then this is a good reason to assume influences and borrowings.

Netsuke in the form of a stick or button were used earlier, but it was in the 17th century that they began to take on the character of miniature sculpture.

In Japan, if not the custom of carrying objects in a belt with the help of a counterweight-keychain, then the specificity of its artistic design (in the form of a carved sculpture, a relief plate, etc.) is undoubtedly not of local origin, but of Chinese origin, where pendant keychains were made already in the 3rd century BC era. During the Ming period (1368-1644), the Chinese called such items zhuizi (坠子 zhuizi) or pei-chui - items similar to netsuke both in function and design. By this time, there had long been a strong tradition of borrowing various elements of spiritual and material culture of China, including clothing. The name of the keychains also points to China.






Netsuke is not their only designation in Japan. Sometimes there are also such as kensui, haisui and haishi. But these names - in Chinese, respectively: xuan-chui, pei-chui and pei-tzu - were used in China along with the most common term zhui-tzu

Some early netsuke were called karamono (唐物, "Chinese thing") and tōbori (唐彫り, "Chinese carving"). The connection between netsuke and their Chinese prototype is obvious. But the role of Pei Tzu in the history of netsuke should not be exaggerated: very soon in Japan, on the basis of Zhui Tzu, original forms of netsuke and carving techniques were developed, new plots were introduced and old ones were rethought. In Japan, netsuke has become an independent and highly developed art, which did not happen with the Chinese Zhuizi.





There is no record of the use of netsuke before the 17th century. Things that needed to be carried were carried differently

In the history of Japanese costume, there were several ways to attach things to the belt. The most ancient item that was carried using a device similar to a netsuke is mentioned in the writings of the first quarter of the 8th century by Kojiki (古事記, Records of Antiquities) and Nihongi (日本紀, Annals of Japan) hiuchi-bukuro (火打ち袋) - pouch for flint and steel, which was attached to the hilt of the sword. The custom turned out to be persistent

In the painting of the Heian period (平安時代, 794-1185), images of hiuchi-bukuro are often found (for example, in the icon of the deity Kongobu Ji of the Koya-san monastery). A pouch for flint and steel can also be seen on the Nagataka Tosa scroll (late 13th century) “Pictorial Narrative of the Mongol Invasion” by a person reporting the appearance of an enemy fleet

During the Kamakura (鎌倉時代, 1185-1333) and Muromachi (室町時代, 1335-1573) periods, the hiuchi-bukuro began to be used as a wallet, a portable first aid kit, etc., but was worn in the same way as before.





In parallel with this, other devices were also widespread. First of all, there are obi-hasami (帯鉗), which, as stated in the 1821-1841 work "Conversations in the Night of the Rat", were the predecessors of netsuke. Obi-hasami - figuratively framed hook; its upper bend is hooked onto the belt, and various objects are tied to the protrusion below

Similar things have come down from the Ming time in China. The obi-hasami form did not catch on because this method was unsafe: with fast movement and bending of the body, one could easily prick oneself with a long and sharp hook.

Another form that preceded and partly coexisted with netsuke was the obiguruwa, a belt ring to which a wallet, keys, and the like were attached. It is possible that this type of fastening came to Japan from Mongolia via China.

In Japan, the first netsuke appeared in the second half of the 16th and early 17th centuries.

Perhaps specific events played a role here: the campaigns of the military ruler Toyotomi Hideyoshi (豊臣秀吉) in Korea in 1592 and 1597. This date of the appearance of netsuke is confirmed by images of costumes in paintings of that time and information from literary sources. In the late 16th century screen painting "Dressage" one of the riders is depicted with an inro hanging from his belt. The folds of the clothing hide the object it is attached to, but judging by the position of the inro, it is a netsuke. There is a description of the hunt by Tokugawa Ieyasu (徳川家康), in which, among other details of Ieyasu’s costume, netsuke in the form of a gourd is mentioned. This is the earliest evidence of counterweight charms being worn in Japan.

The 17th century is the prehistory of netsuke, which is known only from indirect evidence. The works that have survived to this day were created no earlier than the first half of the 18th century. By this time, the formation of the artistic language of miniature Japanese sculpture had already been completed, and the period from the mid-18th century to the mid-19th century can be considered the “golden age” of netsuke.

The history of netsuke generally does not extend beyond the Tokugawa period (徳川時代, 1603-1868) - the heyday of the art of city dwellers: merchants and artisans. The conditions of their existence and the social atmosphere in general had a noticeable influence on the evolution of miniature sculpture. For example, in the field of domestic policy, the military government of Japan, bakufu (将軍), adopted a policy of preserving the groove of the created structure of society.

