The work offered to the reader by V.K. Yakovleva’s “The Yoruba Language” is part of a series of essays on the languages of the foreign East and Africa, published by the Institute of Asian Peoples of the USSR Academy of Sciences. Separate essays are devoted to the characteristics of language groups, for example: “Languages of India, Pakistan, Ceylon and Nepal”, “Iranian languages”, “Languages of Southeast Asia”, “Mongolian languages and dialects of China”, “Languages of Africa”, etc.
The essays are intended for a wide range of linguists and historians - researchers and graduate students, teachers and students of oriental, philological and historical faculties of higher educational institutions.
Yoruba language and its dialects.
The Yoruba language is spoken mainly in Nigeria (western and southwestern regions of the country). In addition, the Yoruba language is spoken by the population of the central and western regions of the Dahomey Republic and the eastern regions of middle Togo. There are separate Yoruba settlements in Ghana and Cameroon.
According to the 1952-1953 census, the Yoruba language was spoken by 6 million people in Nigeria, and more than 200 thousand people in Dahomey and Togo. According to the latest estimates, Yoruba is spoken by 32% of the Nigerian population, which is more than 11 million people.
A language very close to the Yoruba language is also spoken by representatives of one of the small nationalities of Cuba. This language, like the people who speak it, is called Lukumi. There is some evidence that the Lucoumi are descendants of slaves brought to Cuba from West Africa, particularly from Nigeria.
The Yoruba language is divided into a number of dialects (there are 8 main dialects). The differences between them are mainly phonetic. The division into dialects roughly corresponds to tribal divisions, and in Nigeria to some extent to the modern divisions into provinces.
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These African people live in many parts of the continent. On the southwest side, Yoruba is found in the area or Ketu. On the southeastern side, these people live in Togo, in the Atakpame region.
Their total number is not much, not little - almost 27 million people. Of these, 25 million are located directly in Nigeria.
Yoruba has various divisions such as:
- ekiti,
- ondo,
- egba,
Their language is the Yoruba language of the Kwa group of the Niger-Kordofan family, and the literary language is the basis of Oyo.
Most people of this nation consider themselves Christians. These include Baptists, Protestants and even Anglicans. A small part of them are Sunni Muslims. But there are also adherents of local traditional beliefs.
At the moment, it cannot be said that the ethnogenesis of this people has been fully studied. The Yoruba have several ethnogenetic legends. But presumably this one is either Asian or appeared in the 12th century. It has already been proven that the Yoruba culture, even in the Middle Ages, had a high level of cultural development.
Previously, the main occupation of these people was hunting. Entire squads of hunters were created. Moreover, each detachment had its own specifics. For example, a hunting squad or a hunting squad. At the same time, the development of other occupations began: blacksmithing, weaving, pottery and even weaving. Over time, little has changed, but still some innovations have come here. Despite the fact that the main occupation of the Yoruba is considered to be agriculture and fishing, the people have already begun to master new professions. Thus, residents successfully export cocoa, groundnuts and bananas. The development of the working class began, the bourgeoisie and the intelligentsia appeared. And in the city of Ibadan, where the Yorubas live, the largest university in all of Africa now operates.
If we talk about cattle breeding, then, unfortunately, this people has a big problem. The reason is the lack of the required amount of pastures and the pastures that have filled literally all areas where Africans live.
Most Yorubas live in villages. But it should be noted that this people at all times had large fortified cities that performed their administrative and trade functions. In our time, they also continue to play their role.
Buildings in villages and cities are built using the linear settlement type. All houses are stretched in one, and sometimes in two lanes along the entire street. In villages, sometimes 20 people live, sometimes more than 4 thousand. The dwelling is one-story, covered with palm leaves or iron. Most have their own outbuildings.
Clothing made from fabric that is made not by machine technology, but by hand, is highly valued here. As well as various hats and bright, spacious clothes.
Speaking of culinary preferences, Yorubas are very fond of various spices. Their food is often spicy and fatty. Local beer is brewed from corn, cane and bananas.
