Sectors of the economy
Spheres of the economy are divided into specialized industries. Industry - a group of qualitatively homogeneous economic units (enterprises, organizations, institutions), characterized by special production conditions in the system of social division of labor, homogeneous products and performing a common (specific) function in the national economy.
For example, the sphere of material production includes industries in which the means of production and consumer goods necessary for the life and development of society are created. The remaining types of activities, in the process of which material goods are not created, form in their totality the non-productive sphere of activity.
The sphere of material production includes 14 sectors of the national economy: industry, forestry, transport and communications, trade and public catering, information and computing services, agriculture, fisheries, construction, procurement, real estate operations, general commercial activities to ensure the functioning of market, logistics and sales, geology and subsoil exploration, geodetic and hydrometeorological services; other types of activities in the sphere of material production.
The non-production sphere includes 9 sectors of the national economy and types of activity: housing and communal services; healthcare; physical culture and social welfare; Culture and art; finance, credit, insurance, pensions; public education; governing body; non-production types of consumer services for the population; science and scientific service; public associations.
The sectoral division of the economy is the result of a historical process, the development of the social division of labor.
Each of the specialized industries, in turn, is divided into complex industries and types of production. The industry, for example, includes more than 15 large industries such as electric power, fuel industry, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical and petrochemical industries, mechanical engineering and metalworking, forestry, pulp and paper industry, construction materials industry, light and food industries and others industry.
Specialized industries are characterized by varying degrees of differentiation of production. The development of society and the economy, the further deepening of the specialization of production leads to the formation of new industries and types of production. Along with specialization and differentiation, there are processes of cooperation and integration of production, leading to the development of stable production links between industries, to the creation of mixed production and inter-industry complexes.
Agriculture.
Agriculture - a branch of the economy aimed at providing the population with food (food, food) and obtaining raw materials for a number of industries. The industry is one of the most important, represented in almost all countries. Global agriculture employs about 1.1 billion economically active people (EAP).
The problems of agriculture are directly or indirectly related to such sciences as agronomy, animal husbandry, land reclamation, crop production, forestry, etc.
The role of agriculture in the economy.
The role of agriculture in the economy of a country or region shows its structure and level of development. The share of people employed in agriculture among the economically active population, as well as the share of agriculture in the structure of GDP, are used as indicators of the role of agriculture. These indicators are quite high in most developing countries, where more than half of the EAN is employed in agriculture. Agriculture there follows an extensive development path, that is, an increase in production is achieved by expanding the acreage, increasing the number of livestock, and increasing the number of people employed in agriculture. In countries whose economies are agricultural, the rates of mechanization, chemicalization, land reclamation, etc. are low.
The agriculture of the developed countries of Europe and North America, which have entered the post-industrial stage, has reached the highest level. Agriculture employs 2-6% of the EAN there. In these countries, the “green revolution” occurred back in the middle of the 20th century; agriculture is characterized by a science-based organization, increased productivity, the use of new technologies, agricultural machinery systems, pesticides and mineral fertilizers, the use of genetic engineering and biotechnology, robotics and electronics, that is develops along an intensive path.
Similar progressive changes are also occurring in industrial countries, but the level of intensification in them is still much lower, and the share of people employed in agriculture is higher than in post-industrial ones.
At the same time, in developed countries there is a crisis of food overproduction, and in agricultural countries, on the contrary, one of the most pressing problems is the food problem (the problem of malnutrition and hunger).
Industry and regional characteristics.
As a branch of the economy, agriculture has the following main features:
The economic process of reproduction is intertwined with the natural process of growth and development of living organisms, developing on the basis of biological laws;
The cyclical process of natural growth and development of plants and animals has determined the seasonality of agricultural work.
Unlike industry, the technological process in agriculture is closely related to nature, where land acts as the main means of production.
FAO experts note that 78% of the earth's surface experiences serious natural limitations for the development of agriculture, 13% of areas are characterized by low productivity, 6% average and 3% high. Currently, about 11% of all land is plowed, another 24% is used for pasture. Features of the agro-resource situation and agricultural specialization vary significantly by region. There are several thermal zones, each of which is characterized by a unique set of crop and livestock sectors:
Cold belt occupies vast areas in northern Eurasia and North America. Agriculture here is limited by lack of heat and permafrost. Plant growing here is possible only in closed ground conditions, and reindeer husbandry develops on low-productive pastures.
Cool Belt covers large areas of Eurasia and North America, as well as a narrow strip in the southern Andes in South America. Insignificant heat resources limit the range of crops that can be grown here (early ripening crops - gray grain, vegetables, some root crops, early potatoes). Agriculture is local in nature.
Temperate zone in the southern hemisphere it is represented in Patagonia, on the coast of Chile, the islands of Tasmania and New Zealand, and in the northern hemisphere it occupies almost all of Europe (except for the southern peninsulas), southern Siberia and the Far East, Mongolia, Tibet, northeastern China, southern Canada, north eastern states of the USA. This is a belt of mass farming. Almost all territories suitable for the relief are occupied by arable land; its specific area reaches 60-70%. There is a wide range of crops grown here: wheat, barley, rye, oats, flax, potatoes, vegetables, root crops, and forage grasses. In the southern part of the belt, corn, sunflowers, rice, grapes, fruit and fruit trees grow. Pastures are limited in area; they dominate in the mountains and arid zones, where transhumance and camel breeding are developed.
Warm belt corresponds to the subtropical geographical zone and is represented on all continents except Antarctica: it covers the Mediterranean, most of the United States, Mexico, Argentina, Chile, southern Africa and Australia, and Southern China. Two crops are grown here per year: in winter - temperate crops (cereals, vegetables), in summer - tropical annuals (cotton) or perennials (olive tree, citrus fruits, tea, walnuts, figs, etc.). Low-productive pastures that are heavily degraded by uncontrolled grazing dominate here.
Hot belt occupies vast areas of Africa, South America, northern and central Australia, the Malay Archipelago, the Arabian Peninsula, and South Asia. Coffee and chocolate trees, date palms, sweet potatoes, cassava, etc. are grown. In the subarid zones there are huge pastures with poor vegetation.
Structure of agriculture.
