What is the ideal figure? This question is difficult to answer, since the definition of this concept is constantly changing depending on preferences and the era. However, the most important indicator of success, attractiveness and charm at all times has been and remains proportionality.

Ideal parameters in different ages

Any generation, nation, person can have their own opinion about the ideal proportions of the body of a man and a woman. In the Paleolithic times, as you know, a female figure with more than hypertrophied forms was considered beautiful - this is evidenced by archaeological finds.

The ideal proportions of the female body in antiquity suggested small breasts, slender legs, wide hips. For the Middle Ages, the canons of beauty were unexpressed waist and hips, but at the same time a rounded belly. At the height of fashion in the Renaissance era, curvaceous forms were. And so it continued until the era of classicism.

Only the twentieth century has made a change in the idea of ​​what the ideal proportions of the human body should be. Now it is fashionable for a girl to have a flat stomach and slender legs, and a man to have a muscular figure.

The canons of Polycletus

The system of ideal proportions was developed by the ancient Greek sculptor Polycletus in the fifth century BC. The sculptor set a goal to accurately determine the proportions of the man's body in accordance with his ideas about the ideal.

The results of his calculations are as follows: the head should be 1/7 of the total height, the hand and face should be 1/10, and the foot should be 1/6.

However, to the contemporaries of Polykleitos such figures seemed too massive, "square". These canons, however, became the norm for antiquity, as well as for artists of the Renaissance and classicism (with some changes). In practice, Polycletus embodied the developed ideal proportions of the human body in the "Spearman" statue. The sculpture of a young man personifies confidence, the balance of body parts demonstrates the power of physical strength.

Da Vinci's Vitruvian Man

The great Italian painter and sculptor in 1490 created a famous drawing called "Vitruvian Man". He depicts the figure of a man in two positions, which are superimposed on one another:

1. With legs and arms spread apart. This position is inscribed in a circle.
2. With legs brought together and arms outstretched. This position is inscribed in a square.

According to da Vinci's logic, only the ideal proportions of the human body make it possible to inscribe figures in the indicated positions in a circle and a square.

Vitruvius' proportioning theory

The ideal body proportions embodied in da Vinci's drawing were taken as the basis for his theory of proportioning by another Roman scientist and architect, Mark Vitruvius Pollio. Later, the theory became widespread in architecture and the visual arts. According to her, for an ideally proportional body, the following ratios are characteristic:

• the span of the arms is equal to the height of a person;
• the distance from the chin to the hairline is 1/10 of a person's height;
• from the crown to the nipples and from the tips of the fingers to the elbow - 1/4 of the height;
• from the crown to the chin and from the armpit to the elbow - 1/8 of the height;
• the maximum shoulder width is 1/4 of the height;
• arm length - 2/5 of the height of a person;
• the length of the ears, the distance from the nose to the chin, from the eyebrows to the line - 1/3 of the length of the face.

Golden ratio concept

Vitruvius' theory of proportioning arose much later than the theory of the golden ratio. It is believed that objects that contain the golden ratio are the most harmonious. The Egyptian pyramid of Cheops, the Parthenon in Athens, Notre Dame Cathedral, paintings by Leonardo da Vinci "The Last Supper", "Mona Lisa", Botticelli's "Venus", Raphael's painting "School of Athens" were created on this principle.

The concept of the golden ratio was first given by the ancient Greek philosopher Pythagoras. He may have borrowed this knowledge from the Babylonians and Egyptians. Then this concept is used in the Euclidean "Principles".

Leonardo da Vinci introduced the term “golden section” into everyday life. After him, many artists consciously applied this principle in their paintings.

Golden symmetry rule

From a mathematical point of view, the golden ratio consists in proportionally dividing a segment into unequal parts, while the entire segment refers to the greater part as the largest part itself to the smaller one, that is, the smaller segment refers to the larger one, as the larger segment refers to everything.

If we designate the whole as C, most of it - A, and the smaller part - B, the rule of the golden ratio will look like the ratio C: A = A: B. The main geometric shapes are based on this ideal proportion.

The rule in question later became an academic canon. It is used in the genetic structures of organisms, the structure of chemical compounds, space and planetary systems. Such patterns exist in the structure of the human body as a whole and individual organs in particular, as well as in biorhythms and the functioning of visual perception and the brain.

Zeising's "Aesthetic Research"

In 1855, the German professor Zeising published his work, in which, based on the results of measuring about two thousand bodies, he concluded that the division of the figure by the navel point is the most important indicator of the golden ratio. The ideal proportions of a man's body fluctuate within the average ratio of 13: 8 = 1.625 and come closer to the golden ratio than the proportions of a woman's figure, where the average is expressed in a ratio of 8: 5 = 1.6.

Such indicators are calculated for other parts of the body: shoulder and forearm, fingers and hand, and so on.

90-60-90 - the ideal of beauty?

In society, the ideal proportions of the human body are revised approximately every fifteen years. During this period of time, due to acceleration, the perception of beauty undergoes significant changes.

Therefore, the ideal proportions of the female body are not at all the notorious 90-60-90. These metrics are not for everyone. After all, each girl has her own body type, which is inherited.

Ideal proportions of the female body

In our country, now many people take for the ideal the standards of physique drawn up by Dr. A.K. Anokhin at the end of the nineteenth century. According to them, the proportions of the female body are ideal if 1 cm of a woman's height accounts for:

• 0.18-0.2 cm of neck girth;
• 0.18-0.2 cm shoulder girth;
• 0.21-0.23 cm calf girth;
• 0.32-0.36 cm thigh girth;
• 0.5-0.55cm bust (not bust);
• 0.35-0.40 cm waist circumference;
• 0.54-0.62 cm of the pelvic girth.

