and, including the famous comedy "The Minor", are closely connected with a special trend in literature and art (painting, architecture), which originated in a number of European countries during the rise of absolutism (personal power of monarchs who personified unity, integrity, sovereignty (independence ) states) at the beginning of the XVII century and received the name of classicism (from Latin classcus - exemplary). The influence of classicism on the artistic life of Europe in the 17th-18th centuries. was broad, long-lasting and generally fruitful.
In literature, classicism manifested itself most fully in the lyrics and in drama.
Classicism believed that it was necessary to rely on the norms of beauty in ancient art, that is, in the art of Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome, which were set forth in the works of Aristotle, Horace and other thinkers and poets of antiquity and strictly observe them, without deviating from creative rules. These norms and rules demanded from art, in particular from literature, clarity of presentation, accuracy of expression of thoughts, order in the construction of works.
Classicism gave preference to culture over savagery and insisted that nature and life, transformed by man, are higher than nature and natural life, not yet subject to the noble efforts of the human mind, feelings, will and hands.
The classicists always saw the ideal of a beautiful and inflated life transformed by the art of man, and the chaos of wild natural life opposed to emu, governed by incomprehensible and seemingly bad laws. Consequently, it was typical for classicism to reflect life in ideal images, gravitating towards a universal "norm", an image that classical antiquity acts as an example of perfect and harmonious art in classicism.
Since in real life there was a conflict between reason and feelings, classicism sought to resolve and overcome it through a harmonious and complete combination of a person's personal interests with the dictates of reason and moral duty. At the same time, the interests of the state were considered the main and prevailing over the interests of an individual.
The greatest flowering in the literature of classicism initially reached the drama as a kind of verbal and stage art.
Drama (from the Greek, drama - "action"), as you know, is one of the three types of literature, along with epics and lyrics. The basis of the drama, according to the original meaning of the word, is action: In the drama, the phenomena that make up the external world unfold before the viewer or reader.
Events appear as a living, unfolding in the present time (before the eyes of the viewer!) Action, shown through conflicts and in the form of dialogue. Playwrights are excluded from direct action and cannot speak on their own behalf, with the exception of remarks explaining the action or behavior of the personages (for example, when a particular character speaks a line in response to the words of another person, the playwright can mark - "to the side" i.e. . wanting to hide his opinion).
The classic drama has a number of features. In order for the action to preserve its logical harmony, the classicists saw the demand for "three unities", the unity of place, the unity of time and the unity of action.
The first two unities are very simple and were formal in nature, which is why they subsequently did not stay in dramatic works.
The unity of the place requires that the action takes place in the same room and does not go beyond it, for example, in the same house, but in different rooms. So, the action of the comedy "Woe from Wit" takes place in Famusov's house, but then in Famusov's office, then in Sofia's bedroom, then in the living room, then on the stairs, etc.
The unity of time implies that the action must begin and end within one day. For example, the action begins with Chatsky's arrival at the Famusovs' house in the morning, and ends with his departure at night.
The unity of action is the most fundamental and profound requirement of the theory of classicism. The laws of drama require the tension and concentration of the action, which is, as a rule, due to the characters of the characters, special rigor in the plot: the action in the drama and the behavior of the heroes must be directed towards one goal, keep the connection and harmony of the composition in all scenes and details and be united, conjugated with the main confrontation of the characters.
This rule for a dramatic plot is called "unity of action". "The action of the drama," wrote VG Belinsky, "should be focused on one interest and be free from secondary interests ..." This means that in the drama "everything should be directed towards one goal, one intention."
Thanks to the unity of the action in the drama, the threefold development of the plot is especially clearly and consistently traced: the beginning - the development of the action (including the culmination) - the denouement. The external expression of the sequence of the course of the dramatic action is the division of the drama into acts, each of which is a completed stage of the unfolding conflict.
Classicism strictly adhered to the so-called hierarchy of genres. Tragedy, ode, epic belonged to "high genres". Comedy, fable, satire - to "low".
In the genre of tragedy, France has nominated two of the greatest playwrights - Pierre Corneille and Jean Racine. Their works are based on the clash of personal interests and civic duty. La Fontaine became famous in the fable genre, and Moliere became famous in the comedy genre. They laughed at the vices of people, at unfair social and social conditions and relations.