Like most peoples, residents are very fond of celebrating various masquerades and rituals. By the way, just like hundreds of years ago, people sincerely believe in the existence of several gods at the same time.
Yoruba, language of the people Yoruba. Belongs to the Kwa subgroup of the Guinean group of languages. Distributed mainly in the western and southwestern regions of Nigeria, as well as in some areas of Dahomey, in the eastern regions of Togo. The number of speakers of Y. is about 10-12 million people (1972, estimate). Divides into a number of dialects. The Yen language has 7 pure and 7 nasal vowels. Distributed elision and vowel harmony. Monosyllabic and two-syllable words predominate. High, low and mid tones are clearly distinguished, but there are also sliding tones (ascending and descending). Tone has a semantic meaning (for example, fó ‒ “break”, fó ‒ “wash”, fo ‒ “speak”). Y.'s language is isolating. There is no grammatical gender or declension of nouns. The verb has no indicators of person, number, or voice. Syntactic relations are expressed by fixed word order and function words. The writing system of Yakutia is based on the Latin alphabet.
Lit.: Yakovleva V.K., Yoruba Language, M., 1963; Gaye J. A. and Beecroft W. S., Yoruba grammar, 3 ed., L., 1951; Abraham R.C., Dictionary of modern Yoruba, L., 1958.
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The Yoruba people live in western Africa. The lands called Yorubaland are now part of Nigeria, Togo, Benin and Ghana. The ancestors of this people created the original Nok culture, the first Iron Age culture on the African continent. Terracotta and bronze figurines of the Nok culture are the pride of the world's leading museums. The Nok culture arose 900 years before Christ and suddenly disappeared in 200 AD. The Yoruba people, who are the heirs of an ancient culture, number about 30,000,000 people in our time.
The Yoruba culture, unlike most African cultures, was not invaded by white emigrants. The British, whose colonies covered the lands of the Yoruba people, did not support emigration to these colonies. It is for this reason that the traditions of the Yoruba people remain practically unchanged.
One of the most amazing Yoruba traditions is the “extended family”. All adult men are considered fathers and women are considered mothers. Therefore, the Yoruba do not have the concept of orphanhood.
Sexual contacts before marriage are also an important tradition of the people. For white Christians, this custom seems not only strange, but even blasphemous. The point is that in the process 
To complete the courtship ritual, a woman must prove her ability to bear children. That is, the first sexual contacts necessarily occur before marriage. However, when a woman becomes pregnant, the father of the child is simply obliged to marry her. It is impossible to evade this responsibility; the whole society will force the father to follow the law. Thus, the Yoruba also do not have single mothers.
Formally, most of the people are either Sunni Muslims or Christians. In fact, the Yoruba religious beliefs are based on a traditional African cult.
The Yoruba religious tradition is quite complex and, according to various estimates, dates back up to 10,000 years. She recognizes the existence of a single main creator god. True, in the Yoruba view, the creator god Olorun has withdrawn from affairs and does not interfere in human life. Therefore, they rarely pray to him, and the cult of worship of Olorun is practically absent. The Yoruba Orishas pray. Orisha is a peculiar African concept; these are some emanations of the creator god that help maintain the relationship between people and heaven.
One of the main orishas is Obatal. It was he who created the Earth, and he brought to it those first sixteen people whom he had previously sculpted from clay. He is also responsible for the appearance of hunchbacks, albinos and other deformities. According to the Yoruba religious tradition, deformities are not punishment or misfortune, they are just a reminder to the more fortunate of the need to worship 
Obatalu. True, in the process of making the Earth and people, carrying out Olorun's plan, Obatal regularly drank palm wine, and did a lot of things badly. Olorun had to eliminate his shortcomings; since then, the Yoruba people have had a strict taboo on drinking wine.
The bulk of black slaves were supplied to America from the lands of Yorubaland. There they were able to preserve their religious traditions. Bizarrely intertwining them with Catholicism, they even created new cults. Among the black residents of Cuba, as well as Cuban emigrants in the United States, Santeria, which synthesized ancient African beliefs and Christianity, became widespread. Interestingly, it is impossible to count the number of Santeria adherents - they sincerely consider themselves Catholics. However, it is difficult to call their rituals Christian.
