Lesson 1.2: The Artistic World of Leo Tolstoy.

Lesson objectives:
help students find their way to the creativity and personality of L. Tolstoy, to realize his religious and aesthetic views, to try to penetrate into his spiritual and artistic world

Equipment:

1. Portraits of the writer by Kramskoy, Repin, Perov, Nesterov, Shmarinov;
2. Photos of recent years;
3. Video "Repin Draws Tolstoy" (9 minutes), - M., studio "Kvart";

Audio recording "Leo Tolstoy's Diary" (4 minutes), - M., studio "Kvart";

Preliminary assignment for the lesson.

Individually:

1. a story about Tolstoy's ancestors;
2. essay-miniature for specially trained students “L. Tolstoy through the eyes of artists "," My impressions at the sight of portraits of the writer ";
3. a story about the writer's habits, gestures, speech, etc. ("Sketches for a portrait" based on the book "L. N. Tolstoy in the memoirs of contemporaries", - M., Education, 1974);
4. favorite poems of L. Tolstoy: "Remembrance" by A. Pushkin, "Silence" by F. I. Tyutchev, "A. L. B-koy "A. A. Fet;
5. Leo Tolstoy and music (favorite pieces of music performed by students, comments to them).

The course of the lesson.

1. Word of the teacher "The World of Leo Tolstoy".

Our lesson, naturally, cannot encompass the infinity of the writer's world. But maybe he will help you determine the path to your Tolstoy. Our lesson is not a biography of the writer or an essay on creativity, we will not trace in detail the entire life of the writer. Most likely, the purpose of the lesson is to show the writer from a less familiar side, to look at him as a person, as a person.

Origins play an important role. It all starts with a family, with a "family nest", with ancestors. And the ancestors of Leo Tolstoy are truly legendary.

2. The ancestors of L. Tolstoy. Student story

Leo Tolstoy was born on August 28 (September 9) 1928 in the Yasnaya Polyana estate of the Krapivensky district of the Tula province into an aristocratic noble family.

The Tolstoy family existed for 600 years. According to legend, they received their last name from the Grand Duke Vasily Vasilyevich Dark, who gave the writer's ancestor Andrei Kharitonovich the nickname Tolstoy. Leo Tolstoy's great-grandfather, Andrei Ivanovich, was the grandson of Pyotr Andreevich Tolstoy, one of the glorious instigators of the Streltsy revolt under Princess Sophia. The fall of Sophia forced him to go over to the side of Peter I, who did not trust Tolstoy for a long time. He was a European educated man, a participant in the Azov campaign in 1696, an expert in maritime affairs. In 1701, during a period of sharp aggravation of Russian-Turkish relations, he was appointed ambassador to Constantinople by Peter I. In 1717, P.A.Tolstoy rendered the Tsar an important service by persuading Tsarevich Alexei to return to Russia from Naples. For his participation in the trial and the secret execution of the tsarevich P.A.Tolstoy was awarded estates and made head of the secret government office.

On the day of the coronation of Catherine I, he received the title of count, since, together with Menshchikov, he energetically contributed to her accession. But under Peter II, the son of Tsarevich Alexei, P.A.Tolstoy fell into disgrace and at the age of 82 was exiled to the Solovetsky Monastery, where he soon died.

Only in 1760, during the reign of Empress Elizabeth Petrovna, the count's dignity was returned to the posterity of P.A.Tolstoy.

The writer's grandfather, Ilya Andreevich, was a cheerful, trusting, careless person. He squandered all his fortune and was forced to serve as governor in Kazan.

The patronage of the almighty Minister of War Nikolai Ivanovich Gorchakov, to whose daughter he was married, helped. In the family of I.A.Tolstoy lived a pupil, a distant relative of the wife of Pelageya Nikolaevna Gorchakova, Tatyana Aleksandrovna Ergolskaya. She was secretly in love with his son Nikolai Ilyich.

Nikolai Ilyich, the writer's father, at the age of 17 decided on military service as an adjutant to Prince Andrei Ivanovich Gorchakov, participated in the glorious military campaigns of 1813-1814, was captured by the French and was liberated in 1815 by our troops who entered Paris. He retired and came to Kazan. But his father's death left him a beggar. Then at the family council it was decided to marry the rich and noble princess Maria Nikolaevna Volkonskaya. So the Tolstoyes moved to Yasnaya Polyana, the estate of Princess Volkonskaya.

The Volkonskys descended from Rurik and considered their ancestor Prince Mikhail of Chernigov, who was brutally tortured by the Tatars in 1246 for his proud refusal to observe the Basurman customs and canonized. In the 13th century, a descendant of Prince Mikhail, Prince Ivan Yurievich, received the Volkonsky inheritance along the Volkone River, which flowed in the Kaluga and Tula provinces. The last name came from him. His son, Fyodor Ivanovich, died heroically on the Kulikovo field in 1380.

The legend is surrounded by his maternal great-grandfather, Sergei Fedorovich Volkonsky. Major General, he participated in the Seven Years War. A melancholy wife had a dream where a voice commands her to send her husband a wearable icon. The icon was immediately delivered through Field Marshal Apraksin. And in battle, a bullet hits Sergei Fyodorovich in the chest, but the icon saves his life. Since then, the icon, as a sacred relic, was kept by L. Tolstoy's grandfather, Nikolai Sergeevich.