Over time, the contradictions between the individual and the state became more and more acute. Not only the lower strata of the population, unenlightened and unaffected by the activity of a powerful mind, began to be criticized, but also the nobility and clergy, who stood at a high level of society. Comedy time has come.
The comic (and laughter) is based on the law of inconsistency: the imaginary is opposite to the true, the illusion is the opposite of reality, the expected is the result. Inconsistency can be easily detected between words and deeds, as in fablex Krylov, between an unjustifiably underestimated or overly exaggerated event, the discrepancy between the character's claims, as in the case of Mrs. Prostakova, and her real essence. It is precisely on the basis of discrepancy that such properties of comedy as hyperbole, sharpness, absurdity, grotesque and its "high" laughter, often mixed with tears of despair, grow. The more absurd the discrepancy, the more fantastic it is, the more realistic, vitally reliable the action setting should be. Only in this case will the comedy with its wise and uplifting laugh be convincing and morally effective.
All these remarks fully apply to both Russia and Russian classicism, which had a number of national characteristics.
In Russia, classicism emerged in the 1730-1750s. For Russian classicism, national-patriotic themes, civic pathos, which were based on the growing power of the Russian state and were associated with the transformations of the Peter the Great era, are characteristic of the Russian classicism.
Questions in assignments
1. What were the basic rules, laws of classicism?
2. Can you determine which properties of classicism Fonvizin inherits and which he rejects or transforms?
3. Do you agree with the following statement by P. A. Vyazemsky:
“In the comedy“ The Minor, ”the author already had the most important goal: the disastrous fruits of ignorance, poor upbringing and abuse of domestic power were exposed by him with a bold hand and painted with the most hated colors. In The Brigadier, the author fools the vicious and fools, stabbing them with arrows of mockery; in "Minor" he no longer jokes, does not laugh, but is indignant at vice and stigmatizes him without mercy ... Ignorance ... in which Mitrofanushka grew up) and examples from the family were supposed to cook in him a monster, what is his mother, Prostakova " ...
The roles of Milo and Sophia are pale ... Pravdin is an official: he cuts with the sword of the law the web of action, which should be unleashed by the considerations of the author, and not by the police measures of the governor. Kuteikpn, Tsifirkin and Vralman funny cartoons; the latter is too caricatured, although, unfortunately, it is not entirely unrealizable that in the old days a German coachman ended up as a teacher in the Prostakovs' house ... ”.
The success of the comedy "Minor" was decisive. Its moral action is beyond doubt. Some of the names of the characters have become common nouns and are still used in popular circulation. There is so much reality in this comedy that provincial legends still name several persons, as if they served as originals for the author. I myself happened to meet in the provinces with two or three living specimens of Mitrofanushka, that is, as if they served as a model for Fonvizin ... If it is true that Prince Potemkin after the first performance of the "Minor" told the author: "Die, Denis, or do not write anything else! ", It is a pity that these words turned out to be prophetic and that Fonvizin no longer wrote for the theater" (Vyazemsky PA Aesthetics and literary criticism. M., 1984. S. 197-198, 211-222).
4. Why, from the point of view of Vyazemsky, did Fonvizin make positive characters less artistically convincing than negative ones?
5. Comment on the opinion of the Russian historian V.O. Klyuchevsky from his reflections "Fonvizin's Minor (An Experience of Historical Explanation of the Educational Play)":
“It is safe to say that the Minor has not yet lost a significant share of his former artistic power either over the reader or over the viewer, despite his naive dramatic construction, which at every step reveals the threads with which the play is sewn, neither in an outdated language, nor in the dilapidated stage conventions of the Catherine's theater, despite the fragrant morality of the optimists of the last century, which is poured into the play. ... we must carefully laugh at Mitrofan, because Mitrofans are not funny and, moreover, very vindictive, and they take revenge with irrepressible reproduction and elusive insight of their nature, akin to insects or microbes.