The main ceremony of Santeria is the “feeding” of the sacred stones. Three times a year, every devotee of the religion must participate in a ceremony lasting three days. During the “feeding” process, the blood of sacrificial animals is splashed onto the stones. Then they are washed with a magical infusion. Each stone has its own animal and its own infusion.
On Sundays and holidays, fans of Santeria gather in prayer rooms equipped in the houses of their clergy. During these rituals, ritual dances are performed to the beat of special ritual drums hollowed out of a whole tree trunk, called bata.
They often end with one or more dancers falling into a trance state. Such people begin to utter phrases consisting of unrelated and often meaningless words. It is believed that a person who falls into a trance is possessed by one of the orishas. And the sorcerer’s task is to interpret his prophecy. Followers of traditional Christianity considered 
such prayers would be sacrilege or a “witch’s sabbath.” However, the Yoruba heirs consider themselves devout Catholics.
The voodoo religion, with its dark rituals and the resurrection of the dead in the form of zombies, is based on the fusion of ancient African beliefs and Christianity.
It is interesting that most of the Yoruba living in Africa are engaged in agriculture, but live in cities. Fields surround every Yoruba city. Sometimes even houses are built in remote areas. But they cannot be compared with the main city house, which contains an altar on which the head of the family regularly makes sacrifices to the orishas. Defoid group Yoruboid cluster Alphabet
Alphabet used in Nigeria: A a, B b, D d, E e, Ẹ ẹ, F f, G g, Gb gb, H h, I i, J j, K k, L l, M m, N n , O o, Ọ ọ, P p, R r, S s, Ṣ ṣ, T t, U u, W w, Y y.
Alphabet used in Benin: A a, B b, D d, E e, Ɛ ɛ, F f, G g, Gb gb, H h, I i, J j, K k, Kp kp, L l, M m , N n, O o, Ɔ ɔ, P p, R r, S s, Sh sh, T t, U u, W w, Y y.
Linguistic characteristics
Phonetics and phonology
There are three types of syllables allowed in Yoruba: CV, V and N (syllabic nasal). Each syllable is associated with one of three possible tones: high (́), mid (̄ or unmarked), and low (̀). Wed. n̄ ò lọ"I did not go":
- n̄ - [ŋ̄] - "I"
- ò - [ó] - “not” (general negation)
- lọ - - "go"
Literary Yoruba has seven oral and five nasal vowels. There are no diphthongs. In other dialects a different picture may be observed.
| Oral vowels | Nasal vowels | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|
| Front row | Back row | Front row | Back row | |
| Upper | ||||
| Upper-medium | ||||
| Lower-middle | ɛ̃ | ɔ̃ | ||
| Lower | ||||
Nasal vowel status [ã] remains uncertain. Many researchers indicate that it is in a free distribution with [ɔ̃] . In spelling, nasal vowels are expressed using digraphs with n (in, un, ẹn, ọn), unless the nasal vowel is preceded by the phoneme /l/: in this context it has an allophone [n], which is written, and then the nasality of the vowel is not conveyed: inú"insides, belly" [īnṹ], phonologically / [īlṹ]/.
Yoruba also has vowel harmony.
The grammatical structure is isolating, the basic word order is SVO.
Morphology
The stem of the verb denotes a completed action (often called the “perfect”); tense and verb aspect are indicated by particles that precede the verb, e.g. ń (imperfect/continuous view), ti(past tense). Negation is conveyed by the particle preceding the verb kò. As in many other West African languages, serial verb constructions (where multiple verbs refer to the same subject, but only the first one is marked) are common.
Yoruba makes a distinction between names denoting humans and non-humans, a division likely a remnant of the archaic noun class system for the Niger-Congo languages. This difference is manifested only in the fact that the names of these groups require different interrogative particles: tani for human beings (who?) and kini for non-human (what?).