Multiply your height (in centimeters) by the numbers above. Then take the appropriate measurements of the body parts. Based on the results, it will become clear how you comply with the regulations.

Male body proportions

Many varieties have a modern idea of ​​the ideal male figure. In fact, the ideal body proportions for all men cannot be named at the same time. There are subjective opinions, and there is a reality that is created by statistics and science. And objective evidence suggests that the ideal physique of a man has remained unchanged for millennia. From a female point of view, the most attractive is the V-shaped torso, which has ensured success in society for its owner in all ages.

Currently, the ideal body proportions can be calculated in different ways: using the McCallum formula, Brock's method or the Wilkes coefficient. McCallum, for example, talks about the need to have the same length of the torso and legs. And the size of the chest, in his opinion, should exceed the size of the pelvis (approximately 10 to 9). The chest and waist should be in a ratio of 4 to 3, and the arms, spread apart, should be the height of a man. The same parameters were once laid down in the phenomenon of the "Vitruvian Man".

For a man, 180-185 centimeters are considered ideal height. Weight as a reference is hardly worth citing, it is more important to link it with body proportions and height. Indeed, even with an optimal weight, a loose figure will not bring success to its owner.

Creation

Polycletus loved to portray athletes at rest, specialized in portraying athletes, Olympic winners.

Canon of Polycletus

The most famous work of Polykleitos is created by approx. 450-440 BC Doriphorus (Spear-bearer). It is in this work that Polycletus's ideas about the ideal proportions of the human body, which are in numerical proportion to each other, are embodied. It was believed that the figure was created on the basis of the provisions of Pythagoreanism, therefore, in ancient times, the statue of Dorifor was often called the "canon of Polycletus", especially since his unpreserved treatise on aesthetics was called Canon. Here, the rhythmic composition is based on the principle of asymmetry (the right side, i.e. the supporting leg and the hand hanging along the body, are static, but charged with strength, the left, i.e. the leg left behind and the hand with a spear, disturb the peace, but are somewhat relaxed ), which revives it and makes it mobile. The forms of this statue are extremely clear, they are repeated in most of the works of the sculptor and his school. The distance from the chin to the crown of the statues of Polycletus is one-seventh, while the distance from the eyes to the chin is one-sixteenth, and the height of the face is one-tenth of the whole figure. Polycletus is strongly associated with the Pythagorean tradition. From the Pythagoreans, on the other hand, comes the theory of the so-called golden division (the entire length refers to the greater part as much as the greater to the smaller). If Polikletov Dorifor is considered the exponent of his canon, then it has been established that his entire height refers to the distance from the floor to the navel, as this last distance refers to the distance from the navel to the crown. It has been established that if we take the distance from the navel to the crown, then it refers to the distance from the navel to the neck, as this latter refers to the distance from the neck to the crown, and if we take the distance from the navel to the heels, then the golden division falls here on the knees. The texts cited above by Polycletus indicate that he does not think of proportions mechanically, but organically: they proceed from the natural symmetry of the living human body and fix in it what is most normal. In addition, the treatise embodies the theoretical ideas of crossed distribution tension in the arms and legs. Dorifor is an early example of the classic counterpost (Contrapost - (from the Italian contrapposto - the opposite) in the visual arts is an image technique in which the position of one part of the body is contrasted with the position of another part (for example, the upper part of the body is shown in a turn, the lower part is shown in front). Dynamizes the rhythm figure, allows you to convey its movement or tension without disturbing the general balance of forms, enhances the three-dimensionality of the image). Sometimes this statue was called the "Canon of Polycletus", following the theoretical treatise of its creator. "They even assured that Polycletus executed it on purpose, so that other artists would use it as a model." Indeed, the Canon of Polycletus had a great influence on European culture, despite the fact that only two fragments have survived from the theoretical work, information about it is fragmentary, and the mathematical basis has not yet been finally derived.

Artworks

• "Diadumen" ("A young man tying a bandage"). Around 420-410 BC NS.
• "Dorifor" ("Spearman").
• The Wounded Amazon, 440-430 BC NS.
• Colossal statue of Hera in Argos. It was performed in the chryso-elephantine technique and was perceived as a pandanus to Zeus the Olympic Phidias.
• "Discophor" ("A young man holding a disc"). Not to be confused with Myron's "Discoball".

The sculptures have been lost and are known from surviving ancient Roman copies.

1. Numerical structure of a work of art

We now have to analyze the relationship of ancient Pythagoreanism specifically to a work of art, although, as we saw above, the main and most important work of art for the Pythagoreans was the sensual cosmos with its harmony of spheres and with a proportional distribution of physical-geometric and musical-arithmetic relationships in it. Ancient Pythagorean materials contain some information about the work of art in the usual sense of the word. Namely, the famous sculptor of the 5th century. BC. Polycletus, as we will see below, is quite definitely associated with the Pythagorean mathematical proportion, being the author of a treatise on numerical proportions in sculpture, as well as the author of a sculptural work under the name "Canon", which was offered as a model for any sculptural work ("Canon" in Greek means "rule").