“Laws against luxury” were repeatedly issued, the purpose of which was to strictly distinguish between the “noble” and “mean” classes, including in lifestyle and clothing. Everything was subject to regulation: from the number of floors in the house to the quality of the material for the dress and the cost of toys or sweets. Punishments for violating prohibitions ranged from fines to expulsion from the city.

However, if these prohibitions were not directly violated, then, as a rule, they were skillfully circumvented. However, the townspeople did not have many opportunities to decorate their costumes, and therefore none of them should have been missed. Netsuke was the detail with which you could demonstrate your own taste, your attitude to the latest fashion, and, to some extent, your well-being. It was in applied arts that the aesthetic demands of the townspeople were most fully satisfied, which stimulated the emergence of virtuoso masters netsukeshi (根付師) - netsuke carvers. Therefore, the change in form, material, and artistic interpretation of netsuke clearly indicates a change in the artistic tastes and preferences of people of the late 18th and 19th centuries.













In the 17th and 18th centuries, entire schools of carvers emerged, differing in style and favorite themes. For example, the Hida or Nara schools were characterized by figurines made in the ottobori style - using one knife, without careful elaboration of small details

The largest schools of carvers are in Edo, Ōsaka and Kyōto. In the provinces, original movements sometimes arise, the founder of which was often one talented master. As an example, we can point to Shiyoda Tomiharu, who lived and worked in the mid-18th century on the territory of the province of Iwami (石見国) on the island of Honshū (本州). Among netsukushi, big names emerge such as Shūzan Yoshimura (周山吉村) from Ōsaka, Tomotada (友忠) and Masanao (正直) from Kyōto

However, with rare exceptions, little is known about the lives and details of the biographies of most of the carvers. The collection Sōken Kishō (装劍奇賞) became a great help for researchers studying the history of netsuke. It was published in 1781 by Ōsaka resident and sword merchant Inaba Tsuryu (稲葉通龍). The collection contains a list of fifty-three names of the largest netsukushi of the time, accompanied by illustrations of their works.





Much of the netsuke of the late 19th century and all of the netsuke of the 20th century were made for export. They are still made today. For the most part, these are rather low-grade souvenir products produced in an assembly line manner. But the art of netsuke has not disappeared

Even today there are craftsmen whose specialty is netsuke carving. Some works by such masters are valued very highly (from US$10,000 to $100,000 or more). Prices for collectible netsuke at auctions in the United States usually range from several hundred to thousands of dollars (inexpensive stamped but accurate reproductions are sold in museum stores for prices up to $30).

However, the nature of the development of this art has changed. Firstly, the practical need for netsuke has disappeared: the Japanese wear European clothing, since kimono is replaced by European clothing in the 1920s. Secondly, the attitude of the carvers themselves towards the netsuke they create has changed: now they are considered as completely independent works, isolated from the customer, and from fashion, and often from the tradition of a particular school. The works of modern masters can be divided into two groups: netsuke, made in the spirit of modern easel sculpture, and traditional netsuke.











The word netsuke contains two hieroglyphs. Ne (根) means root, and the verb tsukeru (付ける) means to attach, attach, append, apply; or tsuku (付く) - to be attached to something.

Typology (types) of netsuke:
. katabori (形彫) is the most famous type of netsuke, a compact carved sculpture that can depict people, animals, or multi-figure groups. Characteristic of the mature period of netsuke history (late 18th - early 19th centuries);
. anabori (穴彫) - a subtype of katabori, the plots of which are created inside a carved cavity; the most common scenes are inside a bivalve shell;
. sashi (差) is one of the oldest forms of netsuke. It is a long block (made of various materials, but most often made of wood) with a hole for a cord at one end. The way to consume sashi is different from all other forms. If katabori, manju and others were used as a counterweight, then sashi was tucked into the belt in such a way that the hole was at the bottom, and a wallet, keys, etc. hung from a cord passed through it. Sometimes a hook was additionally cut out at the upper end, hooking onto the upper edge of the belt. Usually sashi is considered one of the forms of netsuke, but according to some researchers, it is a modification of the handle of a sword, from which a bag of flint and steel was hung. Another close analogy to sashi is the obi-hasami device, invented in China. It is basically similar to sashi, it has a hook on top, but instead of a hole, obi-hasami has a small round thickening at the bottom, to which the wearable object was tied. The first netsuke-sashi have survived to this day in very small quantities. In addition, the first netsuke-sashi are difficult to distinguish from obi-hasami. Later, during the period of the developed art of netsuke, the sashi form was probably perceived as archaic and was not used often.
. mask (面 men) - the largest category after katabori, often a smaller copy of the Nō theater mask (能), similar in properties to katabori and manju (kagamibuta);
. itaraku - netsuke in the form of a pumpkin, box or other objects woven from wire, bamboo or reed;
. manju (饅頭) - netsuke in the form of a thick disk, most often made of ivory. Sometimes it is made of two halves. The image is given by engraving, which is usually accompanied by blackening. It got its name due to its resemblance to the round flat rice cake manju. One of the unique varieties of manju is a composition made up of several miniature theatrical masks;
. ryusa (柳左) is a variant of the manju form. The main difference between this form and the usual manju is that it is empty inside, and one (upper) part is made using the through-carving technique. When ryusa was made from two split halves, the material was usually removed from the middle using a lathe. This form was especially used in Edo, where the famous carver Ryusa lived (active in the 1780s), after whom it is named. It is believed that this form, like manju, gained particular popularity in connection with the earthquakes of the Ansei period (安政, 1854–1860), and especially the Edo earthquake of 1855, when many netsuke were destroyed and a need for new products arose. The ease of making ryusa compared to, for example, katabori or kagamibuta influenced their predominant distribution at this time.
. kagamibuta (鏡蓋) - also similar to manju, but is a flat vessel made of ivory or other bone, horn, rarely wood, covered with a metal lid on top, on which the main part of the decorative design is concentrated based on a wide range of techniques. The signature on these netsukes is usually that of the metalsmith.