An associative construction (referring to possessive/genitive and related concepts) consists of a chain of names in the order determiner-modified. Examples: inú apótí"inside the box", lit. "inside the box"; fìlà Àkàndé, "Akande's hat"; apótí aṣọ"box for clothes" (Bamgboṣe 1966:110, Rowlands 1969:45-6). More than two names can be attached to each other: rélùweè abẹ́ ilẹ̀, "underground railroad", lit. "underground railway" inú àpótí aṣ ọ, “inside a clothing box.” In rare cases, this leads to ambiguities that are only clear from context.
There are two quasi-predogs: ní(denotes location - “on”, “in”, etc.) and si(indicates the direction of movement - “to”, etc.). The position and direction of movement is expressed by combining these prepositions with corresponding relative nouns, like ori(top), apa(side), inú(interior), etí(edge), abẹ́(under), ilẹ̀(bottom), etc. Many of these words are historically related in origin to the names of body parts.
Syntax
Yoruba is an isolating language. Normal word order in a sentence: SVO, example: o na Adé- “he hit Ade.”
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Notes
Links
Literature
- Laptukhin V.V., Mayants V.A., Kedaitene E.I. Educational Russian-Hausa-Yoruba dictionary. - Moscow: Russian language, 1987
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Excerpt characterizing Yoruba (language)
“It’s okay, he’s a good horse,” Rostov answered, despite the fact that this horse, which he bought for 700 rubles, was not worth even half of that price. “She started falling on the left front...,” he added. - The hoof is cracked! It's nothing. I will teach you, show you which rivet to put.“Yes, please show me,” said Rostov.
“I’ll show you, I’ll show you, it’s not a secret.” And you will be grateful for the horse.
“So I’ll order the horse to be brought,” said Rostov, wanting to get rid of Telyanin, and went out to order the horse to be brought.
In the entryway, Denisov, holding a pipe, huddled on the threshold, sat in front of the sergeant, who was reporting something. Seeing Rostov, Denisov winced and, pointing over his shoulder with his thumb into the room in which Telyanin was sitting, winced and shook with disgust.
“Oh, I don’t like the fellow,” he said, not embarrassed by the sergeant’s presence.
Rostov shrugged his shoulders, as if saying: “Me too, but what can I do!” and, having given orders, returned to Telyanin.
Telyanin was still sitting in the same lazy position in which Rostov had left him, rubbing his small white hands.
“There are such nasty faces,” Rostov thought as he entered the room.
- Well, did they tell you to bring the horse? - Telyanin said, getting up and looking around casually.
- I ordered it.
- Let's go on our own. I just came in to ask Denisov about yesterday’s order. Got it, Denisov?
- Not yet. Where are you going?
“I want to teach a young man how to shoe a horse,” said Telyanin.
They went out onto the porch and into the stables. The lieutenant showed how to make a rivet and went home.
When Rostov returned, there was a bottle of vodka and sausage on the table. Denisov sat in front of the table and cracked his pen on paper. He looked gloomily into Rostov's face.
“I’m writing to her,” he said.
He leaned his elbows on the table with a pen in his hand, and, obviously delighted at the opportunity to quickly say in words everything he wanted to write, expressed his letter to Rostov.
“You see, dg,” he said. “We sleep until we love. We are children of pg’axa... and I fell in love - and you are God, you are pure, as on the pieties day of creation... Who else is this? Drive him to Chog’tu. There’s no time!” he shouted at Lavrushka, who, without any timidity, approached him.
- Who should be? They ordered it themselves. The sergeant came for the money.
Denisov frowned, wanted to shout something and fell silent.
“Skveg,” but that’s the point,” he said to himself. “How much money is left in the wallet?” he asked Rostov.
– Seven new and three old.
“Ah, skveg” but! Well, why are you standing there, stuffed animals, let’s go to the sergeant,” Denisov shouted at Lavrushka.
“Please, Denisov, take the money from me, because I have it,” Rostov said, blushing.
“I don’t like to borrow from my own people, I don’t like it,” Denisov grumbled.