Agriculture is part of the agro-industrial complex and includes the following main sectors:
-Crop production. The industry is divided into sub-sectors according to the type of plants grown: grain crops (wheat, barley, rye, oats, etc.); grain legumes (peas, beans, etc.); forage crops (forage grasses, silage crops, forage root crops, forage melons); industrial crops: a) food crops (sugar cane, sugar beets, hops, starch crops, medicinal plants); b) textile crops (cotton, flax, jute, hemp); c) rubber plants (Hevea); vegetable and melon crops: a) potatoes, b) leafy crops (cabbage, lettuce, spinach, etc.); c) fruit crops (tomato, cucumber, pumpkin, zucchini, squash, eggplant, pepper); d) bulbous crops (onions and garlic); e) root vegetables (carrots, beets, parsnips, etc.); f) melons (watermelon, melon, etc.); citrus fruits (orange, grapefruit, tangerine, etc.); tonic crops (narcotic crops, tea, coffee, cocoa); oilseeds and essential oil crops: a) oilseeds (sunflower, castor bean, mustard, rapeseed, sesame, camelina (plant), hemp, flax, coconut palm, oil palm, olive tree); b) essential oil crops (coriander, anise, cumin, etc.); hop growing; viticulture; gardening; grassland farming - obtaining suitable pastures and feed for livestock.
The concept of an economic sector. Classification of sectors of the national economy.
1. Branch of the economy
A sector of the economy is a set of enterprises and industries that have common products, technologies and satisfied needs.
The essence of the national economy is that it represents an established system of national and social reproduction of the state, in which industries, types and forms of social labor that have developed as a result of the long historical evolutionary development of a particular country are interconnected. The characteristics of the national economy are influenced by historical and cultural traditions, the geographical location of the state, and its role in the international division of labor.
A number of related sciences and academic disciplines are devoted to the study of the national economy:
industrial economics;
economics of construction;
agricultural economics;
economic theory
The structure of the national economy (from the Latin structura - order) is a complex of industries of a particular country, which arose on the basis of a combination of social division of labor, natural resources, historical traditions and territorial specifics. The complex structure of the national economy is defined through such concepts as sector, industry, sphere of the national economy. Depending on the existing property relations in the national economy, sectors such as private, state, and cooperative are distinguished. Recently, this concept has been used in connection with the specifics of the social division of labor. Thus, the so-called real sector is distinguished as a set of industries in which material products are produced.
The concept of “industry” is the main structural unit of the national economy, which is a set of enterprises, institutions and organizations that perform the same socio-economic functions in the process of social reproduction, regardless of territorial location and departmental subordination. According to the sectoral structure, there is a classification of sectors of the national economy.
A group of homogeneous branches of the national economy forms the sphere of the national economy. Thus, in accordance with the specifics of production, as well as the distribution and redistribution of production goods, production and non-production spheres are distinguished.
The production sector of the national economy includes all sectors that produce material products,
Non-productive sector - industries producing non-productive services. Manufacturing sectors, depending on the use of the material product and the specifics of its creation, are divided into industry, agriculture and construction.
Heavy industry sectors, which include electric power, fuel industry, metallurgy, chemical and petrochemical industries, woodworking and other industries.
Light industry sectors: textiles, clothing, footwear, fur.
Food industry branches: Canning industry, Dairy industry, Meat industry, Oil and fat industry, Pasta industry, Confectionery industry, Wine industry, Brewing and soft drinks industry, Fishing industry, Salt industry, Sugar industry.
Industries Agriculture, in turn, includes the sectors of crop production and livestock production.
In general, the totality of all structural units constitutes the macroeconomic structure of the national economy.
The structure of the national economy is a set of historically established stable, capable of reproducing functional relationships between various units of the national economy.
The following types of structure of the national economy are distinguished:
1) household, implying consideration of the structure of the national economy as the relationship between households. The selection of this type of structure is due to the fact that households are a powerful economic entity, producing a significant part of the national wealth, influencing the nature of other relationships;
2) social structure, based on the division of the national economy into certain sectors that are organically interconnected. The division is made according to various criteria, for example, population groups, enterprises, types of labor. Usually there are public and private sectors of the economy;
3) sectoral structure, which involves identifying sectors of the economy and determining the nature and essence of the relationship between them. A branch of the national economy is a unit of the national economy that performs similar functional tasks in the process of social production. This type of structuring of the national economy is of great importance, as it allows for high-quality forecasting of economic development;
4) territorial structure, which involves analyzing the geographical distribution of productive forces within the national economy - the division of the national economy into various economic regions;
5) the infrastructure of the national economy, based on the definition of the type and nature of interaction between economic spheres;
6) the structure of foreign trade, which involves analyzing the nature of the relationships between various product groups, their imports and exports.
2. Economic infrastructure: types and significance for the national economy
The word "infrastructure" is formed from a combination of the Latin terms "infra" - "under, below" and "structura" - "location", structure. There is an ambiguous definition of infrastructure. Firstly, it is understood as a set of service systems, the main task of which is to ensure the operation of production and provide various services to the population. Secondly, infrastructure is understood as a set of units whose activities are aimed at ensuring the normal functioning of the national economy.
Infrastructure is of great importance for the functioning of the national economy, representing its integral part. At the present stage of development of the Russian economy, the role of infrastructure in the economy is increasing, and the process of its improvement continues.
The following main types of infrastructure in the national economy are distinguished:
1) production infrastructure;
2) social infrastructure;
3) market infrastructure.
Production infrastructure is a set of units of the national economy, the main purpose of which is to ensure the normal functioning of the production process. For example, cargo transportation, tonnage ship transportation, etc.
Social infrastructure is a set of units of the national economy, the functioning of which is associated with ensuring the normal functioning of the population and people. Its role in the modern national economy is constantly increasing, and the main task is to ensure the livelihoods of the population at an increasingly higher quality level. The influence of social infrastructure on the national economy is that it allows for the reproduction of labor resources - the main resource of the economy.
Market infrastructure is a set of units of the national economy, the functioning of which is aimed at ensuring the normal functioning of the market and its development. It is represented by a collection of various organizations and institutions that ensure the activities of various sectors of the economy.
Bibliography
1. www.su.edusite.ru.
2. www.informbureau.com.
4. Emelyanov A.M. Agricultural Economics. - M., 1982.
5. www.ecsocman.edu.ru
Tutoring
Need help studying a topic?