And I don’t know who’s funny in Nedoroslya. Mr. Prostakov? He is only a stupid, completely helpless poor fellow, not without the conscientious sensitivity and directness of a holy fool, but without a drop of waves and with an excess of cowardice, pitiful to tears, which makes him impersonate even in front of his son. Taras Skotnnin is also little comical: in a person ... for whom a pig shed replaces both a temple of science and a home, what is comical about this noble Russian nobleman, who, from educational competition with his beloved animals, became
fours? Isn't the mistress of the house herself, Mrs. Prostakova, nee Skotinina, comical? This is a face in a comedy, unusually well conceived psychologically and excellently sustained dramatically ... she is stupid and cowardly, that is, she is pitiful - for her husband, like Prostakova, godless and inhuman, that is, disgusting - for her brother, like Skotinina. The undersized is not a comedy of faces, but of positions. Her faces are comical, but not funny, comical as roles, and not at all funny as people. They can amuse when you see them on stage, but disturb and upset when you meet them outside the theater, at home or in society. Fonvizin made sad-bad and stupid people play funny-funny and often clever roles.
The strength of the impression is that it is composed of two opposite elements: laughter in the theater is replaced by heavy meditation upon leaving it "(Klyuchevsky V.O. Historical portraits: Figures of historical thought. - M., 1990. - S. 342-349) ...
What is the difference between the judgments of Vyazemsky and Klyuchevsky and which of them, in your opinion, is more right? Or perhaps you have a different point of view?
6. On what grounds can one determine that the comedy "The Minor" refers to classic works (the unity of time, place ...)?
Classicism (from Latin classicus - exemplary)
1) Literary and artistic direction (as well as the era and style) of the XVII-XVIII centuries, formed in France and took as a model ancient art with its inherent ideas of beauty and the principles of "imitation of nature", observance of a sense of proportion, striving for harmony. The literature of classicism has developed a set of clear laws and rules, which presupposed the separation of genres, themes and styles.
2) Artistic style and aesthetic direction in European literature and art of the 17th - early 18th centuries. His most important feature was his appeal to the samples of ancient literature and art as an ideal aesthetic standard. The writers were guided by the works of the Greek philosopher Aristotle and the Roman poet Horace. The aesthetics of classicism established a strict hierarchy of genres and styles.
High genres - tragedy, epic, ode.
Low genres - comedy, satire, fable.
Classicism as a cultural phenomenon originated in the 17th century in Northern Italy, during the late Renaissance. In France, low genres became prevalent, which reached such a high level that Moliere's comedies were even called "high comedies". Classicism fell into decay after the Great French Revolution of 1789-1794.
Russian classicism is characterized by an appeal to national origins, and not to antiquity. He also developed mainly within the framework of "low genres".
3) Literary direction, which originated in the XVII century. but France in the conditions of the formation of an absolutist state. The classicist writers chose ancient art as a role model, but they interpreted it in their own way. The basis of classicism is the principle of rationalism (racio). Everything should obey reason, both in the state and in personal life, and egoistic feelings and passions should be brought into the framework of civic and moral duty by reason. The theorist of classicism was the French poet Nicolas Boileau, who outlined the program of the direction in the book "Poetic Art". In classicism, certain creative rules (norms) were established:
The main conflict of works is the struggle between selfish feeling and civic duty, or between passion and reason. At the same time, duty and reason always win.
In accordance with their attitude to public debt, the characters were divided into positive and negative. Only one quality, one dominant trait (cowardice or courage, deceit or nobility, etc.) was imprinted in the characters, i.e. the characters were one-line.
A strict hierarchy of genres was established in literature. All of them were divided into high (ode, heroic poem, tragedy) and low (fable, satire, comedy). Outstanding events were portrayed in high genres, the heroes were monarchs, statesmen, military leaders. They glorified acts for the good of the state and the monarchy. The language in works of high genres was supposed to be solemn, stately.
In low genres, the life of people of the middle class was depicted, everyday phenomena and individual traits of a person's character were ridiculed. The language of fables and comedies was close to the spoken language.
Dramatic works in the aesthetics of classicism were subject to the requirement of three unities: time, place and action. The unity of time and place meant that the action in the play should take no more than a day and, moreover, take place in one place. The unity of the action prescribed a plot line that was not complicated by side episodes.
In France, the leading writers of classicism were the playwrights P. Corneille and J. Racine (in the genre of tragedy), Moliere (comedy), and J. La Fontaine (fable).
