A look at Russian criticism. - The concept of contemporary criticism. - Study of the poet's pathos as the first task of criticism. - The pathos of Pushkin's poetry in general. - Analysis of the lyric works of Pushkin In harmony, my rival Was the noise of the forests, il violent whirlwind, Il oriole melody

Satirical pathos is the strongest and most harsh indignant-mocking denial of certain guardians of public life. Some Roman poets used the word “satire” (lat. Satura mixture) to describe collections of poems with a mockingly instructive focus - fables, anecdotes, everyday scenes. In the future, this name was transferred to the content of works in which human characters and relationships become the subject of mocking comprehension and the corresponding image. In this sense, the word "satire" was established in world literature, and then in literary criticism.

A satirical assessment of social characters is convincing and historically true only when these characters are worthy of such an attitude, when they have such properties that cause a negative, mocking attitude from writers. Only

in this case, the mockery, expressed in the artistic images of the works, will evoke understanding and sympathy among readers, listeners, viewers. Such an objective property of human life, which causes a mocking attitude towards it, is its comic. A convincing definition of the comedy was given by Chernyshevsky: comedy is “the inner emptiness and insignificance (of human life. - E.R.),hiding behind an appearance that has a claim to content and real meaning ”(99, 31).

Consequently, when a person in his essence, in the general disposition of his interests, thoughts, feelings, aspirations, is empty and insignificant, but claims the significance of his personality, without realizing this contradiction in himself, then he is comical; people recognize the comedy of his behavior and laugh at him.

The tendency of many writers to notice the comic in life and creatively reproduce it in their works is determined not only by the properties of their innate talent, but also by the fact that, due to the peculiarities of their worldview, they pay primary attention to the discrepancy between claims and real possibilities in people of a certain social environment.

Thus, Gogol hoped for a moral correction of the Russian nobility and bureaucracy as the leading strata of society of his time. But comprehending their life in the light of his lofty civic ideals, the writer discovered that behind the external class conceit, self-righteousness, conceit hides the limited and baseness of interests, a propensity for empty entertainment, for a career and profit. And the higher in their position were then certain nobles and officials, the more their comic essence manifested itself in actions, speech, the more sharply Gogol ridiculed them in stories and plays.

Here is an image of the bureaucratic-noble "society" on the main street of St. Petersburg: "Little by little, everyone who has completed some rather important homework, such as those who have talked to their doctor about the weather and about a small pimple that jumped up on their nose, who have learned about health, are joining their society. horses and children ... Everything that you meet on Nevsky Prospekt, everything is full of decorum ... You will meet the only sideburns here, missed with extraordinary and amazing art under a tie ... Here you will find a wonderful mustache, no feather, no unimaginable brush; mustache, which is dedicated

puppy the better half of life, - the subject of long vigils during the day and night ... Here you will meet such waists that you have never even dreamed of: thin, narrow waists, no thicker than a bottle neck ... "and so on ( "Nevsky Prospect").

The feigned, laudatory tone of Gogol's image expresses his mocking, ironic attitude (gr. Eironeia - pretense) to the capital's secular society. In the mock, one can hear the writer's latent ill will and hostility towards these high-ranking people who attach great importance to all sorts of trifles. Gogol's irony sometimes becomes even sharper and turns into sarcasm (gr. Sarkasmos - torment) - indignant and accusatory mockery. Then his image is imbued with satirical pathos (for example, in the lyrical ending of "Nevsky Prospekt").

The satirical pathos is generated by the objective comic properties of life, and in it an ironic mockery of the comic of life is combined with sharp denunciation, indignation. Satire, therefore, does not depend on the arbitrariness of the writer, on his personal desire to ridicule something. It requires a corresponding subject - the comic nature of the most ridiculed life. Satirical laughter is a very deep and serious laugh. Gogol wrote about the distinctive features of such laughter: “Laughter is more significant and deeper than one thinks. Not the laugh that is generated by temporary irritability, bilious, painful disposition of character; not that light laughter that serves for idle entertainment and amusement of people, but that laughter that ... deepens the subject, makes what would have slipped brightly, without the penetrating power of which the trifle and emptiness of life would not frighten a person " (45, 169).

It is laughter "penetrating", deepening the subject, which is an inherent property of satire. It differs from simple playfulness or mockery in its cognitive content. And if such laughter, according to Belinsky, “destroys a thing”, then by “characterizing it too correctly, it expresses its ugliness too correctly”. It comes from "the ability to see things in their present form, to grasp their characteristic features, to express funny sides" (24, 244). And such laughter refers not to an individual person or event, but to those general, characteristic features of social life that found their manifestation in them. This is why satire helps to understand

to identify some important aspects of human relationships, gives a kind of orientation in life,

All this determines the place of the satirical image

life in the literature of different nations. Satire has arisen

historically later than heroism, tragedy, drama.

It developed most intensively when life

the ruling strata and their state power began to lose their former progressive significance and increasingly reveal their conservatism, their inconsistency with the interests of the whole society.

In ancient Greek literature, a satirical denunciation of the life of the ruling strata is already given in the fables of Archilochus (the son of a slave, leading a wandering lifestyle). The satirical pathos is expressed with particular force in many of Aristophanes' comedies. For example, in the comedy "The Riders", written during the crisis of the slave-owning Athenian democracy, the struggle of the Tanner (Paphlagonz) and the Sausage (Porakrit) for power in the house of old De-

mos, who personified the Athenian people. The Sausage Man wins, who, coaxing Demos, treats him to a hare stolen from Paphlagonz. The entire comedy is directed against the military policy of the radical party in power, its leader Cleon (whom viewers easily guessed in the person of Paphlagonz).

In Roman literature, Juvenal gained fame as the most poignant satirist. For example, in the fourth satire, Juvenal

"tells how the fisherman brought a huge fish as a gift to the emperor and the state council at a special meeting discussed how to cook it, what dish to serve, so that it would be worthy of the imperial table.

The satirical understanding and portrayal of the life of the ruling strata of society was greatly developed in Western European literatures during the Renaissance. His most significant expression was the monumental story of the French writer F. Rabelais "Gargan-tua and Pantagruel" (1533-1534). It criticizes the most diverse aspects of the life of medieval society. Rabelais poignantly ridicules feudal wars, depicting King Picrochol's campaign against Father Gargantua. Taking advantage of the quarrel of shepherds and bakers over cakes, Picrosol unleashes a war, not agreeing to any concessions. He smugly yearns for world domination, is sure that all fortresses and cities will fall without any resistance, dreams of booty, distributes in advance

approximate their future possessions, but suffers a complete defeat. Caustically ridicules Rabelais and the dominant religious ideology, the absurdities of Holy Scripture.