Our specialists will advise or provide tutoring services on topics that interest you.
Submit your application indicating the topic right now to find out about the possibility of obtaining a consultation.
Abstract
Economics of the industry
Lecturer: Sidorova Elena Ivanovna
Lecture No. 1 (04.09.07)
Introduction to the course of industrial economics (EE).
Concepts of goals and objectives of the industry economics course.
Classically defined, economics is the study of how a society uses certain limited resources to produce useful products and how it distributes these products among different groups of people.
Economics as a science studies the theoretical foundations and practical forms of functioning of market structures as well as the mechanical interaction of economic entities of society (industry and enterprise entities).
Depending on the level of study of economics, macro- and microeconomics are distinguished.
Macroeconomics studies the regulation of economic production by the state.
Macroeconomics studies the processes of formation of aggregate demand and supply of national income GDP, analyzes the influence of the budgetary, legal and monetary policies of the national bank, analyzes inflation and the unemployment rate on economic growth.
National income (net product) is the value newly created by living labor.
GDP is the totality of all material goods and services created in the sphere of material production, usually in 1 year. GDP is a general indicator of the final indicators of production and an indicator of the health of the economy.
Microeconomics – studies the behavior of individual elements of the economy (industry sectors, enterprises, commodity and financial markets, banks). She studies how the volume of production is determined and prices are set, studies issues of organizing business activities, issues of enterprise planning, studies the calculation of production costs and sales of products, and procedures for concluding transactions.
There are no strictly defined boundaries between micro- and macroeconomics. Many branches of economics fall under both of these concepts.
Industry economics studies the forms of manifestation of objective laws in industry and methods for increasing the efficiency of social production. The economy of a particular industry reflects the economic uniqueness of a particular industry, and in particular, the role and place of the industry in the national economic system, the nature of inter-industry relations, the specifics of the fixed and working capital of the industry, the characteristics of the production process, the specifics of the raw materials consumed and manufactured products, the cost structure of production.
Industry and its role in the socio-economic development of society.
The national economic complex of the Republic of Belarus includes 2 spheres: production and non-production. The production sector includes industry, agriculture, forestry, construction, trade and catering, transport and communications. Non-production includes: healthcare, science, culture, housing and communal services, consumer services, transport and communications serving the population.
The leading branch of the national economy is industry, which is a combination of a large number of independent industries engaged in the extraction, procurement and processing of raw materials. Industry is the only branch producing tools. The technical level of all sectors of the national economy and the composition of the sectors depend on the nature of the perfection of the tools of labor.
The rate of rearmament of all sectors of the national economy depends on the level of industrial development. Industry determines the development of the productive forces of society and the growth of labor productivity. Industry occupies an important place in solving the problems of economic growth of the country. This is determined by the fact that it produces the bulk of GDP (about 85%) and more than 40% of national income.
Industry is of great importance in solving social problems, since it is the only industry that produces building materials and machinery, and medical equipment. Thus, it predetermines the place and timing of solving the housing problem, improving medical care, etc. Industry and its basic sectors (mechanical engineering, metalworking, etc.) are the material basis for technical progress and reconstruction of all sectors of the national economy.
Currently, the industry of the Republic of Belarus is characterized by a low level of profitability (8-17%). This is due to the fact that stocks of finished products are stored in the warehouses of enterprises, exceeding the standard values of physical wear and tear of fixed assets by more than 70%, the high level of material and energy intensity of production.
The main task of the industry is to increase production efficiency and the level of profitability, since the low level of profitability does not allow working capital to fully ensure reproduction.
Lecture No. 2 (5.09.07)
In addition, an important task of the industry is to improve the quality and competitiveness of Belarusian products, conquer new markets and retain old ones. GDP growth must be achieved without increasing energy consumption. It is necessary to increase the volume of investments and improve the efficiency of their use. It is necessary to improve the depreciation policy.
Industry. Classification of industries.
An industry is a set of enterprises characterized by the unity of their products, the commonality of technical progress, the uniformity of materials consumed, the characteristics of their personnel and specific working conditions.
The basic industries of the Republic of Belarus are:
Electric power industry;
Fuel industry;
Ferrous metallurgy;
Chemical and petrochemical industry;
Forestry and wood processing industry;
Construction materials industry;
Light industry;
Food industry.
Certain conditions are necessary for the formation of an industry. The most important of them:
The presence of a large volume of market demand;
Availability of natural resources.
Industries are classified according to a number of criteria:
By economic purpose:
group A – industries producing means of production;
Group B – industries producing consumer goods for the population and non-production sectors.
Grouping by economic purpose makes it possible to determine the direction of the country's development, the share of industrial products aimed at meeting the social needs of the population.
Depending on the nature of the objects of labor:
Mining;
Processing.
Enterprises in the extractive industry extract and procure natural raw materials without changing their properties (oil, coal industries). Manufacturing industries process raw materials, while objects of labor change their physical and chemical properties. Manufacturing industries are divided into industries processing raw materials for industrial use and industries processing agricultural raw materials (light, food).
This grouping is necessary to identify the degree of balance between the industries that extract raw materials and the industries that process them. It is economically feasible to use each unit of raw material more deeply and fully, which increases its production. This situation explains the need to accelerate the development of manufacturing industries compared to extractive industries.
Based on the functional purpose of products, they are grouped into basic industries.
This classification is necessary for predicting intersectoral proportions, identifying economic connections and establishing directions for economic development.
Industries can be classified according to other criteria, in particular, labor- and material-intensive processes, seasonal production, etc. are distinguished.
Sectoral structure of industry and its determining factors.
The composition of industries and their quantitative ratio, which reflects production connections between industries, represents the sectoral structure of industry, which characterizes:
the degree of social division of labor;
production connections between industry and other sectors of the national economy;
production connections within industry (between groups A and B, between the extractive and manufacturing industries, between basic industries).
Studying the sectoral structure of industry is very important, as it allows us to identify the degree of economic independence of the Republic of Belarus, determine the degree of technical equipment of the national economy and identify the social orientation of production.