These forms, of course, do not exhaust the entire variety of netsuke. There were so-called "curious" netsuke - for example, made from the triggers of Dutch guns, carved items adapted to be worn as a belt keychain, such as dolls, as well as keychains with additional practical meaning: in the form of abacus - soroban, compass, flint and flint, ashtrays and so on. However, these things appear in the general mass only sporadically; they represent an exception to the general rule.

netsuke materials are varied:
. tree;
. Ivory;
. walrus ivory;
. antler;
. buffalo horns;
. rhinoceros horn;
. narwhal horns;
. boar tusks;
. bear fangs;
. wolf fangs;
. tiger fangs;
. bones of various animals.

Used, although much less frequently:
. varnish;
. metals;
. porcelain;
. bamboo;
. different types of coral;
. different types of amber;
. tortoiseshell;
. glass;
. agate;
. nephritis;
. flint;
. petrified wood.

The following could be adapted for wearing:
. gourd pumpkins
. shells
. or objects that originally had a different purpose, for example, parts of the frame of edged weapons.

However, netsuke made from materials such as lacquer, ceramics, and porcelain are products of applied arts with their own traditions and techniques. The development of netsuke as an independent art, the formation of its artistic language, is associated with two materials: wood and ivory.

Ivory is a rather “young” material in the history of Japanese art.” Before the Tokugawa period, it was known only from Chinese products. In the form of tusks, it began to be imported to Japan from Vietnam through China. Combs for women's hairstyles and other decorations were made from this material, but primarily plectrums for shamisen (三味線). Ivory scraps, which usually had a triangular shape, were used for the mass production of netsuke, which also left an imprint on the shape of such products. Craftsmen who worked on private orders and cared more about their professional reputation than about their earnings avoided such material.

Wood is a traditional material for Japanese sculpture. Various species were used, but the most common was Japanese cypress (檜 or 桧 hinoki).

Much of the early period netsuke is made of cypress wood. It is soft and convenient for carving, but has a significant drawback: over time, the products become covered with cracks. The requirements for netsuke are most fully satisfied by: Japanese boxwood (tsuge) is a hard material that has long been used for seals. In addition to hinoki, light and soft Korean pine wood (chosen-matsu), distinguished by a reddish-yellow hue, was used. Netsuke was also cut from persimmon, a wood with a yellowish color and a black core, which was sometimes taken as an independent material.

Among the heavy and hard woods, in addition to boxwood, prunus (isu), the wood of which has a dark brown or reddish tint, was used to make netsuke. There are netsuke made from pale pink cherry (桜 sakura), as well as from ebony, which was imported from India.

Other types of wood were used much less frequently, such as:
. yew;
. tea bush;
. camphor;
. ironwood;
. camellia;
. jujub;
. pine;
. sandalwood;
. Walnut;
. betel nut (vegetable ivory);
. palm nut (during the Meiji period (明治時代, 1868-1912), it was brought from South America).

The predominant use of one or another material is explained, first of all, by reasons of a purely practical nature: suitability, strength, availability and sufficient quantity.



In most cases, the material (and not just the plot) had symbolic overtones.

Thus, boxwood, being an evergreen tree, was considered a symbol of longevity, and its wood was highly valued as a material for amulets, amulets and other ritual objects. Ivory also had benevolent symbolism and was also a healing agent. In China, from where ivory products first came to Japan, and later tusks, ivory powder or shavings were used in medicine. For example, in order to remove a splinter, a poultice of ivory powder and water was used. It was believed that ivory scraps boiled in water acted as a laxative, but if they were first burned, the effect of the drug would be reversed. In addition, ivory was recommended for epilepsy, osteomyelitis and smallpox. Thus, the Chinese ivory zhuizi was a kind of portable first aid kit with medicines for all occasions.