The very fact of the appearance of a treatise and a statue called "Canon", belonging to a Pythagorean author, is very characteristic. The physicality of the Pythagorean number, and its structural correctness, and its regulatory nature for any construction (especially artistic), and its aesthetic character, which does not contradict artistic production, but, on the contrary, coincides with it, also affected here. Materials about Polycletes, like all Pythagorean materials, are very scattered. It is very difficult to combine them into one whole and formulate the aesthetic theory hidden here. Nevertheless, Polycletus' canon has been subjected to various kinds of examinations and interpretations dozens of times.

2. Starting point

The starting point of our understanding of the canon of Polycletus is the text of the mechanic Philo (Phil. Mechan. IV 1, ed. R. Schöne, Berl. 1893, p. 49, 20 Mac.). “So many, starting to make guns of the same size and using the same design, the same wood and the same amount of iron without changing the weight itself, made some guns long-range and strong in their impact, while others lagged behind the named ones. about the reason for this, they cannot name such a reason. Therefore, for what will be said later, the dictum expressed by the sculptor Polycletus is appropriate: "Success (to ey) [of a work of art] is obtained from many numerical violate. "Obviously, in this way, and in this art [mechanics], when creating a structure with the help of a multitude of numbers, one has to make big mistakes as a result, if we allow even a small error in special cases."

These texts are extremely important to us. First of all, we are again convinced that 1) form ("eidos") is thought to be the basis of art here, that 2) this form as such is opposed to matter (because the same matter, under the influence of different forms, creates different works), that 3) this form is still material, technical, mechanical, outwardly shaping and that, therefore, there is no experience and psychology, but only an image of things, that 4) this form is very clear, noticeable in every nail, does not tolerate even the slightest falsehood, that, finally, 5) this externally material form, while not being psychologically experiential, is nevertheless alive and vital in its action.

This is what Polycletus' canon is in its primary, most general form.

3. Symmetry of a living body

More specifically, the following text of Galen (Gal. Plac. Hipp. Et Plat. V 9. p. 425. 14 Müll.) Introduces us to the understanding of Polycletus's theory. " a body with the symmetry of warm, cold, dry and wet [what is known to be the primary elements of bodies]. Beauty, in his opinion, does not lie in the symmetry of the [physical] elements, but in the symmetry parts, those. in the symmetry of the finger with the finger, all fingers - with the metacarpus and hand, and these latter - with the elbow and elbow - with the hand and all [in general] parts - with all. How is it written "in the Canon" of Polycletus? Namely, having taught all of us the symmetry of the body in this work, Polycletus confirmed his word by deed - by constructing a statue in accordance with the instructions of his teaching. And, as you know, he called "Canon" both this statue of his and this work. Obviously, according to all doctors and philosophers, the beauty of the body lies in the symmetry of the parts. "

This text is important in different ways. First of all, the context speaks of the theory of health as the proportionality of the primary physical elements. This is quite a classic way of thinking. Secondly, beauty is conceived here not as symmetries of primary physical elements, but as symmetry parts, those. as the symmetry of elements in our sense of "element", not in the sense of primary substance, but in the sense of a partial manifestation of the whole. This means that 1) the phenomenon of beauty is based in Polycletus not simply on sensuality, but on its well-known formulation, that 2) this formulation is thought here again mathematically, and that, finally, 3) this mathematics still remains here a problem of precisely the external and material registration. All these traits are beautifully drawn by Galen's messages.

To this we must draw the message of Pliny (Plin. Nat. Hist. XXXIV 55 Varn.): "Polycletus also made a spear-bearer, a mature youth. Artists call her [the statue] canon and receive from it, as if from some law, the foundations of their art and Polycletus is considered the only person who made his theory out of a work of art. " From this text, we must draw an important conclusion that the concept of the classical ideal already includes some reflection on art as such. However, in accordance with the principles of ancient classics in general, art in this case does not become "pure", "disinterested", isolated from the sphere of other being. It, being art, is considered, nevertheless, as a kind of living and material being, but only this being is specifically shaped. And this materiality of art comes from Polycletus to create statues"Canon". This is nothing more than a mature classical ideal. The form of art is not something ideal, immaterial, ethereal here. On the contrary, it is a body, a definite body. The statue of Polycletus "Canon" was such an art form, ideal and real at once.

4. The concept of the center

How exactly did Polycletus imagine the proportionality of the human body? We read about this, first of all, in the same Galen (Gal. De temper. 19 Helmr.). "So this is what this method is. To get the skill of recognizing Centre(to meson) in every kind of living creatures and in all that exists is not the business of just anyone, but of such a person who is extremely hardworking and who can find this center with the help of long experience and repeated cognition of all particulars. In this way, for example, sculptors, painters and sculptors, and in general the makers of statues write and sculpt in every kind what is most beautiful, such as: a handsome-looking person or a horse, or a cow, or a lion, - in [each] that kind. At the same time, some statue of Polycletus called "Canon", which achieves this name because it contains the exact mutual symmetry of all its parts, receives commendable reviews. "