The sectoral structure of industry is studied using a system of indicators that are combined into 3 groups:
characterizes the quantitative ratio of industries (the share of individual industries in the total volume of industrial products by the cost of volume, output, the cost of fixed production assets and the number of industrial production personnel (IPP) is used as an indicator);
characterizes changes in the industry structure over a certain period of time; The following indicators are used for assessment:
a) the increase is calculated (decrease in the i-th industry)
ΔY i – growth (decrease in the share of the i-th industry in%);
Y i 1, Y i 2 – the share of the i-th industry at the beginning and end of the analyzed period, %.
The share of mechanical engineering in 2006 was 36%, and in 2007 it is predicted to be 40.3%.
ΔY i = 40.3 – 36 = 4.3.
b) intensive changes in the industry structure are determined by the growth rate of the shares of industries according to the following formula:
characterizes industrial relations between industries. There are inter-industry and intra-industry connections.
Intra-industry connections are characterized by the share of products used by the industry for further production.
A is the share of products in the total volume of products consumed by industry;
PV i is the volume of own products used by the i-th industry for further processing (million rubles);
Software i is the total production consumption of the i-th industry (million rubles).
Inter-industry production connections are characterized by the proportion of products of a given industry sent for further processing in another industry.
PP i is a product of the i-th industry, sent to another industry for further processing (million rubles);
VP is all industrial products (million rubles).
Factors influencing the sectoral structure of industry:
structure and volume of the market for demand for products;
the level of development of STP (scientific and technological progress) and the level of social division of labor;
availability of natural resources;
the republic’s place in the system of international division of labor and its foreign economic relations;
socio-historical conditions.
With a decrease in market demand for industry products, many enterprises reduce production and re-profile, which leads to a decrease in the volume of industry products and its share in industrial production. The increase in demand attracts new investors, so enterprises operating in the industry are increasing their production.
The income level of the population has a significant impact on the structure of demand and its volume. Income growth leads to an increase in Group B industries and the emergence of new enterprises producing consumer goods.
The industry structure is influenced by scientific and technical progress. Its development leads to the emergence of new industries (the increase in plastic production has led to a decrease in rubber consumption).
The sectoral structure of industry is influenced by the level of production intensity. Its strengthening is characterized by a reduction in the costs of all types of resources for the production of final products. The industry structure is influenced by specialization, cooperation and combination of production. Specialization reflects the processes of social division of labor, leads to the separation of individual industries into independent ones and the creation of new industries and sub-sectors. Cooperation and combination involve intersectoral connections that expand and complicate the sectoral structure.
The industry structure is significantly influenced by the availability of natural resources, without which the development of the relevant industry is impossible. In the development of foreign economic relations and scientific and technical progress, the influence of the natural factor weakens. Scientific and technological progress makes it possible to create substitutes for natural raw materials. Scientific and technological progress makes it possible to involve poorer raw materials, production waste, and use by-products in production. The development of foreign economic relations makes it possible to form an industry structure that will contribute to the effective use of natural conditions and geographical location.
Raw materials and fuel and energy base of the industry.
Types of raw materials and supplies consumed by industry enterprises. Classification of raw materials and materials.
Raw materials are objects of labor for the extraction and preparation of which labor is expended.
Materials are objects of labor that have undergone certain industrial processing.
Depending on their role in the production process, basic and auxiliary materials are distinguished.
Basic materials are objects of labor that form the main material basis of the finished product.
Auxiliary materials are objects of labor that participate in the production process, but do not form its material basis.
A semi-finished product is a product of labor that has gone through one or more stages of processing, but is not yet ready for consumption.
This classification of raw materials and materials is important for planning and accounting for the consumption of raw materials and supplies.
Raw materials consumed in industry are classified into industrial and agricultural.
Industrial raw materials include products from the mining industry and some manufactured products that are used as raw materials.
Agricultural raw materials include raw materials obtained in agriculture and forestry.
Raw materials are divided into the following types:
Mineral;
Organic;
Artificial;
Synthetic.
Mineral raw materials are minerals obtained from the subsoil. Its peculiarity is that it is non-renewable.
Organic raw materials are raw materials of plant and animal origin.
Artificial raw materials are raw materials obtained artificially from mineral and inorganic materials.
Synthetic raw materials are raw materials obtained from mineral and inorganic materials through synthesis using chemical reactions.
Production waste is the remains of raw materials and materials that are obtained during the production process and have lost their consumer qualities.
Lecture No. 3 (11.09.07)
Fuel and energy resources (FER) of the industry. Its tasks are to save raw materials and fuel and energy resources.
All fuel and energy resources are divided into:
1) natural (coal, oil, peat);
2) fuel processing products (petroleum products, coke, briquettes);
3) secondary energy resources - resources obtained during the main technological processes (solid fuel waste, physical heat of some types of products, heat of chemical reactions, heat of waste gases).
The use of secondary energy resources allows you to save up to 30% of fuel.
Measures to save raw materials and fuel:
correct regulation of consumption of raw materials, materials and fuel and energy resources (development of technically and scientifically sound consumption standards to replace experimental statistical standards);
material incentives for enterprise employees for the economical use of raw materials, materials and fuel and energy resources;
development and implementation of energy-saving technologies;
complex processing of materials and raw materials;
maximum reduction in waste generation and recycling in production.
Main production assets of the industry (fixed capital)
The concept of production assets.
Tools and objects of labor used in the industry form production assets. Objects of labor constitute the material basis of products and impart their natural properties to them. Processing of objects of labor into products is carried out using means or tools. Both tools and objects of labor participate in creating the value of products, but the nature of their participation is different. Depending on the nature of participation in the production process and in creating the value of products, production assets are divided into:
Basic;
Negotiable.
BPF (buildings, structures, equipment) are involved in production for a long time, are used gradually, retain their natural shape and their value is transferred to the cost of production in parts as they wear out.
Working production assets (raw materials, materials) are completely consumed in each production cycle, change their material form and completely transfer their value to the cost of finished products.
The ratio between fixed and working capital assets depends on the characteristics of the industry. In any industry, in addition to general public funds, fixed non-production assets are used (kindergartens, stadiums, sanatoriums on the account of enterprises). Their peculiarity is that they do not take part in the production process, but their purpose is to serve the employees of the enterprise.
Composition and structure of fixed capital.
OPFs consist of a large number of different means of labor, which play different roles in the non-production process. This diversity necessitates a grouping of OPFs, which is carried out on the basis of their participation in the process and is called the classification of OPFs.