“And if you don’t take the money from me in a friendly manner, you’ll offend me.” “Really, I have it,” Rostov repeated.
- No.
And Denisov went to the bed to take out his wallet from under the pillow.
- Where did you put it, Rostov?
- Under the bottom pillow.
- No, no.
Denisov threw both pillows onto the floor. There was no wallet.
- What a miracle!
- Wait, didn’t you drop it? - said Rostov, lifting the pillows one by one and shaking them out.
He threw off and shook off the blanket. There was no wallet.
- Have I forgotten? No, I also thought that you were definitely putting a treasure under your head,” said Rostov. - I put my wallet here. Where is he? – he turned to Lavrushka.
- I didn’t go in. Where they put it is where it should be.
- Not really…
– You’re just like that, throw it somewhere, and you’ll forget. Look in your pockets.
“No, if only I hadn’t thought about the treasure,” said Rostov, “otherwise I remember what I put in.”
Lavrushka rummaged through the entire bed, looked under it, under the table, rummaged through the entire room and stopped in the middle of the room. Denisov silently followed Lavrushka’s movements and, when Lavrushka threw up his hands in surprise, saying that he was nowhere, he looked back at Rostov.
- G "ostov, you are not a schoolboy...
Rostov felt Denisov’s gaze on him, raised his eyes and at the same moment lowered them. All his blood, which was trapped somewhere below his throat, poured into his face and eyes. He couldn't catch his breath.
“And there was no one in the room except the lieutenant and yourself.” Here somewhere,” said Lavrushka.
“Well, you little doll, get around, look,” Denisov suddenly shouted, turning purple and throwing himself at the footman with a threatening gesture. Got everyone!
Rostov, looking around Denisov, began to button up his jacket, strapped on his saber and put on his cap.
“I tell you to have a wallet,” Denisov shouted, shaking the orderly by the shoulders and pushing him against the wall.
- Denisov, leave him alone; “I know who took it,” Rostov said, approaching the door and not raising his eyes.
Denisov stopped, thought and, apparently understanding what Rostov was hinting at, grabbed his hand.
“Sigh!” he shouted so that the veins, like ropes, swelled on his neck and forehead. “I’m telling you, you’re crazy, I won’t allow this.” The wallet is here; I'll take the shit out of this mega-dealer, and it will be here.
“I know who took it,” Rostov repeated in a trembling voice and went to the door.
“And I’m telling you, don’t you dare do this,” Denisov shouted, rushing to the cadet to hold him back.
But Rostov snatched his hand away and with such malice, as if Denisov were his greatest enemy, directly and firmly fixed his eyes on him.
- Do you understand what you are saying? - he said in a trembling voice, - there was no one in the room except me. Therefore, if not this, then...
He couldn't finish his sentence and ran out of the room.
“Oh, what’s wrong with you and with everyone,” were the last words that Rostov heard.
Rostov came to Telyanin’s apartment.
“The master is not at home, they have left for headquarters,” Telyanin’s orderly told him. - Or what happened? - added the orderly, surprised at the upset face of the cadet.
- There is nothing.
“We missed it a little,” said the orderly.
The headquarters was located three miles from Salzenek. Rostov, without going home, took a horse and rode to headquarters. In the village occupied by the headquarters there was a tavern frequented by officers. Rostov arrived at the tavern; at the porch he saw Telyanin's horse.
In the second room of the tavern the lieutenant was sitting with a plate of sausages and a bottle of wine.
“Oh, and you’ve stopped by, young man,” he said, smiling and raising his eyebrows high.
“Yes,” said Rostov, as if it took a lot of effort to pronounce this word, and sat down at the next table.
Both were silent; There were two Germans and one Russian officer sitting in the room. Everyone was silent, and the sounds of knives on plates and the lieutenant’s slurping could be heard. When Telyanin finished breakfast, he took a double wallet out of his pocket, pulled apart the rings with his small white fingers curved upward, took out a gold one and, raising his eyebrows, gave the money to the servant.