So, the proportionality of the human body is focused on a certain Centre, those. assumes this body as a whole. We have already had occasion to speak about the concept of the center in ancient aesthetics and philosophy in general. If we compare this Polycletian attitude, for example, with the Egyptian style of symmetry, then we will certainly notice that Polycletus focuses on a living human body, while in Egypt they were mainly interested in completely a priori schemes. The last of the cited texts of Galen, which says of the statue as overall, about the symmetry of its constituent elements (cf. also the previous text of Galen), reveals the essential side of the Greek doctrine of proportions, in contrast to the Egyptian. The Greeks did not proceed from any unit of measurement, so that later, by multiplying this unit by this or that whole number, to obtain the desired dimensions of individual parts of the body. Greeks proceeded from the data of the parts themselves, regardless of which general the measures taken for the unit, these parts are obtained. Polycletus took the growth of a person as a whole, as a unit; then a separate part of the body was fixed as such, whatever it was in size, and only after that was the relationship of each such part to the whole fixed. It is clear that integers could not be obtained here. Each part in relation to the whole was expressed as a fraction, in which the numerator was always one, and the denominator varied in connection with the real size of this part. The relationship between the individual parts was expressed by even more complex fractions and even irrational numbers. The well-known measurement of Dorifor's polykletian, undertaken by Kalkman47, also arrived at these results. Proportionality developed here not from some a priori unit of measurement - which has nothing to do with either individual parts of the body or with the body itself, taken as a whole - to the processing of the whole body as such. On the contrary, proportionality was built here beyond any abstract measure, from one real part of the body to another and to the body itself as a whole. She performed here purely anthropo-metric point of view instead of the Egyptian conditional a priori. Here, first of all, the real organic relationships prevailing in the human body were taken into account, including the entire sphere of its elastic movements and its orientation in the environment. When fixing the whole, it was no longer possible to ignore the "point of view" of the observer. It was important whether the statue was directly in front of the observer or if it was placed very high. So, for example, it has already been pointed out more than once that Athena Phidias has objectively not at all the proportions that appear to those looking at her from below. The image of the Chimera, including parts of different living things, has an integral structure of proportions, and not several types of them, like the Egyptian Sphinx.

The visual orientation of the Greek statue is even more clearly expressed in one anecdote of Diodorus of Siculus (historian of the 1st century BC), which, it is true, is not directly related to Polycletus, but still very characteristic and expressive of Greek proportions in general. Diodorus (Diod. 198) writes: "Of the ancient sculptors, Telekles and Theodore, the sons of the River, enjoyed the greatest fame among them, who built for the Samians a statue of Apollo of the Pythias. It is said that one half of this statue was prepared by Telekles on Samos, while the other part was made by his brother Theodore at Ephesus. When folded, these parts were so in tune with each other that it seemed as if the whole work was performed by one [master]. However, this kind of work is never used by the Greeks, but for the most part is used by the Egyptians. In fact, about symmetry. statues they do not judge with the point of view of the representation obtained in accordance with [real] vision(oyc apo tes cata ten horasin phan tasias), as it happens among the Greeks, but whenever they place stones and process them by crushing, at the same time they use the same analogy from smallest to largest, since they create the symmetry of the living being by dividing the whole size of its body by 21 1/4 parts. Therefore, when artists agree [here] with each other regarding sizes, then, despite their separation from each other, they create in their works such precisely coinciding sizes that the originality of their craftsmanship can cause amazement. The mentioned Samos statue, if, according to Egyptian art methods, is divided in two along the crown of the head, defines the middle of the body up to the penis, thus finding itself equal to itself from all sides. They say that she most of all resembles the Egyptian statues, since her arms seem to be outstretched, and her legs are spread out. "

This story, better than any theoretical evidence, reveals all the originality of the Greek sense of bodily proportions and the Greek artistic and technical dimensions and canons that grow out of it. Most importantly, the Greeks are judging "from the point of view of a representation obtained according to a (real) vision." This is something that is not found in the strict canons of Egypt or in medieval practice, and that was revived only in modern times by Leonardo da Vinci and Durer.

5. "Square" style

We find a further step towards concretizing the Polycletian canon in the words of Pliny (Plin. Nat. Hist., XXXIV 56): "A distinctive feature of Polycletus is that he thought of giving the figures such a setting so that they rest on the lower part of only one leg. However, Varro reports that his works were "square" (quadrata) and almost all of the same pattern. " What does this "squareness" or, perhaps, "squareness", which Pliny speaks about with reference to Varro, mean? As Cels shows. II, I, this is neque gracile, neque obesus, i.e. "not thin [thin] and not thick." We read about Vespasian in Suetonius (Vesp. 20): “Vespasian was“ with dense strong limbs. ” "(II 5, 9) and about the emergence from various particles of speech" harsh, magnificent, restrained (quadratum) and relaxed "(IX, 4, 69). In Petronius (43.7) we read: goes smoothly (quadrata). "In addition, Pliny has quadratus, apparently a translation of the Greek tetragonos, and this latter comes across in a more literal sense in Philostr. Heroic, p. 673," square nose "(the same cf. and p. 715), and most importantly, it comes across in the combination of "square man" with the meaning of "brave" in Aristotle. good and stable (tetragonos) without reproach "(Arist. Ethic. NI 11, 1100 b 19). "It is a metaphor to call a good man (agathos) a quadrangular (Arist. Rhet. III 11.1411b27). The expression" square in mind "is read by Plato:" Indeed, it is difficult to become a man, good, perfect in all respects [literally: "quadrangular in hands, feet and mind"] "(Plat. Plot. 339 b).

Let us read a very important text by Pliny (Plin. Nat. Hist. XXXIV 65), showing us all the difference between Polycletus's "squareness" and Lysippos's "subtlety": human he did smaller, than more ancient artists, and the body itself thinner and dry, which gave the impression that he the statues were taller. The symmetry, which Lysippos observed with the utmost care, has no corresponding Latin name. At the same time, Lysippos applied a new and not previously applied manner of constructing figures, instead of square, how the old masters did it; and he stated that they took pictures of people as they are in reality, and he himself - as they seem. Distinctive properties of Lysippos are those cunningly invented subtleties that he observed even in the smallest details of his works. "

Indeed, something "square" is felt even physically in the polyclete Dorifor. Broad shoulders, which are proportionally a quarter of the total height, and rectangular treatment of the muscles of the torso and chest give the impression of "squareness", despite the lively rhythm given to the whole body by raising the left shoulder and lowering the right one, as well as by curving the hips and throwing back the left leg. However, "squareness" must be understood here much more broadly, as in general the classical style, which has not yet passed on to the refinements of Lysippos.