In accordance with the classification of general enterprises of any industry, they are divided into groups:
1) buildings (shop premises, plant management, laboratories, warehouses, etc.);
2) structures (dams, canals, transport structures, i.e., something that is not involved in the process of creating products, but creates conditions for its production);
3) transfer device. With their help, electricity, thermal energy, liquid and gaseous substances are transmitted (power lines, pipelines, gas pipelines);
4) machines and equipment:
4.1. power machines and equipment (used to produce various types of energy and convert energy from one type to another (steam boilers, turbines, generators, electrical substations));
4.2. working machines and equipment. These are means of labor that take an active part in the production of products (machines, reactors, furnaces);
4.3. measuring and control instruments (thermometers, pressure gauges, thermocouples);
4.4. computing technology (computers);
4.5. other machinery and equipment (i.e., everything that is not included in subparagraphs 4.1. - 4.4., telephone exchanges of the enterprise);
5) vehicles (includes all transport of the enterprise, for example: electric forklifts, railway transport, etc.);
6) tools and devices. This group includes tools whose service life is more than one year or whose cost exceeds a hundred times the salary (various stamps, molds, etc.);
7) production equipment (work tables, cabinets, shelving);
8) household equipment (typewriters).
The structure of the OPF is represented by the ratio of the active and passive parts of the OPF. The active part includes power and working machines and equipment, i.e. those means of labor that take part in the production process. The passive part of the OPF includes all remaining parts of the OPF. The higher the specific gravity of the active part of the OPF, the more efficiently the OPF is used.
Methods for assessing fixed production assets (FPAs).
The value of the OPF can be characterized by various natural indicators (equipment power, apparatus productivity, etc.), but a general indicator that allows summing up the OPF is their cost.
Several methods are used to assess OPF:
valuation at original cost. The initial cost includes the costs of purchasing OPFs, delivering them to the site of operation and installation.
The initial cost is the cost at the time of putting the OPF into operation in prices of the current period.
assessment of OPF at replacement cost.
Replacement cost is the cost of reproducing fixed assets in modern conditions. As a rule, it is established during the revaluation of fixed assets.
valuation at residual value.
Residual value is the difference between the original or replacement cost and the amount of depreciation.
,
C 0 – residual value;
C p – initial cost;
N a – depreciation rate;
T – service life of the OPF.
4) valuation based on liquidation value.
Liquidation value is the difference between the market value of the funds and the costs of liquidating the funds.
Market value can vary from the cost of new equipment to the cost of scrap metal.
Wear of OPF.
OPFs are subject to wear and tear, whether they are in use or not.
Wear is the loss of OPF of its useful properties, i.e. the loss of their use value.
We consider 2 types of wear:
Physical (material);
Moral.
Physical wear and tear occurs as a result of active operation of equipment and under the influence of natural forces.
The degree of physical wear depends on:
the quality of the funds themselves;
extensive and intensive load of OPF (intensive - power load, extensive - time load);
features of the technological process (temperature, pressure, chemical reagents, etc.);
conditions for repair and maintenance of funds;
qualifications of workers using labor tools.
The degree of physical wear is characterized by the physical wear coefficient:
T f – actual service life of the OPF;
T n – standard service life of OPF.
Obsolescence of OPF is the loss of use value by funds without corresponding material depreciation.
The main cause of obsolescence is scientific and technical progress. Production of products on obsolete equipment is more expensive, since it does not cover the costs of production.
Lecture No. 4 (18.09.07)
There are obsolescence of the first and second kind. Obsolescence of the first kind is due to the growth of labor productivity in industries producing industrial enterprises. By increasing labor productivity, the production of machinery and equipment is now carried out at lower costs and they are becoming cheaper.
Obsolescence of the second kind is associated with the emergence of new, more productive equipment produced at the same costs, which leads to a decrease in the relative usefulness of OPF.
Obsolescence coefficients are determined as follows:
F b – book value of funds;
F in – replacement cost of funds;
P 1, P 2 – productivity of existing and new equipment, respectively.
It is impossible to prevent obsolescence, but it is possible to significantly delay the time of its onset if:
take measures to maximize the use of equipment before it becomes obsolete;
modernize equipment.
Depreciation of OPF.
The cost of OPF is transferred to the cost of finished products in parts. To purchase new OPF, you must have the full amount of their cost. The process of reimbursing the cost of OPF and accumulating funds occurs through depreciation.
Depreciation is the process of accommodating depreciation of fixed assets by constantly moving their value to the cost of the finished product. When products are sold, depreciation charges are also converted into cash and are included in the cost of production. They form a depreciation fund intended to completely replace the OPF.
The place of depreciation in the OPF reproduction system is reflected in the following diagram:
Reproduction can be simple or extended. The simple thing is to replace outdated OPFs with similar new ones. Expanded reproduction can manifest itself in the form of new construction, reconstruction, modernization or technical re-equipment of existing industrial enterprises.
Gradual reimbursement of the cost of OPF is carried out according to the depreciation rate. Depreciation rate– this is the average annual depreciation of fixed assets as a percentage of their original cost. The depreciation rate depends on a number of factors, the main one of which is the service life of the OPF. The service life of OPFs is the time they function in the production process. Since the service life of different funds is different, the depreciation rate is also different. The service life of the OPF is set in such a way that the total costs of major repairs do not exceed the initial cost of the OPF.
1 – total costs for repairs and upgrades;
2 – cost of OPF;
T – depreciation period (or service life).
The depreciation rate is calculated using the following formula:
where F p is the initial cost;
F l – liquidation value.
In addition to the depreciation rate, the amount of depreciation charges is calculated:
where Ф ср – average annual cost of open pension fund. It is used because during the year the enterprise carries out both the entry and disposal of general fund.
where F n is the value of funds at the beginning of the year;
Ф вв – cost of funds introduced during the year;
n – number of months from the moment the funds are introduced until the end of the year (number of months of work);
F exit is the cost of funds retired during the year;
m is the number of months from the date of retirement until the end of the year (the number of months of non-work).
The entire amount of depreciation is used to purchase new funds. In a market economy, the amount of depreciation charges is determined by three main methods:
uniform;
uniformly accelerated;
accelerated.
