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Roman and Byzantine mosaics an experience of comparative analysis. "Byzantine mosaic". Great Imperial Palace in Constantinople. V in

27.09.2020

These mosaics have different purposes, different technologies, and they evoke completely different feelings. In the first case, we are transferred to the divine world, in the second we are left to admire the mosaics in the earthly world.

Mosaic. Ravenna. Roman mosaic.


Byzantine mosaic. The most ancient surviving examples of Byzantine mosaics date back to the 3rd-4th centuries, and two periods of prosperity fall on the 6th-7th centuries (golden age) and the 9th-14th (after iconoclasm - the Macedonian revival, the conservatism of the Komnenos and the Paleologian Renaissance). The most famous Byzantine mosaics are the Ravenna mosaics and the images of Hagia Sophia (Constantinople).
Distinctive features:
1. Purpose: to move the beholder from the earthly world to the divine (due to technology, radiant color, haze, gold).
2. Plots: monumental canvases based on biblical plots, grandiose in design and implementation. Christian stories have become the central theme of mosaics, and the pursuit of maximum impression of the image has become the driving force behind the improvement of mosaic laying techniques and the development of new colors and compositions of smalt.

3. The material is, first of all, smalt mosaic (various metals (gold, copper, mercury) were added to the raw glass mass in different proportions and they learned how to make several hundred different smalt colors). Smalt colors were bright, clean, transparent, shining, divine. This is a hint of a non-earthly, divine world. Sunlight, falling on smalt, comes to life and is colored by its color.

It was the Byzantines who developed the technology for the production of smalt.
4. Technology: the elements were laid at different angles to the wall and had an uneven surface, this allowed the light (daylight and candles) to be reflected in colored smalt and give a haze over the mosaic that was felt by the body. The mosaics were laid out using the direct set method, and each element in the installation was distinguished by its unique surface and its position relative to other elements and the base. A single and like a living golden field was created, flickering both in natural light and in candlelight. The uniqueness of the play of shades of color and reflections of light on a gold background created the effect of the movement of the whole picture, a person was transferred to the divine world.
5. The shape of the mosaic elements - mainly cubes - it was the compositions of neatly laid out small and more or less equal in size cubes that made the Byzantine mosaics famous.

6. Functions: visual tasks came to the fore (the main element of the artistic decoration of cathedrals, tombs, basilicas).
7. A feature of Byzantine mosaics in temples was the use of an amazing gold background. Gold is divine light.

8. Compulsory for the Byzantine craftsmen became the technical method of making the contours of bodies, objects, objects. The contour was laid out in one row of cubes and elements from the side of the figure or object, and also in one row - from the background. The smooth line of these contours made the images clear against the shimmering background.


XII century. Byzantine mosaic in the conch of the apse of the cathedral in Cefal, Sicily. Christ Pantokrator
Mosaics of Ravenna.
Mausoleum of Galla Placidia.


"Garden of Eden" - mosaic on the ceiling


Cross and starry sky - mosaic in the dome. This mosaic demonstrates the triumph of Christ over death, His absolute power over the created world.


Mosaic "Christ - the Good Shepherd". The image of Jesus is not at all canonical.


Deer drinking from the spring. The plot of the mosaic is inspired by the verses of Psalm 41: "As a deer desires for streams of water, so my soul desires for You, O God!" ...

Mosaics in the Church of San Vitale
The coloring is divine, the colors are truly luminous.

Emperor Justinian.

Empress Theodora with her retinue. 6 c. in the Church of San Vitale in Ravenna. 526-547


Church of San Apolinare.

And this is a procession of martyrs from one of the walls in the Church of San Apolinar in Ravenna.

Ravenna. Mosaic in the apse of San Apollinare

Ravenna. Mosaic in the Church of Sant Apollinare Nuovo of St. Apollinarius of Ravenna

Mosaic depicting the city and port in Klassa

Barbarously Dressed Magi Bringing Gifts to Christ, detail

Poem Byzantine Mosaics

In the shimmering smalt of oriental mosaics,

Without the joys of earthly existence

A harsh age has come. And God's face

I became a canon, looking out of conch * apses.

The regulations keep the life stable,

But the luxury of colors surpasses Rome.

The artist is a worm before painting the wall,

Without a name, even though the temple was created by him.

Beneath the lush vault, good things soar,

The saints stand in shining vestments,

As faith guards at royal places ** -

A line of strict guard of soldiers.

In the Europe of the spirit, life was freer

In bloom of frescoes of gloomy churches.