In Russia, classicism has been developing since the 18th century. Although Russian classicism had much in common with Western European, in particular with French, national specificity was clearly manifested in literature. If Western European classicism turned to ancient subjects, then Russian writers took material from national history. In Russian classicism, a critical note sounded distinctly, the denunciation of vices was sharper, and the interest in the folk language and, in general, in folk art was more pronounced.
Representatives of classicism in Russian literature - A.D. Kantemir, M.V. Lomonosov, A.P. Sumarokov, D.I. Fonvizin.
The ideology of enlightenment formed the basis of the main method of Russian literature of the 18th century (30-80s) - classicism. As an artistic method originated in European art in the 17th century. From the point of view of the classicists, the task of art is to approach the ideal. The shape was determined by samples, the norm.
The aesthetics of classicism is called normative:
The rule of three unities (time, place, action); the norm requiring the purity of the genre / the rule of the purity of the genre (which determined the problematic, the type of hero, - the plot and style); linguistic norm (it was determined by Lomonosov's "Russian grammar" in 1755); typical conflicts: between duty and feeling, reason and emotions, public and personal - social issues; the requirement of straightforward portrayal of heroes.
The principles of classicism were brought to Russia by A.P. Sumarokov. In 1747 he published two treatises - Epistol on poetry and Epistol on the Russian language, where he expounds his views on poetry. In fact, these epistles were translated from French, a prephrase for Russia of Nicolas Boileau's treatise Poetic Art. Sumarokov predetermines that the main theme of Russian classicism will be a social theme dedicated to the interaction of people with society.
Later, a circle of novice playwrights appeared, headed by I. Elagin and theatrical theoretician V. Lukin, who proposed a new literary idea - the so-called. the theory of declensions. Its meaning is that it is only necessary to understandably translate the Western comedy into Russian, replacing all the names there. Many similar plays appeared, but in general the idea did not come true. The main importance of Elagin's circle was that it was there that D.I. Fonvizin, who wrote the comedy Nedorosl 'as an example of Russian classicism.
In this comedy, Fonvizin tries to implement the main idea of \u200b\u200bclassicism - to re-educate the world with a reasonable word. Positive heroes talk a lot about morality, life at court, the duty of a nobleman. Negative characters become illustrations of inappropriate behavior. The social positions of the heroes are visible behind the clash of personal interests.
Denis Ivanovich Fonvizin was born in 1745 in Moscow. He came from an old noble family, studied at the university gymnasium, then at the philosophy department of the university. Once among the "chosen students" in St. Petersburg to the university curator Count Shuvalov, Fonvizin met Lomonosov, with prominent figures of the Russian theater FG Volkov and I. A Dmitrievsky. Already in the early period of his literary career, doing translations, Fonvizin appears as a progressive-minded person who was influenced by educational ideas. Along with translations, Fonvizin's original works appear, painted in sharply satirical tones.
A feature of Fonvizin's work is the organic combination in most of his works of satirical acuteness with a socio-political orientation. Fonvizin's strength lies in his literary and civic honesty and directness. He courageously and directly opposed social injustice, ignorance and prejudices of his class and his era, exposed the landlords and autocratic bureaucratic arbitrariness.
The playwright managed to outline all the essential aspects of life and customs of the feudal-serf society of the second half of the 18th century. He created expressive portraits of representatives of the serf-owners, opposing them, on the one hand, to the progressive nobility, and on the other, to the representatives of the people.
Trying to give brightness and persuasiveness to the characters, Fonvizin endowed his characters, especially negative ones, with an individualized language.
Thus, the distinguishing features of the comedy "The Minor" are the relevance of the topic, exposure of serfdom. The realism of the created picture of life and customs of the depicted era and a lively spoken language. By the severity of the satirical teaching of the serf system, this comedy is rightfully considered the more outstanding dramatic work of Russian literature of the second half of the 18th century.
The era of enlightenment comes to an end with Fonvizin: disappointment in enlightenment ideas.
Russian classicism and works of M.V. Lomonosov
The main slogan of classicism is imitation of nature, where everything is clear, precise, subject to the rules. Heroes are clearly divided into positive and negative. Each hero is a bearer of some trait (virtue or vice), which is reflected in the speaking surnames. The principle of three unities: time, place and action. (within 1 day in the same place, the number of characters is limited). A clear division of genres into high (tragedy, epic, ode) and low (comedy, satire, fable).