That such a perception of ivory existed in Japan is evidenced by some netsuke, in which the reverse side, invisible to the naked eye, was left untreated so that a little ivory could be scraped off to prepare medicine without damaging the image. This method of using netsuke was undoubtedly borrowed from China, where ivory zhuizi was used for the same purpose.

It is not difficult to imagine that even in those cases when ivory was not intended for treatment, the understanding of the healing function of the material remained unchanged, and therefore its symbolism, just like the symbolism of boxwood, is associated with the wish for longevity

Powder made from deer antler was also considered a medicine; it was believed to have magical properties: the return of youth and strength. Accordingly, we can conclude that netsuke made from deer antler, thanks to the material, contained a connotation of wishes for health and longevity.

Netsuke made from sakura cherry, birch, prunus, jujube and some other materials also had benevolent and healing symbolism.

More than any other art, netsuke reflected the nature of the society that gave birth to it. Reasons include long periods of isolation due to geographic and political reasons, as well as restrictions on people's ways of expressing themselves due to customs and laws. As a result, netsuke shows all aspects of life of its time, including rich folklore, religion, crafts, trades and professions, and various types of people and creatures, real and fictional. The following stories can be highlighted:
. people: famous and unknown, real, historical, and fictional, children, warriors, priests and so on;
. animals: signs of the eastern horoscope and others;
. plants and plant products; small ones, such as beans and walnuts, were often cut to real size;
. deities and mythical creatures, often from Chinese myth and religion, netsuke depicting one of the seven gods of fortune, who, according to Shinto (神道 shintō), bring good luck;
. items are the rarest category. Coins, tools, roofing tiles and the like;
.abstract: mon symbols, patterns;
.sexual (春画 shunga): can depict a man and a woman copulating or only hint at erotic content in a subtle symbolic form.

Some netsuke depict simple objects, others depict entire scenes known from history, mythology or literature.




Similar to netsuke in design, plots, and often in size. An okimono always lacks a hole for a cord, meaning these sculptures lack utilitarian functions. Word okimono(literally - “delivered thing”) is the general name for all small-sized easel sculpture intended only for interior decoration. It refers to figurines made of any material. In cases where the term okimono used in connection with netsuke, meaning sculptures made of ivory and - rarely - wood. Such okimono arose later - no earlier than the 19th century and they were created by craftsmen whose main specialty was netsuke carving.

Story

Prototypes of netsuke

The question of the origin of netsuke can be resolved in two ways: netsuke is a Japanese invention, or netsuke were borrowed by the Japanese. Netsuke is both a utilitarian piece of costume, having a specific shape, and a work of art, decorated in a certain style. Each of these “aspects” of netsuke can give its own answer to the question of their origin.

Netsuke type counterbalance charms were used over a wide area: in Japan and Hungary, the Far North and Ethiopia. In essence, “netsuke” appear where there is a suit without pockets, but with a belt. Therefore, it is risky to explain the custom of wearing objects like netsuke as borrowed from outside: this custom may turn out to be local. If keychains existing in different countries show stylistic similarities, then this is a good reason to assume influences and borrowings. Netsuke in the form of a stick or button were used earlier, but it was in the 17th century that they began to acquire the character of miniature sculpture. In Japan, if not the custom of carrying objects in a belt with the help of a counterweight-keychain, then the specificity of its artistic design (in the form of a carved sculpture, a relief plate, etc.) is undoubtedly not of local origin, but of Chinese origin, where pendant keychains were made already in the 3rd century. BC e. During the Ming period (1368-1644), the Chinese called such objects zhuizi(坠子 zhuizi) or pei-chui(pei-chui) - products similar to netsuke both in function and design. By this time, there had long been a strong tradition of the Japanese borrowing various elements of the spiritual and material culture of China, including clothing. The name of the keychains also points to China. “Netsuke” is not their only designation in Japan. Sometimes there are people like kensui, Haisui And haisi. But these names are in Chinese, respectively: xuan chui, pei-chui And Pei Tzu- used in China along with the most common term Zhui Tzu. Some early netsuke were called karamono(唐物, "Chinese thing") and then:bori(唐彫り, "Chinese carving"). The connection between netsuke and their Chinese prototype is obvious. But the role Pei Tzu in the history of netsuke there is no need to exaggerate: very soon in Japan based on Zhui Tzu original netsuke forms and carving techniques were developed, new subjects were introduced and old ones were rethought. In Japan, netsuke turned into an independent and highly developed art, which did not happen with Chinese Zhui Tzu.