This is also evidenced by the certificate of Auct. ad Herenn. IV 6, who, considering the head of Myron to be exemplary, and the hands of Praxiteles, considers it to be the same with Polycletus breast. Let us add to this the words of Quintilian (Quint. - XIII 10, 8). “The statues of Callon and Gegesius were made rougher and closest to the Tuscan statues, Kalamis was already less rigid, while Myron was [even] softer than those just named. , it is believed that there is not enough importance, so as not to belittle him in anything. Indeed, as far as he added the beauty of the human form to the truth, so much, it is believed, he could not stand the importance of the gods. As they say, he even avoided the older age, not daring to go anywhere beyond the naive cheeks [of young people]. But what Polycletus lacked, it was given by Phidias and Alkamen ... ". This message of Quintilian somewhat corrects the data of Pliny and others about the weightiness of the proportions of Polycleitus. Although they were not tender, they were still not majestic and superhuman. They were characterized by human, and we would add, just classic Greek beauty. If we want to remain strictly within the framework of classical Greece, sharply separating it from both archaism and Hellenism, then we must take a sculpture that is completely non-psychological, but nonetheless human. In this sculpture, not feelings should be expressed, but the physical position of the physical body - throwing a disc, carrying a spear, tying a head, etc. And this will be, mainly, Polycletus and his era.

In the sense of the general characteristics of the canon of Polycletus, perhaps the most expressive are the following words of Lucian (Luc. De salt. 75 Baran.): immoderately long, not short, like a dwarf, but impeccably proportionate; neither fat, otherwise the game will be unconvincing, nor excessively thin, so as not to resemble a skeleton and not to produce a deathly impression. " According to the ancients, this did not, however, make the works of Polycletus something impersonal. On the contrary, according to Cicero, "Myron, Polycletus and Lysippos in the art of fiction are not at all similar to each other. But they are so dissimilar that one would not want them to be alike, that is, would not be themselves" (Cic. de or.VIII 7, 26) 49.

6. The question of numerical data

Finally, we must also pose the question of in what specifically numbers will express the canon of Polycletus. This is where we are the least informed. The only source of all ancient literature on this issue is Vitruvius (III 1, 2 Petrovsk.), Which, however, giving his numerical data, does not name Polycletus: "After all, nature folded the human body so that the face from the chin to the upper line of the forehead and the beginning of the hair roots is a tenth of the body, as well as the elongated hand from the wrist to the end of the middle finger; the head from the chin to the crown is the eighth, and together with the neck, starting from its base from the top of the chest to the beginning of the hair roots, the sixth, and from the middle of the chest from the crown of the head - 4. As for the length of the face itself, the distance from the bottom of the chin to the bottom of the claws is its third, the nose from the bottom of the nostrils to the section of the eyebrows is the same, and the forehead from this section to the beginning of the roots is also a third. makes up a sixth of the body length, the elbow part of the arm is a quarter, and the chest is also a quarter, and the rest of the parts also have their own proportionality, which was also taken into account by the famous ancient painters and sculptors and thus achieved great and endless glory. "

Since the canon of Polykleitos is not the only one and there is still information, for example, about the canon of Lysippos, we have the right to ask the question: what exactly did Vitruvius mean?

There is one way to check both Vitruvius and Polycletus himself, this is - actually measure those marble copies that have come down to us under the name of Polycletus and made from his bronze statues. This was done by Kalkman, who arrived at a very important result. It turns out that the distance from the chin to the crown in the statues of Polycletus is not equal to one eighth of the length of the whole body, as in Vitruvius, but one seventh, while the distance from the eyes to the chin is one sixteenth, and the height of the face is one tenth of the whole figure. It is clear, therefore, that Vitruvius does not come from the Polycletian canon, but from a later, - perhaps from the canon of Lysippos. However, even without any special measurements, everyone can see that Lysippos's heads are smaller, "more intelligent" than Polycletus's, and this is understandable, since Polycletus is a representative of a more strictly classical ideal than Lysippos.

There is, however, one more opportunity to approach the numerical representation of Polycletus's canon. The fact is that Polycletus is strongly associated with the Pythagorean tradition. From the Pythagoreans, on the other hand, comes the theory of the so-called golden division (the entire length refers to the greater part as much as the greater to the smaller). If Polikletov Dorifor is considered the exponent of his canon, then it has been established that his entire height refers to the distance from the floor to the navel, as this last distance refers to the distance from the navel to the crown. It has been established that if we take the distance from the navel to the crown, then it refers to the distance from the navel to the neck, as this latter refers to the distance from the neck to the crown, and if we take the distance from the navel to the heels, then the golden division falls here on the knees 50 ... Vitruvius (III 1, 3) asserts that if you draw a circle from the human navel as the center, when a person is prostrated on the ground with legs and arms outstretched as much as possible, then the circle will pass just through the extreme points of all limbs. At the same time, he does not say that a pentagram is formed here; but it actually forms. And the pentagram, as it is said in many works on art, is built precisely according to the law of the golden division. This very important circumstance can lead to great reflections, and although there is no exact data for such an understanding of the numerical nature of Polycletus' canon, its probability is enormous and its aesthetic significance is almost obvious.