The uniform depreciation method is based on the assumption of uniform moral and physical depreciation of funds. Consequently, the depreciation rate is the same over all service lives. For example, building – 2%, equipment – 5%, structures – 4%.
With uniformly accelerated depreciation, increased rates are applied for the first three years, allowing 2/3 of the original cost to be transferred to the cost of production, and the remaining cost is transferred at the same depreciation rates for each of the remaining years of service of the funds.
With the accelerated method, most of the cost of equipment is included in the cost of production for the first years of operation (1 year - 50%, 2 year - 30%, 3 year - 20%).
Enterprises currently have the right to independently choose the method of calculating depreciation.
Repair of OPF and modernization of equipment.
OPFs are subject to wear and tear as they operate, which necessitates their repairs, which are carried out in order to maintain OPFs in working condition.
There are 4 types of repairs:
capital.
restorative;
Restorative repair is a special type of repair caused by natural disasters or military destruction. Repair costs are financed by the state or insurance companies and are not included in the cost of production.
Overhaul is the largest type of repair, associated with stopping equipment for a period of ten days to a month. It is accompanied by complete disassembly of the equipment, replacement of all worn-out components and parts, assembly of the equipment, running-in of the equipment in idle environments and commissioning of the equipment. The main goal of a major overhaul is to restore the original service life of the equipment and bring the equipment parameters to the specifications. Major repairs are carried out once every few years and the costs are included in the cost of production.
Current repairs are minor repairs that involve minor equipment downtime, replacement of small parts, and repair of individual equipment components. This is a private type of repair; costs are included in the cost of production.
Medium repair - in terms of the scope of work and duration, it occupies a middle position between major and current repairs.
In order for the repair to be carried out efficiently, it is necessary to organize it correctly. For this purpose, the enterprise uses a system of scheduled preventive maintenance (PPR). It is a set of activities for supervision, care and repair of equipment, carried out routinely according to a special schedule.
In addition, the enterprise is centralizing repair services, i.e., creating repair shops or divisions. Specialized repair services allow you to organize progressive repair methods (by unit, by bench). In this case, the time spent on repairs is minimal and comes down to replacing the equipment to be repaired with a serviceable one.
In order to increase the service life of equipment and reduce the impact of obsolescence, equipment is being modernized. The goal is to improve passport performance. Modernization is associated with mechanization and automation of processes, which leads to a reduction in the labor intensity of production, increased labor productivity and improved working conditions. Modernization requires less costs than purchasing new equipment.
Lecture No. 5 (19.09.07)
Indicators of the effectiveness of using OPF.
Generalized indicators of the effectiveness of using OPF include:
return on assets;
Capital intensity;
Profitability;
Equipment utilization level indicators.
Capital productivity - the ratio of the volume of products in monetary terms to the average annual OPF with the help of which these products were created.
Q – annual production volume;
F avg – average annual cost of open pension fund.
Capital productivity shows how much production in monetary terms is produced by one ruble. The higher F sr, the more effectively the OPF is used.
Capital intensity is the inverse value of capital productivity. Shows how many funds account for the amount of production.
.
The lower the F capacity, the more efficiently the funds are used.
OPF profitability is the ratio of the annual amount of profit to the average annual cost of OPF, %.
The higher the Frent, the more efficiently the funds are used.
Equipment utilization level indicators include:
Extensive load factor;
Intensive load factor;
Shift rate;
Integral load factor.
The extensive load factor of equipment characterizes its use over time. There are actual and planned coefficients.
where Tf is the actual operating time of the equipment;
T pl – planned equipment operation fund;
Tk – calendar fund of equipment operation (calendar time – 365 days).
The difference between these coefficients is that Tf takes into account all actual equipment stops, while Tpl takes into account only planned ones.
There are different ways to schedule shutdowns for continuous and batch production. For continuous production, the planned time fund:
T pl = T k – T ppr – T those
where T ppr is the time for scheduled preventive maintenance;
T tech – technically inevitable loss of time associated with setting up equipment.
K e =0.85–0.95.
For periodic production, the planned time fund:
T pl = T k – T out – T ppr – T tech.
K e =0.65–0.75.
The intensive load factor characterizes the use of equipment in terms of productivity.
where Q is the annual production volume;
M av – average annual productive capacity.
The integral load factor characterizes the use of equipment both in terms of time and power:
K integral = K e · K u .
The shift coefficient characterizes the use of equipment over time and is determined by the ratio of the number of machine shifts worked by the equipment per day to the total number of machines installed at the enterprise. The higher this coefficient, the more efficiently the equipment is used.
Directions for improving the use of OPF.
The following main directions for improving the use of OPF are identified:
An increase in the extensive and intensive load of equipment, which leads to an increase in production output without changing the cost of assets. To improve the use of equipment over time, it is necessary to eliminate its unscheduled downtime, reduce the duration of repairs (while improving their quality) through more efficient organization of repairs and maintenance of equipment.
Reducing working time spent on preparatory, final and auxiliary operations (reception and transfer of shifts, delivery of raw materials, etc.).
Increasing equipment load intensity through the introduction of energy-saving technologies and efficient use of raw materials.
Improving the structure of the general fund, i.e. increasing the share of the active part of the fund.
Intangible assets.
Intangible assets are the second element of fixed capital. The intangible assets of an enterprise include: intellectual industrial property, which is a set of rights relating to inventions, utility models, industrial designs, trademarks and know-how.
Intangible assets are objects that do not have physical properties, but provide stable quantitative income over a long period of time.
An invention is a new and significantly different technical solution to a problem in the field of industrial activity. It can be patented. Obtaining a patent means that no one other than the patent owner can use the invention.
Utility models are new means of production or consumer goods that have undergone design preparation and have the highest degree of readiness for organizing production.
A trademark is a pictorial or verbal designation that helps distinguish the goods and services of a given legal entity from others.
Know-how is a set of technical, technological, managerial, commercial and other knowledge, documented in the form of technical documentation.
The totality of intangible assets is reflected in the balance sheet of the enterprise. The growing interest in intangible assets is associated with increased competition and the complication of scientific and technological progress.
Intangible assets, like general capital assets, are depreciated during operation according to depreciation rates established by the enterprise itself.