20.05.2011 Vladimir Gogolitsin

* Koncha - half-domed roof of the apse inside the church.

** In early Romanesque Byzantine temples in the main hall

usually the column had a place for the head of state.

ROMAN mosaic

The oldest mosaic examples of Roman styling found during archaeological excavations date back to the 4th century BC. And during the heyday of the Roman Empire, mosaic became the most common way of interior decoration, both for palaces, public baths, and private atriums.

Distinctive features:
1. Purpose: to entertain the beholder (beauty) and functionality, durability.

2. Three-dimensional mosaics with three-dimensional shapes.
3. Material: priority is given to marble and natural stones. The color of the stones is dull, muted, not clear, it does not give the glow inherent in Byzantine mosaics.
4. Plots - everyday, earthly, real (fish, animals, people, birds, wreaths of grape leaves and hunting scenes with detailed images of animals, mythological characters and heroic campaigns, love stories and genre scenes from everyday life, sea travel and military battles , theatrical masks and dance steps. The choice of the subject for a particular mosaic was determined either by the customer (sometimes the mosaic even captured a portrait of the owner of the house, for example), or by the purpose of the building).
5. Technology: the elements were laid parallel to the wall one after the other in a straight line. The surface of the elements was smooth. Feelings of the earth.

6. Shape: the background elements of Roman mosaics are usually light and rather large, often the background is formed by monochromatic stones with chaotic stacking in no particular order. Elements of pictures and shapes are smaller, but often still large for the selected picture. The variety of colors often depends on the capabilities of the master in a particular settlement or, apparently, the financial capabilities of the customers. While the mosaics of large palaces sometimes amaze with the sophistication of colors, small compositions seem to be limited in the choice of colors.

7. Roman mosaics are characterized by ease of perception and at the same time the impression of luxury and wealth. In contrast to the heartfelt and monumental images of Byzantine mosaics, which will be formed later, Roman mosaics are more ordinary and, at the same time, elegantly decorative, festive.


Fist fighters. Ancient roman mosaic

On the banks of the Nile. Ancient roman mosaic

Fight of Gladiators.


Ancient Roman mosaic on the wall at the Bardo Museum


Museum of Ancient Roman Mosaics in Tunisia

Sources
photo http://medieviste.livejournal.com/623641.html?view\u003d4125721#t4125721
http://humus.livejournal.com/1616137.html?view\u003d24140297#t24140297
http://mirandalina.livejournal.com/264857.html
the Internet
Lecture text of L.M. Popov, Internet

Florentine, Roman, Venetian, Byzantine mosaics - these names of techniques caress the ear, and the images associated with those highly artistic objects that were created by the masters of the past have been eye-catching for millennia. Each school is unique, but all the artists laid the drawing, assembled from various materials (smalt, stones, ceramic tiles, wood veneer, etc.) on the prepared surface.

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First experiences

The history of mosaics dates back to the time of the Sumerian kingdom. The oldest mosaic was assembled from pieces of baked clay. Unfired clay was used as a basis.


The art of ancient Egyptian mosaics is a variety of materials (semiprecious and precious stones, ivory and valuable species of trees) and areas of application - furniture, household items, clothing of the pharaohs. The famous throne of Tutankhamun is also inlaid with mosaic elements.

Byzantium

The most ancient mosaic of Byzantium dates from the 3rd-4th centuries. AD The golden age of this technology falls on the VI-VII and IX-XIV centuries. AD Considering the high cost of materials and work, the main customer of the Byzantine mosaics was the Catholic Church. Magnificent ancient mosaics have been preserved in the temples of Italy (in Ravenna, Montreal, Cefalu) and Turkey (in the Hagia Sophia in Istanbul). The main motives are biblical stories.

Byzantine mosaic is a standard, it is characterized by high artistic skill. The images are accurate, preference is given to large canvases, the effect of scale is taken into account: the distance of the viewer, his location. A distinctive feature of the picture is the presence of a contour for each depicted object. The purpose of the technique is to visually highlight the element on a general, often golden, background when viewed from a long distance.

Mosaic "Christ Pantokrator". Cathedral of the Diocese of Cefalu (Italy, Sicily). 1145-1148


The ancient mosaic created by Byzantine artists is distinguished by the observance of proportions, especially when depicting the human body, even in dynamics. The drawing is created three-dimensional, but the effect is leveled by the presence of the outline.