7. Cultural and style assessment of Polycletus's "Canon"

The previous texts provide exhaustive philological material according to Polycletus's canon. At the same time, we have already given a general assessment of this canon. Let us now formulate in a generalized form what could be said about the cultural and stylistic nature of this phenomenon as a whole.

a) First of all in the era of the classical ideal, it was impossible to understand the canon purely arithmetically and computationally... - A pure arithmetic-computational technique characterizes the era of a much smaller approach to art, the era of external technical attitude to it on the basis of a powerlessly rationalistic impotent attitude of a subject devoid of big ideas.

Classical Hellenism is much more energetic and powerful, much more ontological. The numerical design for him is also the existential arrangement, the number here is material or, at least, existential. That is why the numbers of this canon cannot be countable quantities in our sense of the word. These numbers are here substances, living forces, material-semantic energies. This is, in general, the whole nature of the classical ideal. It is interesting that a light touch of this philosophical ontologism and dynamism lies even on the essentially positivist numerical reasoning and operations of the theorists of the Renaissance.

Classics where there is some abstractness, chaste abstinence from debauchery, psychologism and naturalism, something general or universal, running confusion and endless chaos, particulars and accidents, i.e. purely numerical, mathematical, geometric, structural-eidetic. But the classics at the same time is where this abstract universality is not only logic and a system of purely rational schemes, but where it itself is a certain thing, a substance, a certain living force and creative power. Let us peer into "classical art" no matter what culture, whether it is the antique of the 5th century, or the new European Renaissance. Why are the classic forms so solid, weighty, strong and solid? Why is their beauty, harmony, coldish majesty, or, as we say, abstract universality, so existential, stable, fundamental? Precisely because underneath these numerical symmetries lies the feeling ontologism of number, a sense of the materiality of any semantic, and hence numerical structure. That is why Polycletus creates the very statue of the "Canon", the most, so to speak, the material substance of the numerical canon. That is why also, if, not directly Polycletus himself, then, in any case, the Pythagoreans of his day provide an ontological-energetic basis for all the numerical operations of the then artistic canons.

b) It's easy to see the similarities in the understanding of the very nature of numerical symmetry in Polycletus and in the Pythagoreans. The texts cited above according to Polycletus indicate that proportions are not thought of mechanically, but organically: they proceed from the natural symmetry of the living human body and fix in it what is most normal. The Pythagoreans, who also proceed from a certain corporeal cosmos, as it seemed to them in the form of celestial spheres, do not otherwise act with their numbers, and fix those numerical ratios that seemed normal to him then. Of course, these ratios, in accordance with the epoch, are abstract-general and therefore largely a priori. Nevertheless, for all the a priorism of their content, they were thought to be quite real. If numerical symmetry did not prevent Miron from expressing in the "Discobolus" the tension of the body at the moment of throwing the disc, and Polycletus in his "Dorifor" - the chiasm of the legs and shoulders, that is, in addition to symmetry, also observe "eurythmy", then the Pythagorean cosmos contains not only a certain living schematic, but also the real rhythm of the arrangement of the heavenly bodies (as it was then presented).

v) In connection with the ontology of numbers, it is necessary to pay tribute and the very concept of the canon. This concept characteristic just for the classical ideal in art. After all, this art lives in the abstract-universal, i.e., first of all, in numerical forms, understanding these numbers not arithmetically and computationally, but in real-ontological terms. But this also means that numerical schemes have an immutable significance here and are precisely the canon. Thus, we see that the very concept of the canon contains something material-semantic, or, more precisely, material-numeric, i.e. pythagorean. With this in mind, the numerical data of the Polikletovian canon should be strictly separated from the later proportions, those. primarily from the Hellenistic, for example, from the Lysippos (since Lysippos must be considered an artist of ascending Hellenism).

In Hellenism, a concept appears that is completely alien to the classics - the concept of "nature" 51. What is the meaning of this new, in comparison with the classics, concept, was well shown by the painter Eupompus, the founder of the Sikion school. When asked who he followed from his predecessors, he pointed to a crowd of people and said that it was necessary to imitate nature, not an artist (Plin. XXXIV19). The turn towards naturalism was already outlined in Praxiteles. He portrayed a "jubilant hetera" who is thought to be "Phryne", Praxiteles' own mistress (ibid. 70). And here is a story about the emphasized "realism" of the painter of the 4th century. Zeuxis: "... In general, he showed such thoroughness that, intending to paint a picture for the inhabitants of Agrigent, which they were building at the public expense for the temple of Juno Lacinia, he examined in the nude of their virgins and chose five of them to reproduce in the picture what each of them individually approved of"(Ibid., 64) 52.

Here we have a fundamentally new, non-classical attitude of artistic consciousness. And although the artists of ascending Hellenism cannot do without a certain a priori (because Zeuxis selected "natural" facts on the basis of some not empirical principles), empirically observed dimensions and proportions are the canon here, and not a priori numerical speculations (at least and close to "reality"). As a result of all this, there is no need for the canon itself.

Polycletus, for all his vitality and humanity, is much more a priori than Lysippos and Hellenism. But if we take into account that under the empiricism of the Zeuxis type stands a subject more independent in his sensations, which corresponds to Hellenistic psychologism, then we will not be surprised by the fact that just in the Renaissance this method gained special popularity, and the artists of the new great subjectivist epochs often remember exactly the method of Zeuxis (and not Polycletus) and associate their doctrine of proportions with him.