Nikolai Sergeevich Volkonsky, the writer's grandfather, was a statesman close to Empress Catherine II. But, faced with her favorite Potemkin, the proud prince paid with his court career and was exiled by the governor to Arkhangelsk. After retiring, he married Ekaterina Dmitrievna Trubetskoy and settled in Yasnaya Polyana. Ekaterina Dmitrievna died early, leaving her only daughter Maria. The peasants respected a sensible master who cared about their welfare. He built a rich manor house on the estate, laid out a park, dug a large pond. He died in 1821.

In 1822, the orphaned Yasnaya Polyana came to life, a new owner, Nikolai Ilyich Tolstoy, settled in it. His family life was at first happy. The children went: Nikolai, Sergey, Dmitry, Lev and, finally, the long-awaited daughter - Maria. However, her birth turned into an inconsolable grief for N.I. Tolstoy: during childbirth, Maria Nikolaevna died, and the Tolstoy family was orphaned.

The mother was replaced by Tatyana Aleksandrovna Ergolskaya, who still loved her father, but did not marry him. Father died in 1837 when Lyovushka was 9 years old. So the family became completely orphaned.

Adding a teacher.

As a child, Tolstoy was surrounded by a warm family atmosphere. Here they cherished family feelings. Here they sympathized with the poor, endowed them with money. As a boy, L. Tolstoy looked closely at believers, pilgrims and pilgrims. This is how the "popular thought" matured in the soul of the future writer: "All the faces around my childhood - from my father to the coachmen - seem to me to be exceptionally good people, - said L. Tolstoy, - probably my pure, loving feeling, like a bright ray, opened to me in people their best qualities, and the fact that all these people seemed to me exceptionally good was much closer to the truth than when I saw only their shortcomings. "

As a student at Kazan University, Leo Tolstoy is fond of the idea of \u200b\u200bthe moral revival of mankind. He himself begins to analyze the negative aspects of his character with the utmost sincerity and directness. The young man does not spare himself, he pursues not only his shameful acts, but also thoughts unworthy of a highly moral person. Thus begins the unparalleled labor of the soul, which Tolstoy will be engaged in all his life. An example of this spiritual work is the writer's diaries, which made up 13 volumes of his creative heritage. A thick fog of evil-tongued and enthusiasm enveloped this man during his lifetime. It is unlikely that there were people who did not hear about him at all, but even if they did, their life has become in many respects different, since this phenomenon arose on earth - Leo Tolstoy.

Because after these works, people began to look at themselves differently. He wrote no novels and novels that could be read or not read, he rebuilt the world, but first he had to rebuild himself.

There is in Tolstoy's huge literary heritage, which occupies 90 volumes of the anniversary edition of his works, one book, the fame of which is far from being as great as the fame of "War and Peace" or "Anna Karenina". Meanwhile, the book deserves our grateful attention. This is the book of the life of a great writer. You cannot read it in a row like a novel or a story. But its significance is enormous, its meaning is high.

Working with the audio recording "Leo Tolstoy's Diary".

When listening to the recording, draw a conclusion about the views of L.N. Tolstoy

Continuation of the teacher.

But the search for oneself, one's own “I” continues: Petersburg University; successful exams, but gives up what they started; service in the chancellery of the Tula provincial government - but this was abandoned. "Throwing souls" lead him to the Caucasus. He becomes a participant in the Crimean War - (the voice of his ancestors made itself felt). Impressions from the war will form the basis of "Sevastopol Tales" and "War and Peace".

Returning from the war, he marries Sofya Andreevna Bers, and again the search for the meaning of life: the desire to be a good master, and at the same time he also writes. He is already a well-known writer, author of military stories, "War and Peace", he is happy with his family. But as a writer, he constantly feels that something is wrong, that is, the search for truth, the meaning of life continues. This is how he was captured in the paintings of Russian artists who came to Yasnaya Polyana more than once.

3. "Tolstoy through the eyes of artists ..." (My observations) The composition is a miniature of a trained student. (For example, based on the portrait of Leo Tolstoy by the artist Kramskoy).

Of the painted portraits, the best one must be recognized as the portrait by Kramskoy, painted in 1874, when Lev Nikolaevich was 45 years old.

In this portrait, the eyes are remarkably depicted, since, first of all, the writer believed that the eyes are the “mirror of the soul”. In a tense, calm, focused look, one can feel the poetic broad nature, enormous intellect, strong temperament, big heart, unyielding will, utmost simplicity, benevolence towards people, nobility.

His face in its features seems at first glance to be quite ordinary, simple, very Russian. This is not the face of an aristocrat. But in the person of Lev Nikolaevich, one still feels a strong breed, the vitality of a certain kind of people. The face is as if carved, sculpted from some very elastic material. Facial features are large, rough, sharp. A huge convex forehead, clearly visible because the hair is combed back, squeezed in the temples, as if the whole brain was pushed into its front part. Along the entire forehead there are two horizontal large deep wrinkles. On the nose there are two vertical, even deeper, but short wrinkles.

The forehead is strongly pulled over the eyes, as happens when they frown or with intense thinking. Eyebrows are huge, bristly, shaggy, protruding strongly forward. Such eyebrows should be among sorcerers, fabulous grandfathers, heroes, sages. There is something deep and powerful in them. Eyebrows hang over the very eyes.

The bones on the cheekbones are strongly protruded. The cheeks have sunk in slightly. This gives the face the appearance of a person who has worked hard and hard all his life.