The craftsmen used smalt in their work - colored glass. The technology is based on the addition of metal oxides to the glass, giving the tiles the desired color. In the workshops, they received up to several hundred different shades. The material for mosaics in Byzantium was very expensive. To create the panel, they resorted to smalt with the addition of gold leaf, mixed with copper and mercury. The technology is characterized by the density of the arrangement of the plates (small squares, less often of a different shape) and the use of a direct set when laying them. The finished canvas has an uneven surface and a characteristic gloss.

Florence


The Florentine mosaic Pietra Dura (from Italian - "ornamental stone") is a unique technique, the most complex of the existing ones. This is the oldest art based on working with stone plates.

Florentine mosaic was especially popular in the 16th-19th centuries. At the end of the XVI century. Craftsmen from Milan were invited to the city, where the creation of stone products flourished at that time. The patrons of the masters were members of the Medici family, who created the first workshops and subsequently became the main customers.

Features of the direction:

  • The work used semi-precious stones - tiger's eye, amethyst, malachite, lapis lazuli, hematite, jasper, marble, aventurine, rock crystal, agate, chalcedony;
  • The design of the drawing was created taking into account the peculiarities of the texture and natural pattern of the stones;
  • The shape of the tiles was not limited to the classic rectangle;
  • The plates were stacked so tightly to each other so that there was no gap;
  • The technique was used to decorate walls, furniture items (tables, wardrobes), caskets, chessboards;
  • Filigree performance ("stone picture"), complexity and realism of the composition. Masters created marinas, still lifes, landscapes, allegorical scenes.

Mosaic made in Florentine technique on the doors of a wooden cabinet, of 20,000 colored stones (jasper, lapis lazuli, marble, amazonite and others). Peterhof Lapidary Factory. 80-90s XIX century.


Florentine mosaic appeared in Russia in the middle of the 18th century. Russian masters easily mastered the technique, making a worthy competitor to the Italians. In the USSR, Florentine mosaics were used to decorate metro stations, although a priori the technique was used to create small canvases.

Rome

The ancient mosaics of Rome became the basis for future generations of craftsmen. But at the same time, Roman mosaic as an art, as a technology, was borrowed from the Greeks. The work uses pieces of smalt or small stone - mainly marble and other natural stones - in the form of a square or rectangle. Traditionally, Roman mosaics have been used to decorate the walls and floors of rooms (both public and private).

The oldest mosaic dates back to the 2nd century. BC. and found on the Greek island of Delos. The first examples are geometric ornaments made from whole rough stones. Later, stylized images of people and animals appeared.

The following techniques are known:

The duck on the floor is made using the opus tessellatum technique. "Satyr and Nymph", mosaic in the house of the Faun in Pompeii. Opus vermiculatum. Opus sectile on the floor of Hadrian's villa.

  • Opus tessellatum, in which tesserae (stone fragments) over 4 mm in size were used;
  • Opus vermiculatum, for which tesserae with a size of no more than 4 mm were taken, which made it possible to draw small details;
  • Opus sectile, combining both large and small plates;
  • Opus regulatum, where paintings are formed from pieces of rock of the same size, laid out in straight lines.


Features of the panel drawing made in the Roman style:
  • Light background, randomly drawn from homogeneous stones;
  • Decorative elements (patterns, shapes) are formed at the expense of smaller fractions;
  • The color scheme of the painting is limited by the financial capabilities of the customer - the more monumental the project, the more expensive it is, the more varied the material is used, the better the artist can show his art and skills.

Venice

Venice is art and art is Venice. Therefore, its own school of mosaic business was created here. And this art flourished here, as evidenced only by the list of temples where there is a Venetian mosaic:

  • Archbishop's Chapel (Ravenna, 1112);
  • Church of Santa Maria e Donato (Father Donato, second half of the 12th century);
  • Cathedral of San Marco (Venice, XII-XIII centuries).

Mosaic of the central dome of the Cathedral of San Marco. Venice, Italy. XII century.


Local artists were influenced by both Byzantine and Romanesque traditions:
  • The figures of the people are ponderous, and their faces are monotonous;
  • Linear stylization is pronounced, especially noticeable when conveying volume and perspective;
  • Dark colors prevail.

Modern Venetian mosaic - "terrazzo", created on the basis of a cement mixture and inert materials (stone chips, granite fragments, broken colored glass).


A mosaic panel, regardless of the execution technique, is the dominant element of the interior. Its plot and color scheme are the basis for the design of the room. comments powered by HyperComments










Byzantine mosaics are primarily smalt mosaics.