Equally important in the development of world satirical literature was the story of the English writer J. Swift "Gulliver's Travel" (1726). Summarizing his observations of the clashes of political parties in England, Swift shows the struggle for power of the Tremexens and Slemexens, differing from each other only in the height of the heels on their shoes, but attaching great importance to this. And the emperor hesitates, so he has one heel higher than the other, and he limps. Swift also makes fun of the country's foreign policy. The great powers Lilliputia and Blefuscu are waging a fierce war, which has arisen due to the fact that in the first of them by decree of the emperor, it is prescribed to break an egg from a sharp end, and in the second - from a blunt one; and the bloody war has no end in sight.

In Russia, the development of satire was also closely linked with the historical life of society. In the XVII century. satire is presented in folk art ("The Tale of Ruff Ershovich", "Shemyakin's Court"), in the 18th century. - in the works of Kantemir, Lomonosov, Novikov, Fonvizin, Krylov. The heyday of Russian satire falls on the 19th century. and is due to the ever-increasing anti-nationality of the autocratic serfdom and the growth of the liberation movement in the country. Griboyedov's Woe from Wit, the epigrams of Pushkin and Lermontov, The History of the Village of Goryukhin by Pushkin, and Gogol's works are permeated with satirical pathos. The satire of Saltykov-Shchedrin, especially his "History of a City" (1869-1870), is of world importance.

Proceeding from his revolutionary-democratic views, Saltykov-Shchedrin sharply revealed the deep socio-political contradiction of Russian social life of an entire historical epoch. He showed the complete degeneration of autocratic power, which is an inert, stupid and cruel force that exists only to suppress the people and brought it to a state of "stupidity", to the ability to either be slavishly touched by their superiors, or spontaneously and violently rebel. The writer completely focused on this negative political state of the authorities and the people, artistically embodying it in fantastic images and scenes that cause sarcastic laughter in readers. In depicting the life of the people, his satire borders on tragedy.

In Soviet literature, reflecting the progressive development of the entire society, the satirical depiction of life, of course, does not receive such a scale, but it still has its grounds. Satire is directed primarily against the enemies of the revolution. Such, for example, are the satirical fables of Demyan Bedny or "Windows of Growth" by Mayakovsky. Later, satirical works appeared, exposing not only the external enemies of the Soviet country, but also remnants of the old in the minds and behavior of people, as well as revealing contradictory phenomena in the life of the new society. Mayakovsky's poem "Prozadavshie", which caused a positive assessment from VI Lenin, ridicules the bureaucratic style of work, when people "inevitably have to be torn" between many meetings. The same problematic was developed by the poet in the comedy "Bath": Glavnachpups Pobedonosikov, boasting of his previous services to the revolution (in which he did not participate), slows down the movement of the "time machine" forward.

Satirical works were also created by I. Ilf and E. Petrov, E. Schwartz, S. Mikhalkov, Yu. Olesha, M. Bulgakov and other writers.

HUMOR

For a long time they could not distinguish a humorous attitude towards life from a satirical attitude. It was only in the era of romanticism that literary critics and representatives of aesthetic and philosophical thought realized it as a special kind of pathos.

The word "humor" (English, humor - moisture, liquid) first acquired the meaning of liquid in the human body, and then, in a figurative sense, a person's temper, then - the disposition of his spirit and, finally, - a mental inclination to joke, mockery.

Humor, like satire, arises in the process of generalizing emotional comprehension of the comic inner contradiction of human characters - the discrepancy between the real emptiness of their existence and subjective claims to significance. Like satire, humor is a derisive attitude towards such characters on the part of people who can comprehend their internal inconsistency. However, the contradictions between the real emptiness of life and the claim to its significance can manifest themselves in different areas of human activity - not only in their civilians, but also in their

private relationship. As a result of false social self-esteem, people in everyday life and family life can also reveal an internal contradiction between what they really are and who they want to impersonate. Here people can also be deceived in the true meaning of their actions, experiences, aspirations, their role in society and claim a significance that they really do not have. Such an internal contradiction of their social identity, their actions, way of life is comical and causes a mocking attitude towards itself.

But this is a different kind of laughter than in satire. Unjustified claims of significance in private, and not in civil life, do not directly affect the interests of the whole society or the whole collective. These claims harm not so much those around them as the people themselves to whom they are peculiar. Therefore, such people evoke a mocking attitude towards themselves, combined not with indignation, but with pity, sadness about their self-deception and delusions, about humiliation of human dignity.

Humor is laughter at relatively harmless comic contradictions, often combined with pity for people who display this comic. It is to humor that the definition of laughter that was given by Gogol at the beginning of Chapter VII of Dead Souls, when he wrote that he was “determined for a long time ... to look around the whole immensely rushing life ... through the laughter visible to the world and the invisible, tears unknown to him! " (Otherwise: tears through laughterbut not laughter through tears,as they often say. - E.R.)

But where does pity, sadness, and tears come from in humorous laughter? They arise from the consciousness of a deep discrepancy between the comic properties of the observed characters and the high moral ideal of the humorist. True humor always comes from a generalizing, philosophical reflection on the shortcomings of life.

In Russian literature, the greatest humorist was Gogol, the greatest satirist was Saltykov-Shchedrin. This difference stemmed from the peculiarities of the writers' worldview. Saltykrv-Shchedrin thought politically, he saw the way out of the social contradictions of his time in the destruction of the autocratic-landlord power and the revolutionary-democratic reorganization of society.

Gogol also had civic ideals. But he believed that the life of Russian society can change for the better only when the ruling strata - the nobility and the bureaucracy - realize their responsibilities,

their duty to their homeland, they will take the path of moral correction. He assessed the comic contradictions of noble and bureaucratic life from the point of view of these civic and moral ideals. Therefore, where Gogol touched upon the social activities of the ruling noble-bureaucratic groups (provincial bureaucracy in the Inspector General, the capital “society” in “Nevsky Prospect” and the provincial one in “Dead Souls”), his mockery became satirical. While portraying landlords and officials in their private life, he was mainly a humorist.