His nose is very wide. This brings him closer to the ancient old people. There is nothing lordly, refined in the shape of the nose. So you can imagine how he breathes in with this typically Russian nose the smell of forests and the free Russian fields dear to him. The nostrils are thin, sometimes flaring, like horses of pure high blood.

From the nose to the corners of the lips there are deep folds oblique on each side of the nose. And on each cheek, too, there is one small fold. As if the sculptor ran a chisel here and there to make facial features more prominent. It gives the face an expression of energy and courage.

Most of the lips are not visible, they are overgrown with a fluffy mustache. There is nothing beautiful about the outline of the lips. But when you look at this face, it seems that he could not have had any other mouth. The mouth is also simple: large, convex, but at the same time soft and kind strength is felt in it.

His large beard increases the size of his face. You look at his beard and think: "How could he have been without such a wide Russian beard that makes him akin to millions of peasants!" But at the same time, there is something wise, everlasting in this curly old beard.

What is impossible to say looking only at the portrait? (About the voice, gestures, facial expressions, what the writer's speech was).

4. "Strokes for the portrait" Student message.

The memoirs of contemporaries about the hands of Leo Tolstoy are interesting. They were neither large nor small, medium-sized, plump, soft, not wrinkled in old age, like many, but with smooth skin and always immaculately clean. He washed them several times during the day. The nails are not elongated, but wide, rounded, short-cropped, also spotlessly clean.

Some of his hand gestures were special. Tucking an arm or both hands into the belt. I put the little finger of my left hand on the paper while writing - and one felt an aristocrat. He often read the letter, holding it not in one hand as usual, but in two. When I put my elbow on the back of a chair, my hand often dangled, I also felt something aristocratic.

His voice leaned towards a light bass. The timbre was pleasant, soft, one could feel an extraordinary nobility, truly human dignity, but there were also echoes of aristocracy. As for his hearing, he was completely preserved until the end of his days and was very thin.

Speech is rhythmic, mostly calm. His speech impressed the audience with its colors, convexity, harmony. At the same time, his speech was unusually simple, neither pathos, nor artificiality, nor deliberation was ever heard in it.

Lev Nikolaevich very often used interjections in his speech: "hm", "oh", "ah", "ay-yay-yay-yay", "ba".

Attitude towards food. Even in his youth, Lev Nikolaevich accustomed himself to simple and moderate food. On December 9, 1850, he wrote in a letter to T. A. Ergolskaya: "I dine at home, eat cabbage soup and porridge and am quite satisfied." At the age of 25, he made himself a rule: "To be abstinent in food and drink." At the age of 27, in his notebook, he noted: "I was never unwell from the fact that I was undernourished, but always from the fact that I overeat" (October, 1855).

The thought of the dangers of excessive consumption of food by people of the privileged class occupied Leo Tolstoy 8 years later, during his work on Anna Karenina, when he was already 45 years old. Over the years, LN Tolstoy became more and more convinced that it was unacceptable to "make pleasure" out of food.

For the last 25 years of his life, the writer did not eat meat or fish. Constantly controlled and pulled myself back. One of his regular dishes was oatmeal.

5. Watching the video "Repin Draws Tolstoy" will complement the students' ideas about the life of the writer in Yasnaya Polyana.

Adding a teacher.

The big house had an outbuilding. Upstairs there were 5 rooms with a dark closet, and downstairs there was one room with stone vaults, a former storage room and a small room next to it, from where a twisted wooden staircase led upstairs. Upstairs there were bedrooms, a nursery, a dining room with a large window and a living room with a small balcony, where they drank coffee after dinner. Downstairs, a room with vaults has recently served as Leo Tolstoy's office. Repin portrayed her as a study.

There was a greenhouse for winter flowers and a greenhouse with peaches in the garden. Here is one day in the life of a great writer. The house was asleep when Tolstoy woke up. Only the servants were on their feet. At 8 o'clock in the morning, he thrust his notebook into his pocket and went down the stairs. The morning walk along the linden alley, or around the house, was short-lived. It ended at the old elm, which he called the elm of the poor, here the peasants were already waiting for him: some asked for the forest, some for alms. Tolstoy listened to everyone in the same way, gave them money.

Tolstoy's early breakfast was short. Then he went into the study, a vaulted room with a double door. At 15.00, Tolstoy left his office and left home for 2-3 hours: on the highway, talking to strangers, in the village, plowing, harrowing, mowing or harnessing a horse and wandering around Yasnaya Polyana for 15-20 miles. He returned rested. He went far into the forest, wandering along low-traffic roads, paths, ravines.

At 6 pm Tolstoy was expected to have dinner. At lunch in the large hall on the terrace, conversations were held with family members and guests. Leo Tolstoy also talked a lot. He knew how to talk to everyone about what interests him.

After dinner, he offered those who knew how to play a game of chess or towns.

After lunch, Tolstoy went to his office, where he looked through the proofs. Oh, these proofs: muffled, crossed out, written up and down!

In the evening they gathered again on the terrace at the table, drank tea. If there were musicians, he asked to play.

In his younger years, Lev Nikolayevich spent the morning at the farm: he would bypass everything or sit on the bee-keeper. He also planted cabbage and raised Japanese pigs. He planted an apple orchard, planted coffee, chicory. He was also occupied with the planting of spruce forests, which made his name immortal in the economy.

6. - As an emotional and impressionable nature, he could not remain indifferent to the poetic word. Here are Tolstoy's favorite poems.

Prepared reading of verses and commentary on them by students.