 It was the Byzantines who developed the technology for the production of smalt, thanks to which this relatively economical and easy-to-handle glass became the main material in monumental painting. The Byzantines, by adding various metals (gold, copper, mercury) in various ratios to the raw glass melt, learned how to make several hundred different colors of smalt, and with the help of simple tools, mosaic elements could be given elementary geometric shapes that were convenient for laying into a mosaic canvas.

And yet cubes became the main mosaic element - it was the compositions of neatly laid out small and more or less equal in size cubes that made the Byzantine mosaics famous. The oldest surviving examples of Byzantine mosaics date back to the 3rd-4th centuries, and two periods of prosperity fall on the 6th-7th centuries (golden age) and the 9th-14th (after iconoclasm - the Macedonian revival, the conservatism of the Komnenos and the Paleologian Renaissance).

The most famous Byzantine mosaics are the Ravenna mosaics and the images of Hagia Sophia (Constantinople). If Roman mosaic solved purely functional problems along with aesthetic problems, Byzantine mosaics became the main element of the artistic decoration of cathedrals, tombs, basilicas and visual problems came to the fore.

Roman mythological images, often playful and genre, which look equally good both in private atriums and in public baths, have been replaced by monumental canvases based on biblical themes, grandiose in design and implementation. Christian stories have become the central theme of mosaics, and the pursuit of maximum impression of the image has become the driving force behind the improvement of mosaic laying techniques and the development of new colors and compositions of smalt.

A feature of Byzantine mosaics in temples was the use of an amazing golden background. Mosaics were laid out using the direct set method, and each element in the installation was distinguished by its unique surface and its position relative to other elements and the base. A single and like a living golden field was created, flickering both in natural light and in candlelight. The uniqueness of the play of shades of color and reflections of light on a gold background created the effect of movement of the whole picture.

The technique of making the contours of bodies, objects, objects became mandatory for Byzantine masters. The contour was laid out in one row of cubes and elements from the side of the figure or object, and also in one row - from the background. The smooth line of these contours made the images clear against the shimmering background.

Most of the Byzantine mosaic techniques are also used in modern mosaic compositions. The use of smalt, the background formed by the irregularities of the smalt cubes, the even contours of the boundaries of objects and the background - this is a classic mosaic, a classic of Byzantium.

Byzantine mosaic

The presentation was prepared by

Kaneva Tatiana Vasilievna

history teacher MBOU "Secondary school with. Petrun "

G. Inta, Komi Republic


  • Mosaic - an image or pattern made of particles of uniform or different material, one of the main types of monumental decorative art.

The story goes back to the third or fourth century AD. It is this time that some of the most ancient mosaics are dated.


  • Interestingly, this art was in its prime in the sixth and seventh centuries, and then was revived and constantly used throughout the period from the ninth to the fourteenth centuries. Most of the examples of this art represent subjects on a biblical theme, therefore, many of them are located in various religious buildings.

  • Smalt.
  • Basically, this material was glass, to which metal particles were added to give it certain shades. So with the addition of gold, the glass acquired a golden sheen. It was this brilliance that prompted many artists to choose gold mosaics for the background of paintings.

The Byzantines, using simple tools, gave the elements of the mosaic elementary geometric shapes that were convenient for laying in a mosaic canvas. And yet cubes became the main mosaic element.


Copper and mercury were added to the molten mass of smalt in different ratios. So the ancient masters ensured that the pieces of the mosaic acquired various shades necessary for creating a composition.


  • Byzantine mosaics are primarily smalt mosaics. It was the Byzantines who developed the technology for the production of smalt, thanks to which this relatively economical and easy-to-handle glass became the main material in monumental painting.

  • The main feature of the Byzantine style was the golden background, which is inherent in most paintings. Direct dialing is usually used as a dialing technique.

Another feature is the presence of clear contours of each object presented in the picture. If you look at the picture from a distance, then such contours will make the characters more visible against the golden shimmering background.


  • The use of smalt, the background formed by the irregularities of the smalt cubes, the even contours of the boundaries of objects and the background - this is a classic mosaic, a classic of Byzantium

The most famous Byzantine mosaics are the Ravenna mosaics and the images of Hagia Sophia (Constantinople).


  • Byzantine mosaics became the main element of the artistic decoration of cathedrals, tombs, and basilicas.

Mosaic in modern times

Most of the Byzantine mosaic techniques are also used in modern mosaic compositions.


Mosaic in modern times

Byzantine mosaic remains

one of the main types of artistic and decorative art of our time.