Especially characteristic in this respect is "The Tale of How Ivan Ivanovich Quarreled with Ivan Nikiforovich" - a story about two provincial landowners who lead a completely empty, worthless existence in their small estates, but imagine themselves to be important and significant people. A sudden quarrel over a trifle, a resentment against a friend and a twelve-year legal battle exhausting them materially and morally, all episodes of their quarrel (cutting down a goose barn, petitions to court, attempts at reconciliation) fully reveal the insignificance of the heroes' moral life and the absurdity of that importance, which they give to each of their actions. Gogol laughs merrily at such a life, but ends the story with a sad generalizing thought that has a philosophical content: "It's boring in this world, gentlemen!"

A striking example of a humorous work is the story of Charles Dickens "The Posthumous Papers of the Pickwick Club" (1837), which depicts the comic adventures of Mr. Pickwick and his friends belonging to the bourgeois circles of London. Innocently imagining themselves to be real scientists and good athletes, they find themselves in all kinds of ridiculous and ridiculous, but generally completely harmless situations (taking, for example, a roadside stone for an archaeological find or a fish caught in Hyde Park pond, for a scientific discovery). Dickens talks about their adventures in a very serious tone, which enhances the humorous impression of his story.

Humor, unlike satire, does not always express an ideological condemnation of the character, sometimes it conveys the author's sympathy for the hero, as in Gogol's Taras Bulba, Po-Lrygunya and other stories by Chekhov.

A certain commonality of humor and satire brings them together also according to the principles of artistic embodiment. The comic character

ter is mainly manifested in the external features and behavior of people - in their appearance, gestures, manners, actions, statements. Humor writers and satirical writers usually barely reveal the inner world of their heroes (or do it to a weak degree), but highlight and reinforce in their narration the comic external details of pictorial art (portraits, speech characteristics of characters, plot scenes).

PAPHOS OF SENTIMENTALITY

The considered types of pathos developed already in the early stages of the literary and artistic creation of different peoples. In contrast to them, the pathos of sentimentality (fr. Sentiment - feeling, sensitivity) began to actively develop and received its understanding later. Its development gave rise to certain circumstances of social life. The most important of them was the strengthening by the middle of the 18th century. moral decay of the ruling classes of the old feudal-noble society (France, Russia, Germany), as well as the society of the bourgeois-noble (England). Realizing the ever-growing moral depravity of the refined and complicated urban, metropolitan life, some of the most sensitive-thinking writers, hostile to these strata, began to look for their antithesis in a life that was morally unspoiled, simple, natural, close to nature. They found these positive properties in the patriarchal strata of the peasantry and urban working people, as well as among the patriarchal estate nobility.

Touched by the manifestation of moral purity and naturalness in the characters and relations of such strata of society, these writers themselves sought to morally join their lives. They looked for similar positive properties in their own inner, spiritual world and cultivated in themselves sensitive experiences. This led to the development of their emotional self-awareness and reflection (fr. Reflexion - thinking, contemplation). In the light of such experiences, they portrayed in their works the characters of ordinary people, the artlessness of their relationships, closeness to nature, as well as the characters of representatives of the noble and razor-noble intelligentsia, hostile to the corrupted "society", prone to introspection and sensitivity.

Thus, sentimental pathos is the soul

naya affection, caused by the awareness of moral merits in the characters of people who are socially humiliated or associated with an immoral privileged environment. In literary works, sentimentality has a de and n about-affirming direction.

So, in France in the XVIII century. a particularly significant sentimental work was the novel in letters "Julia, or the new Eloise" by Rousseau, a writer with a revolutionary democratic social outlook. The novel depicts a sentimental love relationship between a girl from a noble noble family, Julia d "Etange, and a modest commoner Saint-Pré. Sensitivity in their relationship arises because, overcoming class prejudices, Julia was able to see in an unknown teacher who served in her rich house, a man This aroused in Saint-Pré himself, despite his poverty and dependence, a corresponding high self-esteem. Rousseau ideologically affirms sensitivity in their relationship, revealing the experiences of his characters in their secret correspondence.

In English literature, sentimental novels were written by Richardson. In the first of his novels, Pamela, the social conflict is the opposite of the conflict underlying Rousseau's New Eloise. Here the virtuous poor girl Pamela, who is in the service of the rich squire B., is subjected to his love persecution and in letters to her parents expresses sensitive feelings, evoking the author's clear sympathy.

In German literature of the 18th century. the most characteristic sentimental work is Goethe's story The Sorrows of Young Werther. Her pathos is created by the image of the experiences of a young man, disillusioned with the empty and vain life of the urban noble-bureaucratic society. Werther seeks satisfaction in a simple rural life, in a sensitive admiration for nature, in helping the poor. His touching love for Lotte is hopeless - Lotte is married. And because of the dramatic hopelessness of his position, the impracticability of his lofty ideal, Werther commits suicide.

In Russia at the end of the 18th century, after the Pugachev uprising and revolutionary events in France, autocratic power passed to a sharp political reaction, and bureaucracy, honor, servility, and the pursuit of profit intensified in the capital's secular life. Then, in some circles of the conservative noble intelligentsia

there was a desire to get away from the moral decay of their environment into a simple, unspoiled, patriarchal estate life. This was accompanied by the transition from the cult of reason, reason (characteristic of the literature of classicism) to the cult of feelings, sensitive experiences and to the sentimental idealization of the writer's inner world, to admiring the natural life of the people and nature ("nature").

The sensitive experiences of Karamzin, Zhukovsky and other writers close to them in their views had their own ideological and cognitive significance. Idealizing patriarchal estate life, its moral purity, these writers began to find ideal properties in peasant life closely connected with it. They sought to see in the characters of the peasants not discontent and protest, but kindness and humility. This understanding and appraisal of the peasants is especially pronounced in the story of Karamzin "Poor Liza". The writer expresses in it a generalizing idea that "peasant women know how to love." Such a "discovery" of sublime, human feelings in simple, dependent people aroused affection and emotion in the sentimental writer. Karamzin for the first time made it clear to the noble society that the peasant is also a man. But, carried away by such an idea, he portrayed his character Lisa as an incredibly sensitive and even exalted girl who committed suicide because of unhappy love for the young nobleman Erast, who seduced her and left her.