The ingrained opinion that Tolstoy did not like poetry does not reflect the writer's opinion on poetry. He is very strict in his assessments, that's right. But he greatly appreciated real, true poetry. M. Gorky recalled what Tolstoy said: "We need to learn poetry from Pushkin, Tyutchev, Shenshin." The high requirements that Tolstoy made to poetry consisted mainly in the fact that in a real poem the depth of thought should be harmoniously combined with the beauty of form. The three poetic masterpieces that you will hear now are selected according to the following principle; Tyutchev's poem "Silence" and Pushkin's "Recollection" are included by Tolstoy in the "Reading Circle". Chertkova recalls how Leo Tolstoy read his favorite Tyutchev poem "Silentium" ("Silence"): "He begins quietly and penetratingly, simply and deeply touching, his voice trembles slightly with inner excitement, it is felt that he he himself experienced what the poet says ":

A poem by F.I.Tyutchev sounds.

A. A. Fet's poem “A. L. Brzheskoy "L. N. Tolstoy so appreciated that he wrote to the author:" If it ever breaks and falls asleep in ruins, and only a broken piece is found, there are too many tears in it, then this piece will be put in a museum and study":

A poem by A. A. Fet sounds.

And Pushkin's "Remembrance" leads Tolstoy in his declining years at the beginning of his autobiographical notes and notes: "I would have signed all of them, if only in the last line the word" sad "was replaced by the word" shameful. " It is known that all his life Tolstoy never tired of being executed and judged himself too often and too harshly.

7. - The writer was no stranger to music. The whole family was extremely musical. Almost all family members played the piano. Still, some composers were especially beloved.

Prepared student presentation.

In the history of Russian literature, one cannot find a writer on whom music would exert such a strong influence as on Leo Nikolaevich Tolstoy. "Music moves me to tears!" The music in his works becomes part of the plot, influences the characters. Let us recall the Kreutzer Sonata, Beethoven's Pathetic in Childhood.

He listens to Beethoven, Haydn, Mendelssohn, operas by Weber, Meyerbeer, Rossini, Mozart. I don't like everything, but Lev Nikolaevich immediately singles out Haydn's Symphony and Mozart's Don Juan.

Having gone abroad for six months, Tolstoy literally revels in music. He writes from Paris: "The French play Beethoven and, to my great surprise, like gods, and you can imagine how I am enjoying!"

In 1876, when Tolstoy was already close to completing Anna Karenina, an important event took place in his musical biography: in the summer the violinist Nagornov came to Yasnaya Polyana; among the pieces he played, Beethoven's Kreutzer Sonata was first heard by Leo Tolstoy. According to the testimony of the writer's son, Sergei, she made a particularly strong impression on Lev Nikolaevich at that time and, perhaps, even at that time, thoughts and images arose in him, which were later expressed in the story. Tolstoy believed that Beethoven introduced an unusual drama into the music and thus turned it out of the way. But was it not this drama that defeated Tolstoy every time he wept over Beethoven's Appassionata and considered it one of the composer's best works?

Beethoven's Appassionata is played, possibly performed by a trained student.

He once said about Beethoven: “I don’t love him, that is, it’s not that I don’t love him, but he captures too much, but this is not necessary”.

But at the same time, in the strength of passion, in the power of emotions, Tolstoy the artist is closer to Beethoven than to any other composer, for example, Chopin, whom, by the way, he loved more and more over the years. The drama of Beethoven's feelings was too familiar to the writer from his own everyday work, moreover, he did not know how to listen, as well as write half-heartedly, another thing is Chopin, or Mozart, or Haydn. They had what the writer's soul often craved: clear, positive emotions with his great musical sensitivity. The works of these geniuses brought real, incomparable bliss. Chopin was one of Tolstoy's favorite composers. "He liked almost everything he wrote," Sergei Lvovich Tolstoy writes in his memoirs. Chopin's works were an artistic norm and a model for the writer. Often listening to a piece by Chopin, Tolstoy exclaimed: “This is how you should write! Chopin in music is the same as Pushkin in poetry! "

An excerpt from Chopin's work is played.

8. Word of the teacher. A turning point in views.

15 years of family cloudless life flew by like an instant. Glory is already there, material well-being is assured, the acuteness of the experience has dulled, and he realizes with horror that gradually but surely the end is creeping up. Meanwhile, “Anna Karenina”, “disgusted” by him, is coming to an end. I have to write something again. By nature, he was a man with religious inclinations, but until now he only searched, but found nothing definite. He believed in church religion, as the majority believe in it, without going deep, without thinking. So everyone believes, so his fathers and grandfathers believed. He sees himself above a deep abyss. What to do? Is there no escape? We must find our God! For 1.5 years, Tolstoy zealously observes religious rites, attends mass, fasts, and is touched by the words of some really good prayers. In the summer of 1878, he makes a pilgrimage to Optina Hermitage to the monastery of the famous father Ambrose. On foot, in bast shoes, with a knapsack, together with the servant Arbuzov. But the monastery and Father Ambrose himself disappointed him cruelly. Arriving there, they stayed in a welcome home, covered in mud and lice, dined in a pilgrim's tavern and, like all pilgrims, had to endure and submit to the monastery's barracks discipline. But that was not the main thing. As soon as the servants of the monastery learned that Count Tolstoy himself was among the pilgrims, how everything changed. Such respect, on the one hand, and rudeness, on the other, made a heavy impression on him. He returned from Optina Pustyn displeased. Disappointed in the church, Tolstoy rushed about even more. He, who idealized the family, with love described the life of the nobleman in 3 novels and created his own, similar environment, suddenly began to severely condemn and stigmatize her; he, who was preparing his sons for grammar school and university, began to stigmatize modern science; he, who himself went to the doctor for advice and prescribed doctors for his children and his wife from Moscow, began to deny medicine; he, a passionate hunter, greyhound and game shooter, began to call hunting "chasing dogs"; He, who had been saving up money for 15 years and bought up cheap Bashkir lands in Samara, began to call property a crime, and money - debauchery. And, finally, he, who devoted his whole life to fine literature, began to regret his activity and almost left it forever. The result of this turning point was the article "What is my faith?" - the doctrine of self-improvement. In this hot sermon the program of the novel "Sunday".