In the case of Byzantium, one can accurately name the year that became the starting point of the Byzantine empire, culture, and civilization. Emperor Constantine I the Great moved his capital to the city of Byzantium (from the 1st century AD).

e. part of the Roman Empire) and renamed it Constantinople in 330.

The first centuries of the existence of the Byzantine state can be considered as the most important stage in the formation of the worldview of Byzantine society, based on the traditions of pagan Hellenism and the principles of Christianity. The formation of Christianity as a philosophical and religious system was a complex and lengthy process. Christianity absorbed many of the philosophical and religious teachings of that time. Christian dogma developed under the strong influence of Middle Eastern religious teachings, Judaism, and Manichaeism. It was a synthetic philosophical and religious system, an important component of which were ancient philosophical teachings. The irreconcilability of Christianity with everything that bore the stigma of paganism is replaced by a compromise between the Christian and ancient world outlook. The most educated and far-sighted Christian theologians understood the need to master the entire arsenal of pagan culture in order to use it in the creation of philosophical concepts. Thinkers such as Basil of Caesarea, Gregory of Nyssa, and Gregory of Nazianzen lay the foundations of Byzantine philosophy, which are rooted in the history of Hellenic thought. At the center of their philosophy is the understanding of being as perfection. A new aesthetics is born, a new system of spiritual and moral values, and the man of that era, his vision of the world and his attitude to the universe, nature, and society, are changing.

Periods of the history of Byzantine art

Early Christian period (so-called pre-Byzantine culture, I-III centuries)
the early Byzantine period, the "golden age" of Emperor Justinian I, the architecture of the Hagia Sophia in Constantinople and the Ravenna mosaics (VI-VII centuries)
iconoclastic period (VII-early IX century). It was named the dark time - largely by analogy with a similar stage in the development of Western Europe.
period of the Macedonian Renaissance (867-1056) It is considered to be the classic period of Byzantine art.
the period of conservatism under the emperors of the Comnenian dynasty (1081-1185)
the period of the Palaeologus Renaissance, the revival of the Hellenistic traditions (1261-1453).

The art of the Byzantine Empire is in many ways a subject of controversy among historians, philosophers and cultural scientists. But if many philosophical treatises and paintings were lost over several centuries, then the beautiful Byzantine mosaics made of stone and smalt became a symbol of the era and the whole civilization. In the Byzantine Empire, the production of mosaics and smalt was put on stream, historical records included stories about experiments conducted by smalt masters to obtain different shades of smalt and attempts to impart different properties to smalt glass. Smalt mosaics were an indispensable attribute not only of religious buildings and royal palaces, but also adorned the interior of the houses of ordinary citizens.

Compared to antique mosaics made of pieces of stone, smalt compositions were distinguished by a greater variety of colors, brightness, play of light on the surface and, importantly, were much more affordable. This determined the rapid spread of smalt technology both in the Byzantine Empire itself and beyond (in particular, in Ancient Russia)

Byzantine smalt mosaics. Early Byzantine period

Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna, 5th century

Mausoleum of Galla Placidia, according to legend, was built as the burial place of the daughter of the emperor Theodosius. However, in fact, Galla was buried in Rome, and her so-called mausoleum was a chapel-chapel dedicated to St. Lawrence, a martyr and patron of the imperial family, especially revered in the family of Theodosius. Like many other buildings in Ravenna, this martyrium was built using the Lombard brickwork technique. Outwardly, it looks very much like a fortress: a closed volume, deliberately fencing off from the outside world, is emphasized by thick walls, narrow, like embrasures, windows. In the plan, the mausoleum is a Greek cross, at the intersection of the arms of the cross there is a cube, inside of which there is a dome on sails. The vault is heavy, overhanging, without clear boundaries, without window openings. Only through narrow windows in the walls does a dim, flickering light penetrate into the church.

The lower part of the walls of the chapel (up to the height of human height) is faced with transparent streaky marble of a slightly yellowish hue. The surfaces of the dome and arches, as well as the rounded sections of the walls under the arches (lunettes) are decorated with smalt mosaics. Irregularly shaped pieces of smalt form an uneven surface. Due to this, the light from it is reflected at different angles, creating not a uniform cold shine, but a magical shining shimmer, as if trembling in the semi-darkness of the temple.

The theme of the painting of the mausoleum is associated with the funeral rite. Mosaics are located only in the upper parts of the temple. In the center of the vault is a cross (a symbol of victory over death) with stars in the blue sky. The vaults are decorated with dense plant ornaments associated with the symbols of the Garden of Eden. The south lower lunette depicts St. Lawrence walking with the cross to death. The open cabinet demonstrates the books of the four Gospels that inspire the martyr to deed in the name of the Savior.