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Polycletus the Elder of Argos is an ancient Greek sculptor and art theorist, famous for his statues of athletes, as well as for his doctrine of proportions. Along with Phidias, one of the two best masters of Greek sculpture of the classical era. Polycletus was born, most likely, on the island of Argos (this is indicated by Plato in his Protagoras); there he also studied (from the sculptor Agelad of Argos, who, according to legend, taught Phidias). The period of his active work falls on the 440-410s BC. NS. None of his original works have survived, but the best of them (and most often mentioned in ancient sources, primarily in Natural History, or Natural History, Pliny the Elder, 1st century AD) are known for sufficiently high-quality and reliable Roman copies. These are, first of all, his most famous sculpture, Doryphoros (Spear-bearer, c. 440-435 BC), as well as Diadumenus (a young man tying the victor's bandage; c. 423-419 BC); more than 30 Roman copies of each of them have come down to us. With an obvious difference in characters, - according to Pliny, Polycletus created Diadumenos as a "pampered youth", and Doriforos as a "courageous boy" - both are imbued with strict harmony, expressed both in the general arrangement of standing figures (according to the principle of chiasm, that is, such an image where the weight of the body is transferred to one leg - with a raised shoulder corresponding to the lowered hip of the other half of the body and vice versa), and in the mutual proportionality of various members, muscles and accessories. Among the masterpieces of Polycletus also belongs the Wounded Amazon (or the Amazon of Ephesus, c. 430 BC).

For all its vitality, Dorifor is also an exemplary model (according to to the testimony of Pliny, “the artists call it Canon”) - that aesthetic ideal to which the master also dedicated a special treatise; from the latter, only a few quotes and references from Pliny the Elder, Galen, Lucian and other authors have survived. In it, Polycletus developed a system of "symmetries", that is, optimal relationships between parts and the whole for a work of art. Since the source of these modules was the human figure, the principle of universal, in its own way, cosmic corporeality, characteristic (according to A.F. Losev) for the classical classics as a whole, was expressed here with maximum completeness, having - like the art of Polycletus itself - a huge influence on the European culture (despite the fragmentary information about the Canon and the fact that its mathematical basis has not yet been determined with exhaustive accuracy).
Poliklet created a significant school, in fact, the first fairly well-documented personal school-tradition in the history of art (about 20 names of his students are known).
Source: http://www.krugosvet.ru/. "Dorifor" (Spear-bearer) - one of the most famous statues of antiquity, the work of the sculptor Polycletus, embodying the so-called. Canon of Polycletus, was created in the years 450-440. BC. Has not survived, known from copies and descriptions. Numerous copies have survived, including in Naples, Vatican, Munich, Florence.
It is in this work that Polycletus's ideas about the ideal proportions of the human body, which are numerically with each other, are embodied. It was believed that the figure was created on the basis of the provisions of Pythagoreanism, therefore, in ancient times, the statue of Dorifor was often called the "Canon of Polycletus", especially since his unpreserved treatise on aesthetics was called Canon. Here, the principle of asymmetry lies at the heart of the rhythmic composition.
The Wounded Amazon, the statue that won first place in the famous sculptor competition for the Temple of Artemis of Ephesus, was created in 440-430. BC NS. Not preserved, known from copies.
Polycletus performed the famous statue of the wounded Amazon, which was ordered for the temple of Artemis by the inhabitants of the city of Ephesus, who revered the Amazons as the founders of their city. Polycletus, Phidias, Kresilai, Fradmon and Kidon participated in the competition for the creation of the statue of the Amazon. It is noteworthy that all the sculptures were so good that the Greeks decided to entrust the sculptors themselves to determine the best. Each first named the statue he created, but after his own he pointed out the Amazon Polycletus, to whom the commission awarded the first prize.
"Diadumen" (Athlete crowning his head with a victory ribbon) - the famous statue of Polycletus, was created in 420-410. BC NS. Not preserved, known from copies.
The proportions of the powerful body of Diadumenos are the same as those of Doriforos, but in contrast to the calmness of Doriforos, the figure of Diadumenos is more expressive, the movement is more complicated: hands move freely at shoulder level, holding the ends of the victory tape. But just like in Dorifor, all the weight of the body is transferred to the right leg, the left is set aside in the same free movement, and in the same way the head is tilted - to the right and somewhat downward. In the Diadumenus, the canon of the "athlete at rest", previously embodied in Dorifor, was further developed, containing an element of calm movement. The arithmetic proportions underlying the body composition are more harmonious and thinner here, the arms moving at shoulder level and holding the ends of the ribbon free the torso, giving the athlete's entire figure a slenderness and greater freedom.

When looking at "Dorifor" by Polycletus, a person who lives in our century and is not experienced in matters of art will not immediately understand why this sculpture is considered so valuable. However, the contemporaries of the ancient Greek master could very quickly determine the differences between the statue and other works of that period. The sculpture "Dorifor" by Polykleitos was distinguished by a special staging of the body, it was one of the first works in ancient Greece, the character of which seemed to be alive, ready to step off the pedestal as a person. Even in those distant times, the statue was considered the standard of classical art, an example of mathematically verified proportions that could breathe life into bronze.

Polycletus the Elder

The sculptor who created the statue, which will be discussed in the article, lived at the end of the 5th century BC (presumably 480-420s The exact place of birth of Polycletus remains unknown. According to ancient Greek authors, it could be Argos or Sikion, cities that were the centers Artistic culture of that time.Polycletus developed his skills under the supervision of the sculptor Agelar.Another famous ancient Greek artist, Myron, studied with him.