9. Analysis of the content of the article "What is my faith?" Work on cards (in writing).Answer the question: “Which of the provisions of Tolstoy's teaching do you agree with and which do you deny? Why?"

The commandments of Jesus Christ from the Sermon on the Mount formed the basis of Leo Tolstoy's teaching.

• Do not resist evil with violence.
• Do not commit adultery and keep your family life pure.
• Do not swear or swear allegiance to anyone or anything.
• Do not take revenge on anyone and do not justify feelings of revenge by the fact that you have offended, learn to endure resentment.
• Remember: all people are brothers. Learn to see good in your enemies too.

Excerpts from an article by L. N. Tolstoy:

“... The life I see, my earthly life, is only a small part of my whole life from both ends of it - before birth and after death - undoubtedly existing, but hiding from my present knowledge. ... fear of death is the voice of the animal "I" of a person living a false life ... for people who have found the joy of life in spiritual love for the world, the fear of death does not exist ... The spiritual being of a person is immortal and eternal, it does not die after the cessation of bodily existence. Everything that I live with was formed from the spiritual life of my ancestors ”;

“Evil cannot destroy evil, the only means of combating violence: - abstinence from violence: only good, meeting with evil, but not being infected by it, is capable of defeating it in active spiritual opposition to evil”;

“… I admit that the egregious fact of violence or murder can force a person to respond with violence. But this situation is a special case. Violence should not be proclaimed as a principle of life, as its law ”;

“On deviations from moral norms it is impossible to assert the rules of life, it is impossible to formulate its laws”;

“True faith in God is never unreasonable, disagreeing with reliable scientific knowledge, and something supernatural cannot be its basis. The Church, verbally recognizing the teaching of Christ, in fact denies his teaching, when it sanctifies social inequality, worships the state power based on violence, participates in the sanctification of executions and wars ”;

“By the nature of their activity, which consists in violence, governments are made up of people who are most far from holiness - insolent, rude, and depraved. Kind people cannot seize and hold power in any way, for lust for power is united not with kindness, but with pride, cunning and cruelty .... The history of two millennia demonstrates the growing contrast between the rise in the moral level of the people and the decline in the moral essence of the state, which means that the circle from which officials are selected is becoming narrower and lower. In intelligence, in education, and most importantly in moral qualities, people in power not only do not constitute the flower of society, but are significantly below its average level. And no matter how much the government changes its officials, they will be mercenary and corrupt ... therefore, the harmonious structure of society is unattainable with the help of political transformations or a revolutionary struggle for power ... the state must be abolished. The abolition of the state will take place not through violence, but through peaceful abstinence and evasion of people, through the refusal of each member of society from all public duties and positions, from all types of political activity. The cessation of obedience to governments and the resignation from government posts and services will cause a reduction in the urban population and a sharp increase in the proportion of agricultural labor. And agricultural life will lead to the most natural communal self-government. The world will become a federation of small rural communities. This will lead to a simplification of life forms and a simplification of man, getting rid of unnecessary, artificial needs, inculcated by a corrupted civilization that cultivates carnal instincts in man ”;

“… In the modern family and society, the sensual instinct is exaggerated and spiritual ties between a man and a woman hang in the balance. The idea of \u200b\u200bfemale emancipation is unnatural, since it destroys the great duties of serving humanity, divided into two spheres from time immemorial: the creation of life benefits and the continuation of the human race itself. Men are attached to the first, women are attached to the second. From this division, responsibilities are also separated from the age. The main duty of a woman is to bear and bring up children ”;

“The upbringing of children in a family should be based on the law of a true life leading to spiritual brotherhood and unity of people. Why does conscious suggestion prevail in modern education? Because society is living a false life. Upbringing will be a difficult and difficult matter as long as people want, without educating themselves, to bring up children. If they understand that it is possible to educate others only through themselves, through their personal example, then the question of education will be eliminated and only one will remain: how to live a true life yourself? Modern educators often hide their lives and, in general, the lives of adults from children. Meanwhile, children are morally much more discerning and sensitive than adults. Truth is the first and most important condition for education. But in order to not be ashamed to show children the whole truth of your life, you need to make your life good, or at least less bad. "

As a manuscript

Gromova

Polina Sergeevna

PROSE a. to. THICK:

PROBLEMS OF GENRE EVOLUTION

dissertation for a scientific degree

candidate of philological sciences

The work was done at the Department of the History of Russian Literature

Tver State University.

supervisor

Official opponents:

doctor of Philology, Professor

phD in Philology, Associate Professor

Leading organization

Institute of World Literature

Scientific Secretary of the Dissertation Council

doctor of Philology, Professor

GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF WORK

The work of the classic of Russian literature, the Count, cannot be called unexplored. And although in the minds of the mass reader Tolstoy is, first of all, a poet and playwright, various researchers have repeatedly turned to his prose. Among them, and others. The observations made by them are valuable and are taken into account in this dissertation. At the same time, many unclear and open questions remain in the study of Tolstoy's prose. Early science fiction and historical prose is traditionally viewed as two isolated and independent stages in the writer's work; the connections of Tolstoy's early prose with his novel did not become the subject of special research. Until now, due to their complexity, the questions about the genre nature of Tolstoy's works and the creative evolution of the writer remain the least illuminated. Although there are special works about Tolstoy's fantastic prose, it has not yet been fully revealed as an artistic unity.