Before the 17th century, there is no information about the use of netsuke by the Japanese. Things that needed to be carried were carried differently. In the history of Japanese costume, there were several ways to attach things to the belt. The most ancient object that was worn in Japan using a device similar to netsuke is mentioned in the works of the first quarter of the 8th century “Kojiki” (Records of Ancient Affairs) and “Nihongi” (Annals of Japan). hiuchi-bukuro(火打ち袋) - a pouch for flint and steel, which was attached to the hilt of the sword. The custom turned out to be persistent. In the painting of the Heian period (794-1185) images are often found hiuchi-bukuro(for example, in the icon of the deity Kongobu-ji of the Koya-san monastery). A bag for flint and steel can also be seen on the Nagataka Tosa scroll (late 13th century) “Pictorial Narrative of the Mongol Invasion” by a man reporting the appearance of an enemy fleet. During the Kamakura and Muromachi period (1335-1573) hiuchi-bukuro began to be used as a wallet, portable first aid kit, etc., but they wore it the same way as before.

In parallel with this, other devices were also widespread. First of all this obi-hasami(帯鉗), which, as stated in the 1821-1841 work “Conversations in the Night of the Rat,” were the predecessors of netsuke. Obi-hasami- figured framed hook; its upper bend is hooked onto the belt, and various objects are tied to the protrusion below. Similar things have come down to us from the Ming time in China. Form obi-hasami did not take root because this method was unsafe: with fast movement and bending of the body, one could easily prick himself with a long and sharp hook.

Another form that preceded and partly coexisted with netsuke is obiguruwa- a belt ring to which a wallet, keys, etc. were attached. It is possible that this type of fastening came to Japan from Mongolia through China.

The first netsuke

In Japan, the first netsuke appeared in the second half of the 16th - early 17th centuries.

Perhaps specific events played a role here: the campaigns of the military ruler of Japan, Toyotomi Hideyoshi, to Korea in 1592 and 1597. This date of the appearance of netsuke is confirmed by images of costumes in the paintings of that time and information from literary sources. In the late 16th-century screen painting “Dressage,” one of the riders is depicted with an inro hanging from his belt. The folds of the clothing hide the object to which it is tied, but, judging by the position of the inro, it is a netsuke. There is a description of Tokugawa Ieyasu's hunting, in which, among other details of Ieyasu's costume, netsuke in the form of a gourd is mentioned. This is the earliest evidence of counterweight charms being worn in Japan.

The 17th century is the prehistory of netsuke, which we know about only from indirect data. The works that have survived to this day were created no earlier than the first half of the 18th century. By this time, the formation of the artistic language of miniature Japanese sculpture had already been completed, and we can consider the period from the mid-18th century to the mid-19th century to be the “golden age” of netsuke.

The history of netsuke generally does not extend beyond the Tokugawa period (1603-1868) - the heyday of the art of city dwellers - merchants and artisans. The conditions of their existence and the social atmosphere in general had a noticeable influence on the evolution of miniature sculpture. So, for example, in the field of domestic policy, the military government of Japan (bakufu) adopted a policy of preserving the once created structure of society. “Laws against luxury” were repeatedly issued, the purpose of which was to strictly distinguish between the “noble” and “mean” classes, including in lifestyle and clothing. Everything was subject to regulation: from the number of floors in the house to the quality of the material for the dress and the cost of toys or sweets. Punishments were imposed for violating the prohibitions: from a fine to expulsion from the city. However, if these prohibitions were not directly violated, then, as a rule, they were skillfully circumvented. However, the townspeople did not have many opportunities to decorate their costumes, and therefore none of them should have been missed. Netsuke was the detail with which one could demonstrate one’s own taste, one’s attitude to the next fashion, and, to some extent, one’s well-being. It was in applied arts that the aesthetic demands of the townspeople were most fully satisfied, which stimulated the emergence of virtuoso masters of netsukeshi - netsuke carvers. Therefore, the change in the form, material, and artistic interpretation of netsuke clearly indicates a change in the artistic tastes and preferences of the Japanese at the end of the 17th-19th centuries.

The emergence of schools of netsukeshi carvers

In the 17th and 18th centuries. Entire schools of carvers emerged, differing in style and favorite themes. For example, the Hida or Nara schools were characterized by figurines made in the style ittobori- using one knife, without carefully working out small details. The largest schools of carvers are located in Edo, Osaka and Kyoto. In the provinces, original movements sometimes arise, the founder of which was often one talented master. As an example, we can point to Shiyoda(?) Tomihara, who lived and worked in the middle of the 18th century. in the Iwami province of Honshu Island. Among the netsukushi, big names emerge such as Shuzan Yoshimura from Osaka, Tomotada and Masano from Kyoto. However, with rare exceptions, we know little about the lives and details of the biographies of most of the carvers. The collection “Soken Kisho” became a great help for researchers studying the history of netsuke. It was published in 1781 by Osaka resident and sword merchant Inaba Tsuryu. The collection contains a list of fifty-three names of the largest netsukeshi of that time, accompanied by illustrations of their works.