The “discovery” then was the consciousness not only of the ability of the peasants for sensitive experiences, but also the ability of the author himself, a sentimentalist writer, to see the high in the low, to be emotionally touched by the simplicity and silence of patriarchal estate and peasant life and the nature associated with it. It was also important for the writer to enjoy this high moral enjoyment of his own affection, to develop heartfelt reflection and self-contemplation. This contributed to a refined depiction of mental life and was a great artistic achievement of the work of the Russian noble sentimentalists.

It should be noted that sentimental attitudes were then expressed not only in the works of writers who held conservative positions. If Karamzin and his followers, with their idealization of patriarchal relations, called for a peaceful life of the estate and the village, then Radishchev well understood the depth of the contradictions

between them. In his Journey from Petersburg to Moscow, he showed the terrible oppression of the serf peasantry by the landlords and officials. Even more so than Karamzin, he saw in a simple peasant a person capable of sublime experiences. Radishchev's book, imbued with deep heartfelt sympathy for the people, was aimed at protecting them from their oppressors. "I looked around me," wrote Radishchev, "my soul has become wounded by the suffering of humanity." The ideal of the writer was the complete emancipation of the peasantry.

Although the pathos of sentimentality was especially evident in the works of the second half of the 18th century, it does not follow that this kind of pathos did not exist in the literature of previous and subsequent eras. Sentimentality as pathos must be distinguished from sentimentalism as a literary movement. The German poet and playwright F. Schiller, in his article "On Naive and Sentimental Poetry", correctly pointed out that the pioneer of sentimental poetry was the Roman poet Horace - "a poet of a cultured and spoiled age", singing in opposition to him the "calm bliss" of patriarchal life. But, of course, the sentimental reflection itself was still very weak in his lyrics.

Sentimental tendencies often appeared in the literature of the 19th century. So, in some realistic works of Russian literature 40-60-ies of the XIX century. a sensitive attitude towards the life of the serf peasantry is expressed. For example, in Turgenev's Bezhin Meadow and Living Relics, Grigorovich's story Anton Goremyka, and some of Nekrasov's poems (Orina, the Soldier's Mother, Frost, Red Nose). There is a lot of sensitivity in the depiction of estate, patriarchal relations in L. Tolstoy's story "Childhood", and even more in the depiction of the life of a petty official Devushkin in Dostoevsky's story "Poor People". Sentimentality is found in many works of Soviet writers (V. Astafiev, K. Paustovsky, V. Rasputin, V. Belov).

ROMANTIC PAPHOS (ROMANCE)

Just as the tragedy of situations and experiences should be viewed in relation to drama, so romantic pathos should be viewed in relation to the sentimental - by similarity and, at the same time, by contrast.

The general properties of romance and sentimentality are conditioned

caught by the fact that their basis is a high level of development of the emotional self-awareness of the human personality, the reflectivity of her experiences. The educated, thinking strata of society of different peoples reached this level of emotional self-awareness historically late - in the era of the decay of the old feudal-noble society and the transition to bourgeois relations. A special rise of romantic pathos in life and literature occurs at the end of the 18th century. - after the heyday of sentimentality, during the period of revolutionary changes and upheavals in the social life of the advanced countries of Europe. The bourgeois revolution of 1789-1794 was of great importance. in France, which had a great influence on public consciousness, and hence on the literature of other countries. But in each country of that time there were also contradictions in social life, which gave rise to deep dissatisfaction and active reflective-emotional searches for lofty ideals, romantic moods.

What is the essential difference between sentimental and romantic pathos? Sentimentality is a reflection of affection, addressed to an obsolete, receding way of life with its simplicity and moral integrity of relationships and experiences. Romance is a reflective spiritual enthusiasm addressed to this or that sublime "supra-personal" ideal and its incarnations.

The sphere of romance, according to Belinsky, who saw in it the pathos of creativity, is “the whole inner, soulful life of a person, that mysterious soil of the soul and heart, from which all indefinite aspirations for the best and the sublime rise, trying to find satisfaction in the ideals created by fantasy "(26, 145-146). It is rightly indicated here that "striving for the best and the sublime" then acquire a romantic mood when they are not rational, but proceed from the emotional depths of a person's mental life; therefore, the most pathetic, but rational works of the poets of classicism were devoid of romance. Lomonosov wrote, for example: "Delight the sudden mind captivated ... Leads to the top of a high mountain ..." In his experiences, the "delight of the mind", lofty reflections and reasoning, and not emotional-reflective enthusiasm, were of decisive importance.

Belinsky saw another most important aspect of romance in the fact that it arises from "striving" for lofty ideals, and the content of such ideals determines the character of romantic pathos itself. Therefore, romance is different in the works of different writers, even within the same national literature.

In Russian literature, for example, the first romantics were such dissimilar poets as Zhukovsky, Pushkin, and the Decembrist poets. Zhukovsky began his work as a sentimentalist, striving "to be a friend of peaceful villages, to love the beauties of nature" and conveyed in the lyrics the mood of despondency, melancholy, disappointment, melancholy. The transition to romance in his work was outlined when sentimental-melancholic experiences were complicated for him by a tense expectation of a meeting with a deceased beloved in another world, an enthusiastic and joyful presentiment of such a meeting, an agonizingly passionate desire for her. In a poetic message "To Nina" (1808), he wrote:

In these moods one can clearly see their connection with the sentimental outlook of the poet; the dominant was the romantically enthusiastic dream, drawing into the mysteriously indefinite, but truly beautiful world of eternity. Motives of the miraculous, the fantastic in the lyrics and ballads of Zhukovsky 1808-1827 revealed his romance - the cult of high, pure, morally uplifting love, faith in the possibility of mysterious communication with the other world, an enthusiastic sense of his spiritual involvement in this world.

The romance of young Pushkin was completely different. In 1818 he wrote To Chaadaev:

While we are burning with freedom, Comrade, believe: she will rise,

While hearts are alive for honor, a star of captivating happiness,

My friend, we will devote to our homeland Russia will rise from sleep,

Souls are beautiful impulses! And on the wreckage of autocracy

They will write our names!

Here the poet dreams not of a mysteriously miraculous communion with the other world, but of liberation from autocratic power. The rise of romantic self-awareness is caused by the striving for the ideal of civil freedom. Exercise

the pursuit of such an ideal was possible only in a selfless struggle, the heroic pathos of which manifested itself with great force in the works of Ryleev and Kuchelbecker.