Tolstoy's prose presents a wide variety of genre forms and artistic solutions. It reveals the writer's understanding of contemporary Russian reality and the national-historical past, raises the eternal questions of love, kindness, justice, faith, creativity. At the same time, while displaying genre diversity, Tolstoy's prose is distinguished by its inner unity. The writer did not have a deliberate rejection in his mature period from science fiction and the transition to historical works, this dynamic seems to be quite natural. The preconditions for the historical novel are laid down in early fiction, and the fantastic elements fit organically into the historical novel. Turning to the works of art created by Tolstoy in one or another period of his work, it seems necessary to investigate their genre features in more detail, as well as to trace the formation of characters' images and the development of various themes, ideas and motives. All this directly reflects the creative evolution of Tolstoy. Of particular interest for research in this light is the early fantastic prose, in which the foundations of artistic images and characters developed by Tolstoy in the future are laid, and in addition, the author's manner is formed and the basic artistic principles of creativity are developed, which are implemented in subsequent works of different genres.

Object dissertation research are prose works, namely early fantastic prose ("Ghoul", "The family of a ghoul", "Meeting in three hundred years", "Amena") and the novel "Prince of Silver".

Subject research - genre specificity of works, features of the creative evolution of the writer, as well as the interaction of various literary traditions and artistic innovation in prose.

Relevance and scientific novelty The works are due to the fact that recently interest in Tolstoy's work has greatly increased, but by no means all the problems associated with him can be considered sufficiently illuminated. In this work, for the first time, an attempt is made to trace the evolution of genres and at the same time to comprehend Tolstoy's prose in its unity, as well as to show the relationship between the fantastic and the historical in his works, the pattern of movement from a fantastic depiction of life to romantic historicism.

goal research - to trace the formation and development of the genre system in prose.

Achieving this goal requires solving a number of research tasks:

1. Consider the genre specificity of prose works.

2. To introduce a number of clarifications into the existing ideas about the genre nature of Tolstoy's prose works.

3. Determine the directions of genre transformations associated with the creative evolution of Tolstoy.

Methodological basis of the research:

The dissertation uses historical and literary, comparative genetic and comparative typological research methods. Valuable in the study of this topic were the works on the history of Russian literature and the problems of romanticism, etc., as well as the works of the above authors on creativity. The theoretical basis of the research is the works on poetics,. In questions of the genre, we relied on research and.

Theoretical and practical significance due to the fact that this study makes additions to the understanding of the relationship between artistic design and the genre of the work that has developed in literary criticism. The materials of the dissertation can be used in the practice of university teaching of the history of Russian literature of the 19th century, as well as special courses dedicated to fantastic and historical prose of the 19th century, creativity; to further develop the problems of romanticism and its interaction with other literary methodologies and trends.

Provisions for Defense:

1. The genre nature of Tolstoy's works is closely related to the nature of fiction, which in turn is determined by the writer's creative method.

2. The early fantastic prose of Tolstoy is a complex of works in which the romantic principles of his work are formed, as well as the Gothic literary tradition and some realistic tendencies are reflected.

3. In the work of Tolstoy there was no sharp transition from fantastic prose to historical. Interest in history and elements of historical artistic thinking are clearly visible in his early works, and fantastic elements of early prose, preserved in Tolstoy's later work, organically merge with romantic historicism.

4. "Prince of Silver" is a natural continuation and development of tendencies that formed in Tolstoy's early fantastic prose. The artistic method of Tolstoy the prose writer is most fully embodied in the novel.

5. "Prince Silver" - a romantic historical novel. The definition of "romantic" is fundamentally important, since the novel reflects the understanding of history that is characteristic of romanticism.

6. Tolstoy's prose, despite its genre diversity, is a dynamic artistic unity.

Research approbation held at the II International Scientific Conference "Moscow in Russian and World Literature" (Moscow, RAS IMLI named after November 2-3, 2010), Annual student scientific conferences (Tver, Tver State University, city), International scientific conferences "World of Romanticism "(Tver, May 21-23, 2009; Tver, May 13-15, 2010), International scientific conference" V Akhmatov readings. ,: Book. Piece of art. Document "(Tver - Bezhetsk May 21 - 23, 2009), Regional scientific conference" Tver book: ancient Russian heritage and modernity "(Tver, February 19, 2010), educational and scientific seminar" The theme of the night in romantic literature "(Tver , TvSU, April 17, 2010), educational and scientific seminar "Landscape in romantic literature" (Tver, TvSU, April 9, 2011).

The main provisions of the dissertation are highlighted in 11 articles published in regional and central specialized publications. A list of published works is given at the end of the abstract.

Work structure... The dissertation consists of an introduction, three chapters, a conclusion and a bibliography (225 titles).