Polykleitos' creativity is notable for his tireless search for the ideal. Creating sculptures, he strove to achieve perfection in the transmission of poses, facial expressions. His heroes are far from fuss, they are calm and wise. Harmony was characteristic not only of the figure, but also of the inner content of the image.

Favorite heroes

Before and after the creation of Dorifor, Polycletus was interested in the image of athletes. And this is not surprising: who, if not stately Olympic winners, could demonstrate all the beauty of a developed male body. However, most often Polycletus portrayed athletes not during the competition, but after the victory. At this moment, excess tension left the body, but there were still no signs of fatigue. The body became relaxed and collected at the same time - the same harmony was felt that the ancient Greek sculptor loved and knew how to convey.

Sculptures

The originals of the author's statues have not survived. Many works remained only in the form of descriptions of contemporaries, some have come down to us thanks to Roman copies. Thus, the love of the sculptors of the holy empire for the repetition of ancient Greek works allowed art critics of our time to see one of the earliest works of Polycletus. The master captured the winner of the Olympic Games at the moment when he crowned his head. But about the statues of Pythocles and Ariston, as well as Hercules and Hermes, we know only thanks to written sources.

A little later than the creation of these works, Polycletus, - "Dorifor" was also at that time already ready, - moved to Athens. Here he creates The Wounded Amazon. This sculpture has come down to us in the form of a Roman copy. In style, it practically does not differ from Polycletus's "Dorifor". The position of the body, the drawing of a strong muscular body, the feeling of inner strength - all this brings the two statues together.

At the end of a life's journey

In Athens, Polycletus was also engaged in portrait sculpture. At that time, this kind of art was not widespread. Polycletus, judging by the messages and reviews that have come down to us, knew his job perfectly. The sources contain information according to which the master worked on the portrait of Arteman, the engineer of Pericles himself.

The statues of recent years reflect the author's new searches. One of these works is "Diadumenus" (about 430 BC). The statue depicts the Olympic winner tying a ribbon around his head with a beautiful gesture. In his figure, and already much less calm than in the previous works of the master.

"Dorifor" Polykleitos: description

However, it is "Dorifor" that remains the most famous. The sculpture depicts a spearman who has just won the competition. The original, which has not come down to us, dates back to 460-450. BC NS. Today we can judge the work thanks to several surviving copies.

The elusive movement and positioning of the body is what makes the statue created by Polyclet stand out. Dorifor the spear-bearer stands, leaning on one leg, the other only supports the figure - as if he was about to take a step. The young man's right hand is lowered, in his left he is holding a spear. It is easy to notice that the other is at rest and the other is tense. This combination looks so natural that the spearman looks alive. The statue compares favorably with the static images characteristic of the previous period in art.

Canon

The construction of the body of "Dorifor" by Polycletus was based on an exact mathematical calculation and the position of Pythagoreanism. The male body depicted by the master was repeatedly copied by his followers and received the name "canon of Polycletus". Also named was the treatise of the sculptor, which laid out the foundations of the teachings of Pythagoras and the mathematical calculation of proportions. The work of the sculptor has not reached us, today scientists can only judge about him by the notes of the author's contemporaries.

The basis of the composition is the cross unevenness of body movement. On the right, the lowered arm and supporting leg are static, but tense. On the left, the corresponding body parts are relaxed but in motion. With the help of this opposition, Polycletus managed to convey the inner calmness of the hero and the simultaneous readiness for any trials.

Golden ratio

When the statue "Dorifor" was created, Polycletus also applied another principle of Pythagoreanism. All are built according to the rule Briefly, it can be formulated as follows: the length of the entire object or body refers to the greater part as the latter to the smaller one. The height of the statue refers to the distance from the plinth to the navel of the spearman, as the latter refers to the distance from the navel to the crown of the head.

All proportions of the sculpture are subject to certain calculations. It is the ideal proportions of body parts, allowing to create a stately warrior, and not an elongated or stocky figure, and tried to repeat the numerous disciples of the master, copying "Dorifor". Some of these proportions are:

the distance from the crown to the chin is 7 times less than the height of the spearman;

from eyes to chin - at 16;

face height - 10.

And Polycletus observed proportional ratios in all his works. The master refused them only if they began to contradict the natural parameters of the human body in a particular sculpture.

Counterpost

Polycletus was one of the first to use the counterpost technique, which later became classical. It is expressed precisely in the cross tension in the arms and legs. The technique allows you to make the pose more natural, to convey the movement inherent in it. The statues created with the use of counterpost compare favorably with the static sculptures of antiquity. They depict living people, but not frozen copies of deities.

Working on sculptures, Polycletus observed people. He noticed that always the movement of one part of the body causes a change in position and another. He was not the first to see this feature, but he was able to convey it better than others. Like some of his predecessors, he realized that in order to transmit movement, it was necessary to push forward the left leg and right arm, or the right leg and left arm. This is the cross position of body parts, which resulted in the principle of counterpost.

Unfortunately, the original of the statue created by Polycletus has not reached us. "Dorifor", the photo shows this well, and in the surviving copies embodies the canon of the image of a stately male body. However, there is reason to believe that the original, lost over the centuries, looked even more harmonious. And nevertheless, "Dorifor" to this day remains a role model in art. The proportions of the body and the principle of the golden ratio used to create it are still considered ideal today. Nowadays, the sculpture "Dorifor" can be considered a kind of educational material, and not only for sculptors, but also for artists and other masters.