Later, during the period of southern exile, Pushkin began to seek freedom in the simple warlike life of the mountaineers, in the wandering life of a gypsy camp. There he saw the embodiment of real "freedom" and depicted this life with a romantic emotional uplift. The poet's ideals changed, and the content of his romance also changed - while retaining its civic character, it lost its direct political sound, but was complicated by new ideological motives.

Thus, the difference in ideals determined the difference between the moral and religious romance of Zhukovsky and the political and civic romance of Pushkin.

In other national literatures, differences in romantic pathos also stemmed from the characteristics of the ideals of certain writers. In England, this was the difference between the romantic aspirations of the conservative poets of the "lake school" - Coleridge and Wordsworth, who sought their ideals in the patriarchal past, and the romantic pathos of poets such as Byron and Shelley, who expressed motives of public protest and the liberation struggle in lyrics and poems. The initiator of romantic creativity in France was Chateaubriand, who in his creative imagination was moving away from revolutionary modernity to the life of semi-savage tribes, untouched by civilization; later, Hugo expressed in his lyrics and drama romantic experiences associated with the struggle of the democratic masses against the remnants of feudal relations. And in Germany, writers such as Novalis, Hölderlin, Hoffmann were very different from each other in the problematic and pathos of their romantic work.

The flourishing of romance in the artistic creativity of the late 18th and first third of the 19th centuries. allowed the literary community and criticism of the advanced countries of Europe to outline the very concept of romanticism and realize its historical boundaries. But romance in literature arose in other eras, long before the concept of it appeared.

Even poets and playwrights of the Renaissance expressed romantic experiences. So, Petrarch in sonnets dedicated to Laura, Cervantes in Don Quixote, Shakespeare in Romeo and Juliet and other plays discovered the ability of an individual, overcoming the norms of prevailing morality, to rise in his emotional world to strive for a “supra-personal” lofty ideal. From to

they highly appreciated the very immediate emotional impulse of the individual to free himself from moral regulation from the outside, from the traditions of the old society.

Romance continued to develop in literature even after the i direction of romanticism lost its significance. Many works of Russian critical realism are characterized, to one degree or another, by a romantic orientation. Such is, for example, Turgenev's novel "A Noble Nest" or those chapters of War and Peace by L. Tolstoy, which depict the happy life of the young Rostovs in Otradnoye and Moscow, or such stories by Korolenko as So-Kolinets, Artist Alymov ". In these works, romantic experiences belong either to the heroes themselves or to the narrator, and the writers ideologically affirm the romance of the characters, develop and enhance it in their depiction.

Later, romantic pathos became a natural aspect of the content of the literature of socialist realism. It permeates "The Defeat" and "Young Guard" by A. Fadeev, lyrics by V. Mayakovsky and V. Lugovsky, many works dedicated to the Patriotic War, the story of Ch. Aitmatov.

So, romance is an enthusiastic state of mind, caused by the desire for a lofty ideal and can be objectified in those aspects and phenomena of life that are associated with the consciousness of this ideal.

These are some of the types of pathos found in literature. All of them are created by the contradictions of social characters, which the writers interpret on the basis of their ideological positions. These positions embody the partisanship of the writers' social thinking and are conditioned by the class nature of their worldview.

At the same time, in life and in literature, there is false romance. This is romantic posturing, most often imitative and only pretending to truly emotional depth. Lermontov showed such a "romantic" in Grushnitskoch, Goncharov - in Alexander Aduyev, Fadeev - in Mechik. A writer can also take a false romantic position in his work.

This category was first developed quite fully by Aristotle, who, along with pathos, highlighted the elements of rhetoric: ethos and logos. Delving deeper into the study of the interpretation of Aristotle, we will see that pathos is a kind of technique that conveys the aesthetics of the story through the tragedy of the hero, his suffering; the response emotions of the audience are not ignored either. Through pathos, the author or orator evokes the necessary feelings in the audience, without fully revealing their own ...

Later, Hegel expanded the concept of pathos, in addition to the tragic, it began to include solemn sublime aesthetics. Paphos is divided into heroic, tragic, satirical, sentimental and romantic. In their creations, it is used by the authors of epics, odes, tragedies. In the modern sense, this term denotes the bombast and pretentiousness of feelings, the transmission of not all cases of sincere emotions only for the sake of a specific impact on the territory.

Types of pathos

The heroic pathos shows the greatness of a person going to a feat in the name of the common good. At the same time, the hero's action is impossible without personal risk, there is always the possibility of significant loss of any essential values \u200b\u200b- not excluding life itself. Another main condition for the manifestation of heroic pathos is the freedom of will and initiative of a person: forced actions cannot be attributed to heroic ones. The desire to remake a seemingly unjust world or the desire to defend a world close to the ideal is the emotional basis of heroics.

Tragic pathos in ancient Greece was associated with the domination of the will of the gods over the lives of people or with the recognition of the guilt of tragic heroes who violated the supreme law and paid for it. Tragic pathos is always associated with the awareness of irreparable loss, a person loses some important values \u200b\u200b- life, social, national or personal freedom, personal happiness, cultural values, etc. The insolubility of the conflict, inherent in this type of pathos, is always associated with sacrifices, the death of humanistic goals. This nature of the conflict is present, for example, in "Little Tragedies" by A.S. Pushkin.

The satirical pathos can be determined by the indignant, mocking denial of any aspect of public life. Here, characters and interpersonal relationships are mockingly interpreted and portrayed accordingly. It is laughter in the form of "penetrating" and deepening that reflects the main property of satire. The satirical pathos in the work can show the mockery and irony of the character, for example, in relation to high-ranking people who attach great importance to mere trifles. This kind of pathos is found in the works of N.V. Gogol, A.S. Griboyedova, M.A. Bulgakov, etc.

Sentimental pathos. Almost every person periodically shows sentimentality - most people find it difficult to indifferently walk past a suffering person or animal. As an example, consider the story of JV Goethe "The Sorrows of Young Werther". It shows the experiences of a young man who is disappointed by the empty and vain life of society. Werther accepts a simple rural life, admires nature, helps the poor. Hopelessly in love with a married Lotte, he commits suicide.

Romantic pathos reflects the delight associated with the pursuit of a lofty ideal. It is common for a romantic hero to be tragic, not to accept reality, to be at odds with himself, he is both a rebel and a victim at the same time. Romantic heroes are usually spiritually rich in nature, but it is not possible for them to fully express themselves - life sets its boundaries. Such heroes contrast the surrounding world with a higher, ideal world, which is created thanks to the author's creative imagination.