MAIN CONTENT OF WORK

In administered the history of the study of Tolstoy's artistic heritage is briefly presented, the degree of research of the problems associated with his work is characterized, the subject and purpose of this work, its relevance, theoretical and practical significance are determined.

The first chapter - "Early Fantastic Prose" - is dedicated to Tolstoy's prosaic dilogy "The family of a ghoul and" Meeting in three hundred years "as his first fantastic works.

The first paragraph of the chapter "Romantic concept of the fantastic and creativity"includes an overview of romantic views on fantasy and imagination, necessary for understanding Tolstoy's relationship to the fantastic in fiction, and contains a comparison of these views with the position of the writer himself.

Since romantic notions of the fantastic are considered in detail in the dissertation on Russian material, in our work, taking into account Tolstoy's deep connections with the European romantic tradition, the main emphasis is on the aesthetics of foreign romanticism.

As you know, in the aesthetic works of F. Schlegel, C. Nodier and other romanticists, an extensive and multifaceted concept of fantasy-imagination has been developed, affecting both ontological aspects and direct aspects of artistic creation. In one of his articles, Charles Nodier wrote: "The two main sanctuaries of freedom are the faith of a religious person and the fantasy of a poet." Romantics especially appreciated the ability to imagine in modern, purely pragmatic reality.

Tolstoy was in the highest degree characteristic of that mystical feeling of life, which in his works is the basis for the definition of romanticism. According to the remarks, “Romanticism was valuable for Tolstoy in its most diverse aspects and manifestations: in the assertion of an ideal world, striving for the“ supra-star ”, eternal and infinite, in the worship of beauty, the cult of art as a“ step to a better world, ”the pathos of the original and national , in the charm of the mysterious and miraculous, etc. " Continuing his passion for science fiction, which was characteristic of Russian literature in the 30s - 40s. XIX century., Tolstoy's early prose reveals a connection with the tradition of early European romanticism. According to our observations, it fully expressed the characteristic of romantics immersion in the fantastic world, the assertion of the value and multidimensionality of science fiction, the desire to formulate the deep problems of life through science fiction, as well as the combination of the fantastic with the ironic.

Tolstoy's early prose is traditionally called fantastic, since it is united by the motives of the supernatural, invading ordinary reality. Tolstoy makes extensive use of the philosophical, aesthetic and expressive possibilities of fantasy: in his early prose, it reflects the author's view of the world, becomes one of the main ways to reveal the characters of the heroes and the problems of works. The dissertation develops the position that, behind the usual everyday life, Tolstoy's writers' fantasy seems to see the true structure of the universe, reveals patterns and cause-and-effect relationships between events that at first glance are not connected, thereby creating an idea of \u200b\u200bthe diversity and unity of the Universe.

Fantasy in Tolstoy's work reflects the very "human truth" that is opposed to mechanical imitation in the depiction of nature, events, characters. This "truth" is nothing more than the Artist's loyalty to himself (see ibid.), To his principles and to understand reality, which cannot be reflected in a work of art without imagination. Thus, according to Tolstoy, fantasy turns out to be connected, on the one hand, with the freedom of artistic creation, and, on the other hand, with familiarization with the deepest secrets of the universe. Therefore, it seems logical that the fantastic motives and images that first appeared in Tolstoy's early prose do not disappear from his works in the future, but continue to develop throughout the entire creative path.

In the second paragraph of the first chapter - "Genre features of the stories" Ghoul's Family "and" Meeting in three hundred years "" - the question is raised about the specifics of these two works as a romantic dilogy, their main genre features are determined, and general motives that will be developed in subsequent works of the writer are considered in detail.

The stories "The Family of a Ghoul" and "Meeting in Three Hundred Years" are not dated, but most researchers agree that they are the earliest experiments of Tolstoy in prose (late 30s - early 40s). These works are traditionally and fairly united by researchers into a dilogy.

The dissertation provides new evidence of the structural commonality of the stories, reveals the artistic connections that hold them together. So, the narratives on behalf of the heroes are placed in frames. The inner text and the text framing interact in an original way, a complex system of points of view is formed. The multi-level structure of a small work allows the writer to push the genre boundaries, to significantly expand the scope of the pictorial and expressive possibilities of the story.

Tolstoy's dilogy not only possesses common motives, flowing from one work to another, but also contains what is developed in further work. Already in these works of Tolstoy, "a sense of history" and the ability to recreate the color and style of the era were expressed. The action of the stories is attributed to the past and has a precise historical confinement (1759, 1815). The dissertation suggests that the dating of events had a certain meaning for Tolstoy, and behind it is a controversy with skepticism and rationalism of the Enlightenment: fantastic incidents are experienced by heroes of the educational make-up of character, who, as a result of terrible adventures experienced, are convinced of the existence of a world that has never been discussed before. suspected. Through the spiritual image, speech, behavior, individual fates of the heroes, Tolstoy seeks to draw the image of the gallant century of Louis XV, the court aristocracy, and at the same time the customs of rural Moldova. The brightness of the reproduction of the color of the era is enhanced by the fact that the stories are written in French. All this does not make Tolstoy's stories historical (historical events and characters are mentioned rather briefly and mainly in the framing narrative), but they still contain features that he considers important for the poetics of a romantic novel.

The paragraph shows that the unified content that unfolds in the stories, along with fantastic events, already includes a novel beginning. Fantastic events develop against the background of the heroes' love relationship.