Saint Lawrence. Mosaic of the south lunette of the Galla Placidia mausoleum in Ravenna. Around 440.

In the upper, large lunettes on the sides of the windows, the apostles are depicted standing in pairs. They raise their hands to the dome with the cross, in a silent gesture embodying the gospel appeal, which is embodied in the image of St. Lawrence: "Take up your cross and follow Me." The apostles are depicted in such a way that by their turns and gestures, a circular movement passing from lunette to lunette is organized. Only the Chief Apostles Peter and Paul in the eastern lunette (where the altar is located) are depicted symmetrically: the movement ends here.

In the northern lower lunette - Christ in the image of the Good Shepherd looks at the visitor from the wall above the entrance. Sheep walk around Him on the green grass, and He affectionately touches the approaching lamb. The Divine Shepherd is dressed in golden robes and sits on a hill, like an emperor on a throne, leaning firmly on the cross. The cross here acts as an attribute of power, like an imperial staff; Christ affirms him over the world as a sign of the triumphal march of Christianity. The figure of the Son of God is shown in a complex contrasting spread: his legs are crossed, his hand reaches for the sheep, but his head is turned to the other side, and his gaze is directed into the distance.


Christ the Good Shepherd. Mosaic of the north lunette of the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia in Ravenna. Around 440.

A characteristic feature of the mosaics of the Galla mausoleum is the contrast of two lunettes.
The scene with the Good Shepherd is performed in the spirit of an antique pastoral with deliberately tender images. The pinkish-green gamut, subtle color transitions, the use of halftones in the transfer of flesh demonstrate the unfading charm of antiquity, emphasized by the conclusion of the composition in the heavy and magnificent frame of the surrounding corrugated vault.
Scene with the image of St. Lawrence demonstrates the birth of a new artistic language. The composition is clear, characterized by simple symmetry of large forms. The image is intentionally brought to the front. The beginnings of reverse perspective (the image of a lattice under a strongly shrinking window) create the illusion of a space “overturning” on the viewer. The composition is not built centrically and pyramidal (following the example of "The Good Shepherd"), but crosswise, along the diagonals. The figure of St. Lawrence is captured in motion. The fragile contours of the folds of his clothes do not fall, but take off and criss-cross in a whimsical rhythm. There is not even a trace of the soft beauty and psychological neutrality of the pastoral in the face of the saint. The spiritual principle, the ecstatic illumination of a martyr for the faith, is acutely and powerfully manifested in him.

Baptistery of the Orthodox in Ravenna, 5th century Dome mosaic

The baptistery (baptismal) of the Orthodox in Ravenna is an example of a centric type building. In plan it is an octagon. The baptistery was decorated under the bishop of Neon (451-73). Its luxurious decoration allows you to feel the special splendor of the baptismal ceremony. The decoration is very well thought out from the architectural point of view, and the architectural (enriched Ionic order) and sculptural decoration (high reliefs with images of the prophets) are organically combined with mosaic painting and are included in it as an integral part.

The main feature of the decoration is the carrying out of a single motive at all its levels - arches on columns or a portico with a pediment on columns. This motif forms the lowest tier of the octahedral baptistery, where deep arcasolias alternate with false niches. In the second tier, it multiplies: arches, framing the sculptures of the prophets, surround window openings. In a more complex and rich form, the same motive is found in the third, mosaic tier of the decoration. Here, this motive is embodied illusionistically: it reproduces the space of the basilica, where porticoes with bishop's chairs and fruit trees are located on the sides of the apses, in which there are thrones with crosses or altars with open Gospels on thrones. Above, in the very last tier surrounding the central medallion, the motif of the arch on the columns appears in a hidden form: the columns here become luxurious golden candelabra separating the figures of the apostles, and the arches or pediments become curvatures of the drapery, festooned from the frame of the central medallion.

The decoration of the baptistery is closely related to the theme of Heavenly Jerusalem, which opens up to the Christian's gaze in the scene of the Baptism of the Savior (Epiphany), located in the dome, directly above the baptismal font. The decoration seems to be "inscribed" into the sphere of the dome, this is achieved by a special technique: the figures and the elements dividing them are interpreted as a kind of radii - golden rays emanating from the central disc. The theme of the Heavenly Jerusalem explains the presence of crowns in the hands of the apostles: they will sit on twelve thrones to judge the twelve tribes of Israel. So Baptism is immediately placed in the context of the search for a good answer at the Judgment Seat of Christ, and the lushly fruiting trees in the cuts of the symbolic basilicas of the third tier are the image of the Christian soul bearing good fruit. The judgment is that “Light came into the world”, and the motive of the light emanating from the central medallion with Christ, indicated by white and golden streams (at the level of the apostolic circle), acquires a special meaning in the composition.