Romantic pathos is similar to heroic in that in both types of pathos, heroes strive for lofty ideals. However, heroism is a sphere of active action, while romance reflects emotional experiences and aspirations that do not turn into action.

Together with the article "What is pathos?" read:

Finally, the last element entering the ideological world of the work is pathos, which can be defined as the leading emotional tone of the work, its emotional mood.

A synonym for the term "pathos" is the expression "emotional-value orientation." To analyze the pathos in a work of art means to establish its typological variety, the type of emotional-value orientation, attitude towards the world and the person in the world. We will now turn to an examination of these typological varieties of pathos.

Epic-dramatic pathos is a deep and undeniable acceptance of the world as a whole and of oneself in it, which is the essence of the epic worldview. At the same time, this is not a thoughtless acceptance of a cloudless harmonious world: being is recognized in its original and unconditional conflict (drama), but this conflict itself is perceived as a necessary and just side of the world, for conflicts arise and are resolved, they ensure the very existence and dialectical development of being ...

Epic-dramatic pathos is the maximum trust in the objective world in all its real versatility and contradictions. Note that this type of pathos is rarely presented in literature, even less often it appears in its pure form.

The Iliad and Odyssey of Homer, Rabelais' novel Gargantua and Pantagruel, Shakespeare's play The Tempest, Pushkin's poem “Am I wandering along noisy streets ...” can be named as works based in general on the epic-dramatic pathos of the works. novel-epic by Tolstoy "War and Peace", Tvardovsky's poem "Vasily Terkin".

The objective basis of the pathos of heroism is the struggle of individuals or collectives for the implementation and protection of ideals that are necessarily perceived as lofty.

In this case, the actions of people are certainly associated with personal risk, personal danger, are associated with the real possibility of a person losing some essential values \u200b\u200b- right down to life itself. One more condition for the manifestation of the heroic in reality is the free will and initiative of man: forced actions, as Hegel pointed out, cannot be heroic.

Ideological and emotional comprehension of the objectively heroic by the writer leads to the emergence of the pathos of heroism. "Heroic pathos in literature<...> affirms the greatness of the feat of an individual or a whole collective, its value and necessity for the development of a nation, people, humanity. " The desire to remake the world, the structure of which seems to be unfair, or the desire to defend the ideal world (as well as close to the ideal and seeming as such) - this is the emotional basis of heroics.

In literature, it is easy to find works that are wholly or mainly based on heroic pathos, and specific situations, as well as the lofty ideals of heroism, can be very different. We meet heroics in The Song of Roland and in The Lay of Igor's Campaign, in Gogol's Taras Bulba and in Voinich's Gadfly, in Gorky's novel Mother, in Sholokhov's stories and many other works.

With heroism as pathos based on the sublime, other types of pathos that have a sublime character come into contact - first of all, it is tragedy and romance. Romance is related to heroism by striving for a lofty ideal.

But if heroics is a sphere of active action, then romance is an area of \u200b\u200bemotional experience and aspiration that does not turn into action. The objective basis of romance is such situations in personal and social life, when the realization of the lofty ideal is either impossible in principle, or impracticable at a given historical moment.

However, on such an objective basis, in principle, not only the pathos of romance can arise, but also tragedy, and irony, and satire, so that the decisive moment in romance is still the subjective moment, the moment of experiencing an unrecoverable gap between dream and reality.

One of the private (and very common) cases of romance is the dream of the heroic, the orientation towards the heroic ideal in the absence of the possibility of translating it into reality.

This kind of romance is characteristic, for example, of young people in “calm” periods of history: young men and women often think that they are “late to be born” in order to participate in revolutions and wars - an example of this type of romance is the early work of V. Vysotsky: “.. .And in basements and semi-basements // The kids wanted under the tanks // They didn't even get a bullet ... "

However, the realm of romance is broader than this craving for heroism. This emotional value orientation places all values \u200b\u200bin the area of \u200b\u200bthe fundamentally unattainable.

The natural world of romance is a dream, a fantasy, a dream, therefore romantic works are so often turned either to the past (Borodino and Song about the merchant Kalashnikov by Lermontov, Tsar Fyodor Ioannovich by AK Tolstoy, Shulamith by Kuprin), or to frank exoticism (southern poems by Pushkin, Mtsyri by Lermontov, Giraffe by Gumilyov), or to something fundamentally non-existent (The Double by A. Pogorelsky, The Demon by Lermontov, Aelita by AN Tolstoy).

In the history of literature, many works are marked by the pathos of romance. Romance should not be confused with romanticism as a literary movement in the late 18th and early 19th centuries; it is found in a variety of historical epochs, as already pointed out by Belinsky.

Obviously, the romantic pathos originated in ancient lyrics; of the works closer to us, we point out "Evenings on a Farm near Dikanka" by Gogol, "Mtsyri" by Lermontov, "First Love" by Turgenev, "Old Woman Izergil" by Gorky, the early work of Blok and Mayakovsky.

The pathos of romance can appear in literature and in combination with other types of pathos, in particular, with irony (Blok), heroism ("Good!" By Mayakovsky), satire (Nekrasov).

The pathos of tragedy is an awareness of the loss, and the loss of irreparable, of some important life values \u200b\u200b- human life, social, national or personal freedom, the possibility of personal happiness, cultural values, etc.

Literary critics and aesthetics have long considered the insoluble nature of this or that life conflict to be the objective basis of the tragic. In principle, this is true, but not entirely accurate, because the insolubility of a conflict is, strictly speaking, a conditional and not necessarily tragic thing.

The first condition of the tragic is the regularity of this conflict, such a situation when it is impossible to put up with its lack of resolution. Secondly, by the insolubility of a conflict, we mean the impossibility of its successful resolution - it is certainly associated with victims, with the death of certain indisputable humanistic values. This, for example, is the nature of the conflict in Pushkin's Little Tragedies, Ostrovsky's The Thunderstorm, Bulgakov's White Guard, Tvardovsky's poems “I was killed near Rzhev ...”, “I know, no fault of mine ...”, etc. P.

A tragic situation in life can also arise by chance, as a result of an unfavorable combination of circumstances, but such situations are not very interesting to literature. She is more characteristic of an interest in the tragic law arising from the essence of characters and positions.