MV Lomonosov wrote 20 solemn odes. They laid the foundation for the poetry of government service. Lomonosov's ideal was the enlightened monarchy, and the ideal hero was Peter Ӏ.
"Ode to the Day of Ascension ..." is a typical work in the spirit of classicism. It was written on the occasion of the 5th anniversary of the accession to the throne of Elizabeth, as well as on one more specific occasion: the RAS was granted a new charter. Lomonosov pinned great hopes on him in the spread of education in Russia.
The main theme for the ode was the theme of Russia, its prosperity. Peace is the main condition for the prosperity and education of the state. Peter 1 for Lomonosov is a national hero, famous for his victories on land and sea, realizing the need for the development of science and education. In Elizaveta Lomonosov wants to see the successor to his father's affairs. The great riches of Russia can be discovered and mastered with the help of science, to the study of which the Russian youth must turn. This is the guarantee of the well-being of the Russian state.
The civic content of the ode corresponds to a majestic, monumental and at the same time simple and harmonious composition.
Traditional gratitude to the monarch for her actions for the good of Russia.
The high solemn style of the ode is created by using Old Slavicisms, words with incomplete accord (this, this, tokmo), truncated forms of adjectives, changing the order of words in a sentence.
In the text of the ode we find metaphors, archaic words and expressions, personifications, hyperbole, rhetorical questions and exclamations typical of the style of a classical ode.
In Russia, classicism originated in the 18th century, after the transformations of Peter I. Lomonosov carried out a reform of Russian verse, developed the theory of "three calmness" ¹, which was, in fact, an adaptation of the French classical rules to the Russian language. Images in classicism are devoid of individual traits, since they are called upon, first of all, to capture stable generic signs that do not pass over time, acting as the embodiment of any social or spiritual forces.
Classicism in Russia developed under the great influence of the Enlightenment - the ideas of equality and justice have always been in the focus of attention of Russian classicist writers.
"The cycle of poems written by Lomonosov is interesting not only for the exemplary translations of Anacreon, but also for the fact that it reflects the poetic credo of Lomonosov himself. The highest value is declared to the Russian state, Russia. The poet sees the meaning of life in serving the public good. In poetry, he is inspired only heroic deeds. All this characterizes Lomonosov as a poet-classicist. Moreover, "Conversation with Anacreon" helps to clarify the place of Lomonosov in Russian classicism and, above all, to establish the difference between his civic position and the position of Sumarokov. In Sumarokov's understanding, serving the state was associated with preaching asceticism, with the rejection of personal well-being, carried in itself a pronounced sacrificial principle. These principles are especially clearly reflected in his tragedies. Lomonosov chose a different path. He is equally alien to both the stoicism of Seneca and the spectacular suicide of Cato. He believes in the blissful union of poetry, science and enlightened absolutism. "
"Minor" written by D.I.Fonvizin in 1781 and became the pinnacle of Russian drama of the 18th century. This is a work of classicism, but it also exhibits certain features of realism, which makes this work innovative.
The play "The Minor" has the following features of classicism:
- educational orientation of literature, the writer sought to influence the human mind in order to correct the vices of society,
- a clear division of heroes into positive and negative,
- "Speaking surnames" of heroes "Minor" (Pravdin, Skotinin, Vralman)
- the comedy is instructive in nature (it touches on the most important issues of the upbringing of a citizen, education, morality, the tyranny of the landowners.
- the play preaches civic duty
The comedy "The Minor" is written in the strict framework of classicism(Fonvizin observes the unity of place and time in Nedoroslya): it consists of 5 acts, events take place during the day, in one place, without being distracted by side plot lines, the scene is the Prostakovs' estate, the action begins in the morning and ends in the morning of the next day, action is subordinated to one main idea - the need to educate a worthy, honest, good-natured citizen.
In accordance with the requirements of classicism, all comedy characters are divided into positive and negative.
Goodies "Minor": Starodum, Pravdin, Milon, Sophia, Tsifirkin.
Negative heroes "Minor": Skotinina, Prostakova, Eremeevna, Vralman, Kuteikin - act under the "leadership" of Mrs. Prostakova, a serf-landowner. In such an environment, the morality of a young nobleman, an ignoramus, Mitrofan Prostakov, is formed. This is how the topic of family education, the topic of the family, intra-family relations arises.