Baptistery of the Orthodox in Ravenna. V century Dome mosaic.
Central medallion containing the scene of the baptism of Christ (Epiphany).
Around the Central Medallion is the Apostolic Circle.

The theme of the Heavenly Jerusalem appears in close intertwining with the theme of the earthly church. Along with the perspective of seeing the Heavenly City in the scene of the Epiphany, the theme of the transfer of power and grace is no less significant here. From the Savior receiving Baptism (central medallion), the blessed energy through the apostles (radial rays) is transmitted to the earthly church (it is symbolized by the altars and episcopal seats of the third level of decoration). This outflow of blessed energy is thought to be continuous, constant.

The idea of \u200b\u200bthe inexhaustible, infinity of this stream is emphasized by the peculiarity of the composition of the apostolic circle: there is no beginning or end, there is no center towards which the disciples of Christ would move. More precisely, this center is located outside the circle itself; it is the image of the Savior on the central medallion. The painting as a whole is very effective. The figures of the apostles are shown in motion. The coarseness of their stride is accentuated by their wide-set legs and the arched hips. The illusion of space is still present: the surface on which the apostles tread looks lighter than the mysterious and bottomless blue background of the main image. The heavy and lush garments are reminiscent of the splendor of Roman patrician garments. In the apostolic tunics, only two colors vary - white, representing light, and gold, the light of heaven. Only multi-colored shadows (gray, blue, gray) set off these luminous vestments. Golden clothes are likened to a thin airy fabric - it lies in lush, as if swelling folds. The white fabric, on the other hand, hardens in unnaturally brittle folds.

The theme of the Epiphany is primarily the theme of the outflow of light, the bestowal of light. The apostles are shown as carriers of this eternal light, since they carry the light of Christian enlightenment - the enlightenment of truth. The faces of the apostles are impressive, each of them has a pronounced personality. They appear as real personalities, which is facilitated by the as yet unworked typology and iconography of Christian images. Large noses, sharply defined nasolabial folds, relief wrinkles, powerfully protruding nape, plump lips, expressive looks. In these images, likened to the Roman patricians, an incredible inner energy is guessed, which symbolizes the power of the Christian church of the 5th century, which has become practically the only spiritual and political authority in the Western world.

Great Imperial Palace in Constantinople. V century

In contrast to the cult buildings of the era, the floor of the Great Imperial Palace in Constantinople contains a large number of images of everyday scenes with the participation of people and animals. Attention is drawn to the background mosaic layout - hundreds of thousands of pieces of a plain white mosaic form a whimsical pattern, in which the scale of the work and the accuracy of the ancient masters amaze.


Eagle and snake. Floor mosaic of the Great Imperial Palace in Constantinople. V century


Deer and snake. Floor mosaic of the Great Imperial Palace in Constantinople. V century


Hare and dogs. Floor mosaic of the Great Imperial Palace in Constantinople. V century


Boy with a basket. Floor mosaic of the Great Imperial Palace in Constantinople. V century


Pastoral scene. Floor mosaic of the Great Imperial Palace in Constantinople. V century


Church of San Vitale in Ravenna, VI century
The compositions are dominated by ideal poise. Architectural forms, plant motifs, human bodies, likened to the simplest geometric shapes, seem to be drawn along a ruler. The draperies have neither volume nor lively softness. There is no living sensation of substance in anything, even a remote hint of natural respiration. Space finally loses any resemblance to reality.


Basilica of Sant'Apollinare Nuovo in Ravenna, VI century
In the depiction of martyrs and martyrs, there is a clear tendency that can be called the sacralization of style. The image deliberately seeks to detach from any specific life associations. Even a distant hint of an imaginary space or environment of action disappears - all free space is occupied by an endless golden background. Flowers under the feet of the Magi and Martyrs play a purely symbolic role and further emphasize the unreality of what is depicted.


Basilica of Sant'Apollinare in Class in Ravenna, VI century
The mosaic style shows clear signs of Western taste. The forms are abstract and deliberately simplified, the composition is dominated by a linear rhythm. Wide and ethereal spots of silhouettes are painted with an even color, only it, in fact, retains its expressiveness. External elegance, color sonority compensate for anemic and amorphous style.