Netsuke and modernity

A significant part of the netsuke of the late 19th century and all of the netsuke of the 20th century were made for export. They are still made today. For the most part, these are rather low-grade souvenir products produced on an assembly line. But the art of netsuke did not disappear. Even today there are craftsmen whose specialty is netsuke carving. Some works by such masters are valued very highly (from US$10,000 to $100,000 or more). Prices for collectibles netsuke at auctions in the United States usually range from several hundred to thousands of dollars (inexpensive stamped but accurate reproductions are sold in museum stores for prices up to $30).

However, the nature of the development of this art has changed. Firstly, the practical need for netsuke has disappeared: the Japanese wear European clothing, since in the 1920s the kimono was replaced by European clothing. Secondly, the attitude of the carvers themselves towards the netsuke they create has changed: now they are considered as completely independent works, isolated from the customer, and from fashion, and often from the tradition of a particular school. The works of modern masters can be divided into two groups: netsuke, made in the spirit of modern easel sculpture, and traditional netsuke.

Aesthetics netsuke

Typology (types) netsuke

  • katabori(形彫) - the most famous species netsuke, a compact carved sculpture that can depict people, animals, multi-figure groups. Characteristic of the mature period of netsuke history (late 18th - early 19th centuries).
  • anabori(穴彫) - subspecies katabori, the subjects of which are created inside a cut-out cavity; the most common scenes are inside a bivalve shell
  • Sasi(差) - One of the oldest forms of netsuke. It is a long block (made of various materials, but most often made of wood) with a hole for a cord at one end. The way of consuming sasi is different from all other forms. If katabori, manji and others were used as a counterweight, then the sashi was tucked into the belt in such a way that the hole was at the bottom, and a wallet, keys, etc. hung from a cord passed through it. Sometimes a hook was additionally cut out at the upper end, which caught at the top edge of the belt. Sashi is usually considered one of the forms of netsuke, but according to some researchers, it is a modification of the handle of a sword, from which a bag of flint and steel was hung. Another close analogy to sasi is adaptation Obi-Hasami, invented in China. It is basically similar to sashi, it has a hook on top, but instead of a hole it has obi-hasami at the bottom there is a small round thickening, to which a wearable object was tied. The first netsuke-sashi have survived to this day in very small quantities. In addition, the first netsuke-sashi are difficult to distinguish from obi-hasami. Later, during the period of the developed art of netsuke, the sashi form was probably perceived as archaic and was not used often.
  • mask (Japanese: 面 Maine) - the largest after katabori category, was often a smaller copy of a mask, but its properties were similar to katabori And manju/kagamibuta
  • itaraku - netsuke in the shape of a pumpkin, box or other objects woven from wire, bamboo or reed.
  • manju (饅頭) - netsuke in the form of a thick disk, most often made of ivory. Sometimes it is made of two halves. The image is given by engraving, which is usually accompanied by blackening. It got its name due to its resemblance to the round flat rice cake manju. One of the unique varieties of manju is a composition made up of several miniature theatrical masks.
  • Ryusa(柳左）- Form variant manju. The main difference between this form and the usual manju the fact that it is empty inside, and one (upper) part is made using the through-carving technique. When Ryusa made from two detachable halves, the material was usually selected from the middle using a lathe. This form was especially often used in Edo, where the famous carver Ryusa lived (worked in the 1780s), after whom it is named. It is believed that this form, like manju, became particularly widespread in connection with the earthquakes of the Ansei period (1854-1860), and especially the Edo earthquake of 1855, when many netsuke were destroyed and a need for new products arose. Ease of production Ryusa compared to, for example, katabori or kagamibuta and influenced their predominant distribution at this time.
  • kagamibuta(鏡蓋) - also similar to manju, but is a flat vessel made of ivory or other bone, horn, rarely wood, covered on top with a metal lid, on which the main part of the decorative design is concentrated based on a wide range of techniques. The signature on such netsuke is usually that of the metalsmith.

These forms, of course, do not exhaust the entire variety of netsuke. There were so-called “curious” netsuke - for example, made from the triggers of Dutch guns, carved items adapted for wearing as a belt keychain, such as dolls, as well as keychains that had additional practical meaning: in the form of abacus - soroban, compass, flint and steel, ashtray, etc. However, these things appear in the general mass only occasionally; they represent an exception to the general rule.

Materials used in manufacturing

Netsuke materials are varied.