Identification of all objects of intangible property makes it possible to estimate the value of the enterprise itself, which is very important in the case of privatization. The following methods exist for assessing the market value of intellectual industrial property:
Comparison method: involves searching for information about the market value of an intellectual property object of similar utility.
Income method: estimates the total income expected from intellectual property in the future.
Cost method: when used, the cost of an object is understood as the sum of costs for its creation and promotion to the market.
Lecture No. 6 (09.25.07)
Working capital of the industry. Working capital.
Composition and means of working capital.
In addition to fixed assets, which are represented by means of labor, there are working capital, the material content of which is the objects of labor. A characteristic feature of working capital is their continuous mobility, that is, the constant transition from the sphere of circulation to the sphere of production and back. Working capital located in the sphere of production is called working capital. Revolving funds that are in the sphere of circulation are circulation funds. The share of open pension funds accounts for about 2/3 of all working capital, the share of circulating funds is 1/3. The totality of funds invested in working capital and circulation funds is called the working capital of the industry.
Industrial inventories are items of labor prepared for the launch of a production complex.
Work in progress - objects of labor that have entered the production process, are in the process of processing or assembly, as well as semi-finished products of our own production, unfinished completely in some workshops of the enterprise and subject to further processing in other workshops of the same enterprise.
Deferred expenses are intangible elements of working capital, including costs for the preparation and development of new products that are produced in a given period, but relate to products that will be produced in the future (costs for the design and development of technologies for new types of products).
Products shipped to the customer, but not yet paid for by him, have 3 forms:
The payment deadline has not yet arrived;
The payment deadline has arrived, but the customer does not have funds;
Products are in responsible storage with the consumer.
The structure of working capital is the percentage of the elements listed in the diagram.
Sources of formation of working capital.
Working capital is classified by sources of formation and divided into 2 groups:
Own working capital;
Borrowed working capital.
For state-owned enterprises, their own working capital is allocated by the state for permanent use at the time of establishment of the enterprise. For private enterprises, the owners of the enterprise allocate their own working capital. Replenishment of own working capital, regardless of the form of ownership of the enterprise, is carried out through deductions from profits.
Stable liabilities are equated to own working capital - monetary resources that are constantly, due to settlement conditions, in the turnover of the enterprise (wages arrears to employees).
During the production process at an enterprise, there is often a need for additional funds (failures in production, problems during transportation of products). These needs are temporary and difficult to foresee in advance. They are covered by borrowed funds. Borrowed funds are loans from banks and other lenders.
In addition to the two sources indicated above, the enterprise’s turnover includes accounts payable - the enterprise’s debt for raw materials, energy and other services. This means is called attracted.
Rationing of working capital.
The importance of rationing working capital is very high for the following reasons:
Excessive working capital reserves deaden money and material resources delay their turnover and reduce the efficiency of their use;
Working capital cannot be reduced to a minimum volume because this could lead to production disruption.
The working capital standard is their minimum value, which ensures the implementation of the production program. It generally consists of standards for individual elements of working capital.
Rationing of inventories
O z = N d · R;
where О з – standard production reserves;
N d – norm of stock of raw materials and other resources, in days;
R – daily consumption of raw materials and other resources, in monetary terms.
N d = T + S + P + D + A;
where T is the current stock;
C – safety stock;
P – time spent by raw materials and materials in transit;
D – time required for unloading, receiving and delivering arrived materials;
A – time for conducting analyzes and preparing resources for production.
The current stock rate depends on the time between two deliveries of the material and is usually equal to half of it.
Safety stock is created to ensure uninterrupted operation of the enterprise in case of supply disruptions. The amount of safety stock depends on the distance to the supplier and the regularity of deliveries.
The time spent by the paid material in transit is determined based on reporting data for previous periods.
Time D and time A are calculated according to the time standards established for performing these operations.
Daily consumption P is determined based on the production cost estimate for the 4th quarter of the planned year, because his plan is the most intense.
where Z – costs of raw materials and supplies in monetary terms according to the estimate for the 4th quarter of the planned year;
90 – days in a quarter.
Rationing of working capital for spare parts for equipment repairs
This is done in two ways:
Direct calculation of spare parts requirements based on the amount of equipment and parts that need to be replaced;
Calculation of the working capital standard, in monetary terms per unit of equipment cost.
О зп =Н зп – Ф
where O sal is the working capital standard for spare parts;
N зп – rate of consumption of spare parts, in monetary terms per unit of equipment cost;
F – book value of equipment.
Rationing of working capital for work in progress
The working capital standard for work in progress depends on:
Production volume;
Duration of the production cycle;
Rate of increase in costs.
O nzp = N d E,
where About the work in progress is the working capital standard for work in progress;
N d – rate of work in progress, days;
E – one-day production in the 4th quarter at full cost.
where C is the total cost of production in the 4th quarter.
N d = C · K,
where C is the duration of the production cycle (the time from the moment of loading raw materials to the release of finished products that meet the requirements of GOST or TU);
K – cost increase coefficient.
where K – initial costs;
Z – increasing costs according to the estimate for the 4th quarter.
Rationing of future expenses
O bp = O n + B – C.
The working capital standard for future expenses (O bp) is calculated using the balance sheet method, based on the balances of these costs at the beginning of the planned year (O n), new planned costs (B) and the value of written-off costs for the cost of production (C).
Working capital standard for finished products
The working capital standard for finished products depends on the volume of production, the conditions of shipment and sales of products.
O gp = N d E,
where N d is the stock norm of finished products, in days;
E – one-day production according to the 4th quarter plan at full cost.
Lecture No. 7 (02.10.07)
Indicators of efficiency of use and directions for improving the use of working capital.
The industry's working capital makes a continuous circuit, which consists of 3 phases:
Carried out in the sphere of circulation - the enterprise buys raw materials, supplies, fuel, etc. for cash;
Carried out in the sphere of production - production inventories are involved in the production process and are successively transferred into semi-finished products, and then into finished products;
It is carried out in the sphere of circulation - finished products are sold, and working capital is converted into cash.
The circuit ends with the receipt of money in the company’s current account.
Complete circuit: 
D – PZ – PF – PP – D
The industry's working capital is simultaneously in all phases and moves from one to another continuously, following each other. The speed of movement of working capital is an important economic characteristic of their use. The faster the circulation of working capital occurs, the less of it is required or the greater the volume of production they can serve.