The most fruitful for art is such a tragic conflict when insoluble contradictions are in the soul of the hero, when the hero is in a situation of free choice between two equally necessary, but mutually exclusive values.

In this case, the tragic acquires maximum depth, on such a tragedy are Shakespeare's Hamlet, Lermontov's Hero of Our Time, Dostoevsky's Crime and Punishment, Sholokhov's Quiet Don, Camus's Fall, Faulkner's The Defiler of Ashes and many others works.

In sentimentality - another type of pathos - we, as in romance, observe the predominance of the subjective over the objective. Sentimentality literally translated from French means sensitivity; it is one of the first manifestations of humanism, but very peculiar.

In some situations, almost every person happens to be sentimental - so, most normal people cannot indifferently pass by the suffering of a child, a helpless person or even an animal.

Sentimentality as the ability to “feel sorry” quite often combines subject and object (a person feels sorry for himself; this feeling, apparently, is familiar to everyone from childhood and found an ideal artistic embodiment in Tolstoy's Childhood).

But even if sentimental pity is directed at the phenomena of the surrounding world, a person who reacts to it always remains in the center - a touching, compassionate person. At the same time, sympathy for another in sentimentality is fundamentally inactive, it acts as a kind of psychological substitute for real help (such is, for example, the artistically expressed sympathy for the peasant in the works of Radishchev and Nekrasov).

In its developed form, sentimentality appears in literature in the middle of the 18th century, giving the name to the literary direction of sentimentalism. The pathos of sentimentality often played a dominant role in the works of Richardson, Russo, Karamzin, Radishchev, and partly Goethe and Stern.

In the further development of literature, we also meet, albeit infrequently, with the pathos of sentimentality, for example, in "Old World Landowners" and "Overcoat" by Gogol, some stories from "Notes of a Hunter" by Turgenev ("Singers", "Bezhin Meadow"), in his the same story "Mumu", in the works of Dickens, Dostoevsky ("The Humiliated and the Insulted", "Poor People"), Nekrasov.

Moving on to the consideration of the following typological varieties of pathos - humor and satire - we note that they are based on the common basis of the comic. Literary scholars and aesthetics have dealt with the problem of defining the comic and its essence extremely much, noting mainly that the comic is based on the internal contradictions of an object or phenomenon.

The essence of the comic conflict was perhaps most accurately identified by N.G. Chernyshevsky: "inner emptiness and insignificance, hiding behind the exterior, which has a claim to content and real meaning."

More broadly, the objective basis of the comic can be defined as a contradiction between ideal and reality, norm and reality. It should only be noted that not always and not necessarily the subjective interpretation of such a contradiction will occur in a comic manner.

A satirical image appears in a work in the case when the object of satire is perceived by the author as irreconcilably opposed to his ideal, in an antagonistic relationship with him. F. Schiller wrote that "in satire, reality, as a kind of imperfection, is opposed to the ideal as the highest reality."

Satire is aimed at those phenomena that actively interfere with the establishment or existence of the ideal, and sometimes are directly dangerous for its existence. Satirical pathos has been known in literature since ancient times (for example, ridiculing the enemy in folk tales and songs, satirical tales, etc.), however, in its developed form, satire is called to life primarily by social struggle, therefore we find widespread satirical pathos in literature antiquity. Renaissance and Enlightenment; such is the satire of Russian revolutionary democrats, satire in Russian literature of the 20th century.

Sometimes the object of satire turns out to be so dangerous for the existence of the ideal, and its activity is so dramatic and even tragic in its consequences that its comprehension no longer causes laughter - such a situation develops, for example, in the novel by Saltykov-Shchedrin "Lord Golovlevs".

At the same time, the connection between satire and the comic is broken, therefore such a denying pathos, not associated with ridicule, should obviously be considered a special, independent type of ideological and emotional attitude to life, denoting this type with the term "invective".

We find such a solution, in particular, in the Literary Encyclopedic Dictionary: "There is, however, not a comic satire inspired by indignation alone (see Invective)." Such a prominent specialist in this field as E. Ya. Spoke of the need to emphasize the unsatirical, but denying attitude to reality. Elsberg.

For example, Lermontov's poem "Farewell, unwashed Russia ..." possesses the pathos of invective. It expresses a sharply negative attitude towards the autocratic-police state, but there is no ridicule, comic, or expectation of laughter. The work does not use a single element of satirical poetics proper, designed to create a comic effect: there is no hyperbolism, no grotesque, no ridiculous, illogical situations and speech structures.

In form and content, this is a short lyrical monologue, expressing a very serious feeling of the poet - a feeling of hatred for "the land of slaves, the land of masters." Pathos of the same type is also characteristic of Lermontov's poem "To the death of a poet" (or rather, its second part), many "satyrs" of Horace, publicistic accusations in "Journey from Petersburg to Moscow" by Radishchev, A. Platonov's story "Inanimate enemy", Simonov “If your home is dear to you ...” (which, by the way, in the first edition of 1942 - was called “Kill him!”) And many other works.

Esin A.B. The principles and techniques of the analysis of a literary work. - M., 1998.

Paphos (Greek) - suffering, passion, excitement, inspiration. According to Aristotle, death or other tragic event that occurs with the hero of the work, evokes compassion or fear in the viewer, which are then resolved in a cathartic experience. Suffering, to which the own actions of a person led by strong passion have led, the resolution of passion in suffering.

In modern literary criticism, pathos is defined as the leading emotional tone of a work, its emotional mood.

Paphos can be heroic, dramatic, tragic, satirical, romantic and sentimental.

HEROIC PAPHOS - reflects the greatness of a person who performs a feat in the name of a common cause. At the same time, the actions of the heroes must certainly be associated with personal risk, personal danger, are associated with a real possibility of a person losing some essential values \u200b\u200b- right down to life itself. Another condition for the manifestation of the heroic is the free will and initiative of a person: forced actions, as Hegel pointed out, cannot be heroic. The desire to remake the world, the structure of which seems unjust, or the desire to defend the ideal world (as well as close to the ideal and seemingly such) - this is the emotional basis of heroics. Examples: in ancient Greek myths, these are the images of heroes, or, as they were called in Greece, heroes who perform unprecedented feats for the benefit of their people. This is Hercules with his twelve exploits, or Perseus, who cut off the head of the gorgon Medusa. In Homer's Iliad - Achilles, Patroclus, Hector, who became famous in the battles of Troy. In later works of folklore - historical songs, epics, heroic tales, epics, military tales - in the center is a mighty, just hero-warrior, protecting his people from foreign invaders.