  • Ivory in the history of Japanese art - the material is quite “young”. Before the Tokugawa period, it was known only from Chinese products. In the form of tusks, it began to be imported to Japan from Vietnam through China. Combs for women's hairstyles and other decorations were made from this material, but primarily plectrums for shamisen. Ivory scraps, which usually had a triangular shape, were used for the mass production of netsuke, which also left an imprint on the shape of such products. Craftsmen who worked on private orders and cared more about their professional reputation than about their earnings avoided such material.
  • Tree - traditional material of Japanese sculpture. Various breeds were used, but most often -
  • Japanese cypress (hinoki).

Most of the netsuke of the early period are made of cypress. It is soft and convenient for carving, but has a significant drawback: over time, the products become covered with cracks. The requirements for netsuke are most fully satisfied

  • Japanese boxwood (tsuge) -

a hard material that has long been used for seals. Besides hinoki, used light and soft wood

  • Korean pine (chōsenmatsu),

characterized by a reddish-yellow hue. Netsuke was cut and from

Symbolism of the material

In most cases, the material (and not just the plot) had symbolic overtones.

Subjects

Main article: Netsuke plots

More than any other art netsuke reflected the nature of the society that gave birth to it. The reasons for this are beyond the scope of this article, but it may be mentioned that they include long periods of isolation due to geographical and political reasons, as well as restrictions on the ways of Japanese expression due to customs and laws. As a result netsuke show all aspects of life in Japan of their time, including rich folklore, religion, crafts, trade and professions, various types of people and creatures, real and fictional. The following stories can be highlighted:

  • people: famous and unknown, real, historical, and fictional, children, warriors, priests, etc.
  • animals: signs of the eastern horoscope and others
  • plants and plant products; small ones, such as beans and walnuts, were often cut to real size
  • deities and mythical creatures, often from Chinese myth and religion, netsuke depicting one of the seven gods of fortune, who, according to Shintoism, bring good luck
  • objects; the rarest category. Coins, tools, roofing tiles and the like
  • abstract: mon symbols, patterns
  • sexy (春画 shunga): can depict a man and a woman copulating or only hint in a subtle symbolic form at erotic content

Alone netsuke depict simple objects, others depict entire scenes known from history, mythology or literature.

Collectors' organizations

In 1975, the International Netsuke Society was created. At the moment, INS is the largest international organization of netsuke collectors, and unites collectors living in 31 countries around the world. INS partners with most American museums and galleries to organize regular exhibitions of Japanese miniature art. Twice a year, INS holds international conferences, which include lectures, workshops from leading experts and public organizations in the field of netsuke. INS also publishes a quarterly journal, the International Netsuke Society Journal.

In 2011, at the annual INS conference, it was decided to create a branch for the CIS countries of the International Netsuke Society. The created organization included art critics, cultural experts, historians, and netsuke collectors from different CIS countries. Boris Filatov (Ukraine) was elected Chairman of the CIS countries branch of the International Netsuke Society. The INS branch for the CIS countries publishes a Russian-English magazine twice a year

If you literally translate the word “netsuke” from Japanese, you get “attached to the main thing.” As you know, the Japanese kimono dress did not have pockets. And if women could put something in the sewn part of the bag-shaped sleeve, then men were deprived of this convenience - men have straight sleeves. Netsuke were originally used to carry objects.

Netsuke was first mentioned in 1690. In shape, they initially resembled a round cake of rice cookies and were usually made of wood. A little later, netsuke made of lacquer in the form of boxes appeared, and then small figurines made of wood, stone, and ivory, now famous throughout the world. porcelain - very expressive and carefully finished.

Dreamer

Netsuke depicting artisans at work were in great demand. A common theme of netsuke are magicians, folk storytellers, and wandering actors—their faces are cheerful and sly. They also loved to make netsuke on the themes of Japanese fairy tales, legends, where the real and the fantastic, funny and touching, heroes of legends, historical figures, and deities were intertwined. Images of the seven gods of happiness - Shichifukujin - were very popular.

Am I the cutest in the world...?

When the custom of smoking tobacco spread in the 18th century, pipes and pouches were hung from the belt exclusively with the help of netsuke. By the middle of the 18th century, professional netsuke carvers appeared, who put their stamp and signature on their work. The flourishing of the art of netsuke was associated with the rise of the country's culture. The artists depicted the life of the Japanese in miniature figures.

Cheerful Buddha

How were netsuke used? The required item was tied to one end of the cord, and the other end was tucked into the belt and, to prevent it from slipping out, a netsuke was attached to it - a figurine with a specially made hole in it. So the traveler took with him a travel ink pot (a utensil with ink), a seal, and the master of the tea ceremony - a set of tea accessories, the merchant - a wallet, keys and small bills, the samurai had a box of medicines, the players and fishermen - amulets, the reveler - vessel with sake.