To characterize the efficiency of using working capital, 3 indicators are used:
Turnover ratio is the number of revolutions made by working capital in 1 period. It is determined by dividing the volume of products sold, in monetary terms, by the amount of working capital that the enterprise had in a given year.
where RP – sold products;
OS – working capital.
Duration of one revolution
where 360 are days in a year.
Working capital consolidation coefficient is the amount of working capital per 1 ruble of products sold. The smaller this value, the more efficiently working capital is used.
Accelerating the turnover of working capital should be achieved at any phase of the circulation by:
Reducing the duration of the production cycle;
Improving logistics and sales;
Reducing the consumption rates of material resources through the introduction of resource-saving technology;
Improving the procedure for payments for materials and products.
As a result of accelerating the turnover of working capital, significant amounts of money are released, which can be used to expand production.
In practice, you can often hear the following expressions: “ real estate lawyer», « land lawyer», « construction lawyer" That is, a lawyer specializes not on any branches of law, but on all issues regulating certain social relations (this can be either a material object (real estate) or highly specialized areas of social relations (the use of letters of credit, currency control)). In other words, lawyers are usually considered according to the field of activity in which they understand best.
For example, a “real estate” lawyer is specialist in the following areas:
- civil law (sections on real estate transactions);
- tax law (appearance of value added tax and personal income tax upon sale);
- representation in court on these issues;
- knowledge of other aspects (settlement schemes, sale schemes through the sale of shares in the authorized capital, security basics, rules for verifying counterparties).
That is, the regulation of such relations is quite complex, multidimensional and to the employer interesting to the lawyer knew all aspects of work in one field of activity.
If we talk about the areas of activity of a lawyer in more detail, it is worth highlight the economic sphere- the most extensive and in demand today. Each industry has different requirements for lawyers. If this is production, then most of the work is related to supply contracts and disputes in this area; if the banking sector, then this is lending and deposits.
Let's highlight main sectors of the economy:
Producing goods (material goods):
- industry (electric power, fuel industry, ferrous and non-ferrous metallurgy, chemical and petrochemical industries, mechanical engineering and metalworking, etc.);
- Agriculture;
- forestry;
- construction, etc.
Providing services (non-manufacturing industries):
- banking activities;
- trade;
- domestic services,
- transport;
- tourism;
- leisure;
- Department of Housing and Utilities;
- pension provision;
- scientific activity;
- public education, etc.
Each industry has a different attractiveness for lawyers, depending on where there is better material and social security, more prospects for career growth, opportunities for self-realization, where the working conditions are more comfortable, where the work is more interesting. All these requirements are individual for each person.
But if we talk about material support, it is logical to assume that it may be higher in those sectors of the economy that are the most profitable - the oil and gas industry, for example. Although specific market players and the level of the position held are also of great importance. It is up to the lawyer to decide which branch of the economy to go into - it all depends on his
The economy of any country is a single complex of interconnected industries. Each state, depending on its national and historical traditions, geographical and geopolitical conditions and labor skills of the population, creates its own unique set of sectors of the national economy, the formation of which is increasingly influenced by international cooperation with other countries.
When analyzing the national economy, concepts such as spheres, industries, complexes, and sectors of the economy are distinguished.
Based on participation in the creation of the total social product and national income, social production is divided into two large spheres: material production and the intangible sphere.
Material production includes industry, agriculture and forestry, freight transport, communications (serving material production), construction, trade, catering, information and computing services, and other activities in the sphere of material production.
The non-productive sphere includes housing and communal services, passenger transport, communications (serving organizations of the non-productive sector and the population), healthcare, physical education and social security, public education, culture and art, science and scientific services, lending and insurance, activities of the administrative apparatus .
In turn, each sector of the economy is divided into industries.
An industry is a set of enterprises and organizations characterized by a commonality of products, production technology, fixed assets, professional training of workers and satisfied needs.
According to Russian statistics, industry is divided into heavy, light and food industries. Heavy industry includes: electric power, fuel industry, ferrous metallurgy, non-ferrous metallurgy, mechanical engineering, chemical and petrochemical, forestry, woodworking and pulp and paper industries, as well as the building materials industry. Light industry includes textile, clothing, leather, footwear, and fur industries. Food industry - food processing, meat, dairy, fishing industries.
The sectoral division of the economy is the result of the historical process of development of the social division of labor. The development of society and the economy, the further deepening of production specialization lead to the formation of new industries. Along with specialization and differentiation, there are processes of cooperation and integration of production, leading to the development of stable production links between industries, to the creation of mixed production and inter-industry complexes.
An intersectoral complex is an integration structure that characterizes the interaction of various industries and their elements, different stages of production and distribution of the product. In industry, for example, there are fuel and energy, metallurgical, machine-building and other complexes. The agro-industrial and construction complexes, which unite different sectors of the national economy, have a more complex structure.
Based on the division of labor, inter-industry and single-industry, territorial-production, inter-industry scientific and technical complexes can be distinguished.
The constituent elements of the economic complex can be grouped into economic sectors. A sector is understood as a collection of institutional units that have similar economic goals, functions and behavior. Thus, the sector of non-financial enterprises unites enterprises engaged in the production of goods and services for the purpose of making a profit, and non-profit organizations that do not pursue the goal of making a profit.
The financial enterprises sector covers institutional units engaged in financial intermediation.
The government sector is a combination of legislative, judicial and executive authorities, social security funds and non-profit organizations controlled by them.
The household sector mainly includes consuming units.
The external sector is a set of institutional units - non-residents of a given country (i.e. located outside the country) with economic ties, as well as embassies, consulates, military bases, international organizations located on the territory of a given country.
There is also a distinction between the public sector as a set of enterprises, organizations, institutions that are state-owned and managed by government bodies or persons appointed by them, and the private sector as part of the economy that is not under state control.
According to international statistics, the economy is usually divided into industries that produce goods and industries that provide services. Industries that produce goods include industry, agriculture, construction and other sectors of material production (publishing, recycling of secondary raw materials, collection of wild mushrooms and berries, etc.). Industries providing services include education, transport, trade, healthcare, general government, defense, etc.
V. Gribov, V. Gryzinov