DRAMATIC PAPHOS - the author depicts the sufferings of his characters in the drama of their situation, experiences, struggle with a heavy emotional anguish and heartfelt sympathy. This drama is manifested in experiences, conflicts of private life, in the disorder of personal fate, ideological "wandering". The author can also condemn his characters, see in their suffering a just retribution for the falsity of aspirations that led to the drama of the situation. Often, the impact of external circumstances generates in the consciousness of the character an internal contradiction, a struggle with himself. Then the drama deepens to tragedy. An example is Bulgakov's Run.

TRAGIC PAPHOS - among the ancient Greeks it was associated with the fact that the will of the gods dominates the life of people, the fateful predetermination of fate, in whose power the whole life of people, or with the concept of guilt of tragic heroes who violated some higher law and paid for it. (for example, "Oedipus" by Sophocles). The pathos of tragedy is an awareness of the loss, and the loss of irreparable, of some important life values \u200b\u200b- human life, social, national or personal freedom, the possibility of personal happiness, cultural values, etc. The first condition of the tragic is the regularity of this conflict, such a situation when it is impossible to put up with its lack of resolution. Secondly, the insolubility of the conflict means the non-possibility of its successful resolution - it is certainly associated with victims, with the death of certain indisputable humanistic values. This, for example, is the nature of the conflict in Pushkin's Little Tragedies, Ostrovsky's The Thunderstorm, Bulgakov's White Guard.

If heroic pathos is always the ideological assertion of the characters depicted, then the dramatic and tragic types of pathos can contain both their approval and their denial. The satirical portrayal of characters always carries a condemning ideological orientation.

SATIRIC PAPHOS - an indignant, mocking denial of certain aspects of public life. Human characters and relationships become the subject of derisive comprehension and the corresponding image. Satirical pathos arises in the process of generalizing emotional comprehension of the comic discrepancy between the real emptiness of the characters' existence and subjective claims to significance. For example, the feigned, laudatory tone of Gogol's image of the capital's secular society, expresses his mocking, ironic attitude towards high-ranking people who attach great importance to all sorts of trifles. It is laughter "penetrating", deepening the subject, that is an inherent property of satire. Authors using satirical pathos in their works: Gogol, Griboyedov, Saltykov-Shedrin, Ilf and Petrov, Bulgakov.

SENTIMENTAL PAPHOS. Sentimentality literally translated from French means sensitivity. In some situations, almost every person happens to be sentimental - for example, most normal people cannot indifferently pass by the suffering of a child, a helpless person or even an animal. But even if sentimental pity is directed at the phenomena of the surrounding world, a person who reacts to it always remains in the center - a touching, compassionate person. At the same time, sympathy for another in sentimentality is fundamentally inactive, it acts as a kind of psychological substitute for real help (such is, for example, the artistically expressed sympathy for the peasant in the works of Radishchev and Nekrasov). This is emotional tenderness, caused by the awareness of moral merits in the characters of people who are socially humiliated or associated with an immoral privileged environment. One of the most characteristic sentimental works is Goethe's story The Sorrows of Young Werther. Her pathos is created by the image of the experiences of a young man, disillusioned with the empty and vain life of the urban noble-bureaucratic society. Werther seeks satisfaction in a simple rural life, in a sensitive admiration for nature, in helping the poor. His touching love for Lotte is hopeless - Lotte is married. And because of the dramatic hopelessness of his position, the impracticability of his lofty ideal, Werther commits suicide. Another example: "Mu-mu" Turgenev.

ROMANTIC PAPHOS - the rise of romantic self-awareness is caused by striving for the ideal of civil freedom. This is an ecstatic state of mind, caused by the pursuit of a lofty ideal. The romantic hero is always tragic, he does not accept reality, is at odds with himself, he is a rebel and a victim. Romantic heroes are spiritually rich natures who cannot fully express themselves, because life sets boundaries for them, unfairly expels them from society. For romanticism, a violent manifestation of feelings is characteristic. Conflict with the surrounding world and complete rejection of it, opposing it to a higher, ideal world created by the artist's creative imagination is the basis of the romantic worldview. For example, early Gorky denied the herolessness of the life around him, dreamed of strong, strong-willed natures, of people-fighters. In contrast to the gray, philistine existence, the world of his stories is bright and exotic. The action takes place in an unusual setting, surrounded by romantic elements. In the heroes of the works there is more symbolic than typical. "Song of the Falcon", "Song of the Petrel", "Danko".

Romance is related to heroism by striving for a lofty ideal. But if heroics is a sphere of active action, then romance is an area of \u200b\u200bemotional experience and aspiration that does not turn into action. The objective basis of romance is such situations in personal and social life, when the realization of the lofty ideal is either impossible in principle, or impracticable at a given historical moment. However, on such an objective basis, in principle, not only the pathos of romance can arise, but also tragedy, and irony, and satire, so that the decisive moment in romance is still the subjective moment, the moment of experiencing an unrecoverable gap between dream and reality. The natural world of romance is a dream, a fantasy, a daydream, which is why romantic works are so often directed either to the past (Borodino by Lermontov) or to something that does not exist in principle (Aelita by AN Tolstoy).

What is the difference between sentimental and romantic pathos? Sentimentality is a tenderness addressed to an obsolete, receding way of life with its simplicity and moral integrity of relationships and experiences. Romance is an enthusiasm for this or that "supra-personal" ideal and its incarnations.

PAPHOS IN MASSKULTURE. In epic cinema, pathos is a vital element. Without him, the viewer will be purple, the Epic Hero was killed, or he overcame. The popcorn eater needs to get goosebumps from the severity and epic mesilov on the screen. For this, Pretentious Moments serve: sublime Monologues, In Which Each Word Should Be Written With A Capital Letter, accompanied by disruptive symphonic music. And if the hero dies, then without vomiting blood and numbing, he will utter the Farewell Monologue, close his eyes and throw his head back abruptly, as if his power was pulled out. Pompous moments are necessarily accompanied by pretentious phrases: "Isle bi bek!", "Come and take!"; “Our arrows will cover the sun from you - We will fight in the shadows!”; "Whoever comes to us with a sword will perish by the sword!" etc.

Reviews

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And when this arises, the literary critic displays an indignant, mocking denial of the Hero ...
...

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