Byzantine smalt mosaics. The era of the Comnenian dynasty

Smalt mosaics in the Church of the Assumption of Our Lady, Daphne

The most striking and complete manifestation of the Byzantine style of the late 11th century and the Comnenian era is the mosaics of the Church of the Assumption of Our Lady in Daphni, near Athens, representing a unique phenomenon in the history of Byzantine art. The temple is decorated partly according to the classical scheme: in the dome - Pantokrator with sixteen prophets in the drum walls, in the apse - the Mother of God with worshiping prophets. However, a large number of festive scenes are located on flat wall surfaces, and not only on transitional architectural elements between rectangular and circular parts or arched aisles.


Christ is Pantokrator. Mosaic of the Church of the Assumption of Our Lady in Daphne. About 1100

Daphne's mosaics create a sense of conviviality, undisturbed tranquility and universal harmony. Any gloomy tones completely disappear from painting, and the Gospel images are filled with poetic beauty. Even in the scenes of passion there is not even a hint of passion and pathos of suffering and sacrifice. In this world of noble and neutral beauty, blood, pain and the crown of thorns of the Crucifixion do not fit.

In Daphne's mosaics, narrative tendencies are growing: there are more scenes, a landscape, elements of architecture appear in them, more attention is paid to the plot. However, the master's main motivation is by no means a craving for the expressed development of the story. Carefully selected details, the ideal nature of the action, the absence of any kind of emotion and, moreover, no expression and spiritual tension fix the world not as a process, but as a state. The artist is rather interested not in what happens, but in how it happens.


Baptism of Christ. Mosaic of the Church of the Assumption of Our Lady in Daphne. About 1100

In Daphne, the compositional principles of Byzantine painting were developed. Mosaic compositions are very free, filled with a wide breath of space not occupied by forms. Characteristic is not just statuary, but the perfect completed roundness of the volumes, likening the figures of painting to a beautiful round sculpture. The ratio of the figures to each other and to the space has changed: the characters are depicted in various angles and spreads, the abundance of three-quarter and profile outlines creates a constant movement of volumes from the depths outward. Bulky, but lightweight tissues demonstrate the plasticity of bodies and at the same time lag behind the surface, as if slightly blown away by the wind.


The appearance of an angel to Joachim. Mosaic of the Church of the Assumption of Our Lady in Daphne. About 1100

In the faces, a special coldish beauty, serenity, endless removal from the world of passions and emotions are striking. Even pretty gentle types (Mother of God, angels) are completely distracted from emotional tenderness. The feeling of ideal dispassion compares the image of man and God-man to the dispassion of an ideally arranged and ordered cosmos. The color palette of smalt acquires a special airiness and inner radiance. The extraordinary richness of color overflows, instantly transforming the basic tone, evokes the feeling of a vibrating fabric surface. All colors are taken in a single, cool-silver key with a predominance of ash, silver, blue, cold pink and shining sapphire shades. Gold smalt of backgrounds looks loose and transparent due to the light, slightly greenish tint of gold.

Mosaics from the Cathedral in Cefalu

The mosaics of the Basilica in Cefal (Sicily) belong to the classical art movement of the Comnenian era, which continued to live throughout the 12th century. The creation of mosaics in Cefal coincided with the reign of Manuel Comnenus, the time of the wide expansion of Byzantine art, the brilliant work of Constantinople artists around the world, reviving the glory of the great Roman Empire, the revival of whose greatness the emperor dreamed of.

The ensemble was performed by masters of Constantinople by order of the Norman king Roger II. The compositions combine the Byzantine perfection of artistic performance and the depth of spiritual meaning with an extraordinary, slightly barbaric sense of festive luxury. The most important element of the mosaic decoration of the cathedral is the monumental image of Christ Pantokrator in the apse conch. This typically Byzantine image traditionally occupied the central dome in Greek temples. In the hand of Christ the Gospel, on the centerfold of which reads the line: "I am the Light of the World." Reflecting the dual character of Sicilian culture at the time, the inscription is reproduced in two languages, on one page in Latin, on the other in Greek, although the image itself clearly belongs to a Byzantine master.


Christ Pantokrator. Conch mosaic of the apse of the cathedral in Cefal. XII century.

The face of Christ is full of greatness, but it lacks that harsh alienation and spiritual intensity that are characteristic of Eastern Christian ideas about Christ as a "formidable Judge." The composition is distinguished by clarity, rigor, transparency of the artistic language and inner meaning. The figure of Christ is full of grace and special nobility of forms.