By the end of the 18th century, netsuke were already valued for their quality of work. The creative imagination of the masters was inexhaustible, the carving was delicate, and the professional culture was high. However, later netsuke was almost forgotten in Japan. And now they are remembered all over the world only as a collector's item.

In this article you will learn:

We love and honor in the East the most cheerful of the Japanese gods, the fat, merry fellow Hotei: the meaning of the figurines of this deity carries a single meaning - happiness, joy and wealth.

What does Hotei with a bag behind his back symbolize?

Small oriental talismans, or netsuke, traditionally carved from wood, are now made from clay, plaster, glass and metal. According to Feng Shui, Netsuke Hotei is important in any Eastern family.

They carry it with them as a talisman for good luck in money matters. According to legends, this god collects all the failures and illnesses of its owner into its bag, giving him fortitude and wisdom at crucial moments. But the main thing is that it attracts money like a magnet, helping its owner achieve financial well-being.

The figurine itself means abundance and radiates exclusively positive energy.

Fulfillment of desires

One of the seven Buddhist gods of happiness is loved and revered not only in the East. He can hold various objects in his hands: coins, pearls, a staff, a fan, a bowl, a rosary, a basket. Depending on which of them the figure, figurine, or netsuke is made with, it is designed to help its owner in one or another area of ​​life.

Hotei is the god of wealth, but he also brings good luck to those who strive for spiritual growth. A common amulet in the form of a pyramid with a god enclosed in it, surrounded by golden sand and coins, helps advance the career ladder, teaches concentration on important matters and the correct distribution of priorities.

Hotey with pearls was created for those who want to grow spiritually and are drawn to knowledge. If it is performed surrounded by children, its purpose is to help parents raise and provide for the younger generation.

To attract money, you can become the owner of any type of this god. But Hotei with coins, a peach, as well as a god sitting astride a toad or a turtle with a dragon’s head have a special effect.

What the legend says

In Japanese, hotei means a canvas bag. The prototype of the god of the same name was the wandering monk Tsitsa. He was fat, bald, cheerful, kind and, like any wanderer, he carried a canvas bag with him everywhere, where he put generous alms. According to legend, vital energy and love for people brought success, health and prosperity to others. When asked frequently about the contents of his immense bag, Tsitsa invariably laughed it off: “I have the whole world in it!”

Always cheerful and inviting, he loved to communicate with people, listened to them for a long time, made them laugh, dispelling their sadness. His infectious laughter gave people faith in better times.

From village to village there was a rumor that this monk carried good luck in a bag and generously gave it to people, taking away their illnesses, sorrows and problems. In the Middle Ages in Japan, he was recognized as one of the seven gods of happiness for his easy, carefree disposition. Hotei is sometimes called differently: Buddha, Maitreya, Budai. But in all ages it is equally desirable in any Chinese or Japanese home.

Figurine size

Whatever the size of the figurine, Hotei will bring good luck and money to the house if you choose the right place for it.

Netsuke are traditionally carried as a good luck charm or placed in a visible place, such as on a desktop.

Human-sized sculptures are often placed at the entrance to a room, facing the door, so that those entering can show their respect to him and mentally ask him for their secret.

The most popular are small souvenir figurines or tabletop compositions.

But the effectiveness of a deity does not depend on the size of his image. As in any other business, it is important not just to have a figurine, it is important to sincerely believe in its power.

Deity Material

Hotei with a bag in Ancient China, as in Ancient Japan, was traditionally carved from wood or bone. The fangs and horns of wild animals were also used as material. He is one of the favorite netsuke characters. Later they began to make it from metals, cast from glass, and cut from gems (agate, jade, opal). A miniature symbol of wealth and happiness, made in the netsuke style, was carried with them in shells and hollow gourds.

Today in stores you can find a god molded from plaster or clay. It can be found made of plastic, porcelain, or carved from coral.

The material used to make this talisman does not matter. More important is its color.

It is believed that the true power is possessed by the white or golden Hotei. The place where it will be installed must be clean. Only in an environment of purity can a god help others. Chaos and garbage kill his energy.

Where to place the figurine

Buddhists believe that if you have a Hotei figurine at home with coins or a bag behind your back, then any wish can be fulfilled. The main thing is to believe. Well, rub Hotei’s big belly 300 more times, while asking the same number of times to make his dream come true.

Although the figurine of any Hotei in the house attracts good luck and cash flows like a magnet. If you place a cheerful fat man with a bag in his hands or behind his back in the northern part of an apartment or house, he will help in career and financial matters.

For a god with a pearl or a scroll, the north-eastern wing of the room is suitable - the zone of wisdom. Such a talisman will help in studying and building a career.

The eastern part is considered a health zone. This is the place for pumpkin fun.

The only rule for all figures is that they must face the entrance to the room.