In the first stories, a powerful nodal, organizing element appears, stylistically marked in the text of the work and acting as a basic plot scheme. In "The Ghoul's Family" it is Zdenka's song sung in her native language, in the second story it is a family legend about the heroine's great-grandmother. These elements not only reveal the plot scheme, but also help to reveal the leading motive of the dilogy - the motive for crime and atonement.

The research literature (,) has already noted the connection of both stories with the Gothic tradition. On this basis, Tolstoy's early fantastic prose is often defined as Gothic. In our opinion, Tolstoy perceives Gothic through the prism of its comprehension by romanticism. It is from the romantics that Tolstoy inherits the fundamental polysemy of fantasy, the most complex fluctuations in meaning. The fantastic had several meanings for romantics, but above all it was associated with the ability to see the secrets of the universe, to comprehend reality. In Tolstoy, the fantastic becomes an expression of the deep laws of the Universe; it acts as an active principle driving the fate of heroes.

A common feature of Tolstoy's stories is seen in the motive of the path. This motif, which is consistent with Tolstoy's work, plays a plot-forming role in early fantastic prose, strengthening the connections between individual episodes, and, in addition, translates into reality the romantic idea of \u200b\u200bthe eternal dynamics of life.

The problem of family and home occupies a significant place in Tolstoy's first stories. Family ties, their emergence or disintegration, the hero's marital status and his ancestry turn out to be important plot-forming components. Of particular importance are the ideas of moral duty and family continuity, which is manifested in the possibility of atonement through many generations.

The third paragraph of the chapter - "The system of images in the stories" The family of the ghoul "and" Meeting in three hundred years "" - is devoted to the complex analysis of the images of the heroes of the dilogy. The paragraph also compares the heroes of the dilogy and the novel by A. Hamilton "Memoirs of the Comte de Gramont", based on which, perhaps, the works of Tolstoy were created.

The Marquis d'Urfe ("The Ghoul's Family") and the Duchess de Gramont ("Meeting in Three Hundred Years") are heroes of the same era and the same circle, their cultural affinity is obvious. The images of these heroes are created by Tolstoy at the junction of the romantic tradition and the tradition of French gallant prose of the XIIX century, in which a subtle sense of historical flavor is manifested.

The Marquis d'Urfe, a man of his desires and passions, confronts the beyond and assures himself of its existence. The Duchess de Gramont is a real socialite, experienced in love games. However, a childlike faith in supernatural forces is alive in her soul, fantastic images from a legend she once heard appear in her imagination with extraordinary vividness. The fantastic events that happened to the heroes do not drastically change their characters, but they nevertheless discover a different area of \u200b\u200bbeing. The image of d'Urfe is endowed with the features of a romantic wanderer, and a collision with a fantastic world emphasizes the complexity and originality of his nature.

In addition to the images of the main characters, the dissertation specifically examines the system of doubles in both stories, which once again emphasizes the artistic unity of the works and the presence of the novel beginning in the dilogy.

In the second chapter - "" Ghoul "and" Amena "in the context of creative searches" - the genre features of the writer's works are analyzed from the standpoint of his further creative quests.

In the first paragraph - "" Ghoul "as a romantic fantasy story" - we are talking about the development in the story of the structural features and motives stated in the two early stories.

In the story "Ghoul", as in the stories, the framework structure of the narrative is realized. However, the story is a significantly more complicated system of frames. The narrative becomes ramified; the special structure of the story reveals the cause-and-effect relationship between real and fantastic events, which generally corresponds to the author's picture of the world.

The central place in the story is the family legend about Martha's crime against her husband and about the family curse that it entailed. This legend plays the role of an eventful and compositional nucleus, a center to which all lines of the narrative are drawn in one way or another. It should be viewed as the "ideological hub of all incidents" underlying the story's plot and functionally identical to Zdenka's song and family tradition in the early dilogy.

The story contains motifs that are common to all of Tolstoy's prose. The paragraph examines the motives of the path, family and home, the idea of \u200b\u200ba person's moral duty and life values. Unlike earlier stories, in Tolstoy's story the motive of the path is implicitly expressed (travels through the fantastic world). At the same time, the fantastic in "Ghoul" becomes a genre-forming principle: it permeates the entire work, determines the development of the plot.

The fantastic beginning is in a complex relationship with the historical. The events of the "Ghoul" unfold in a time close to the author, but the historical past is uniquely included in it (for example, referring to records in the city archive of Como). Through the colorful images of the old-fashioned Moscow brigadier Sugrobina and adviser Telyaev, the Russian 18th century seems to come to life. The author's sense of history, the desire to reveal the contradictory nature of the era through human individuality is manifested here very clearly.

In the second paragraph of the chapter - "Fantastic as a genre basis for the story" Ghoul "" - substantiates the importance of the definition of "Ghoul" as a romantic fantasy story.

In romantic literature, the fantastic becomes a way not only to recreate the popular worldview, but also to comprehend reality and human consciousness. The dark, “nocturnal” fiction, characteristic of late romanticism, is associated by most researchers with the desire to penetrate the essence of a terrible, disharmonious reality. Romantics are interested in transcendental spheres, riddles of the universe and its secret laws that appear in everyday life. The story implements Tolstoy's romantic outlook, in which the ability to fantastically see the environment occupied a very large place. Thus, the familiar world appears to be infinitely deep and mysterious.

Tolstoy's early works are full of fantastic images that genetically go back to many sources, including ancient mythology, Little Russian folklore, and literary tradition. The fantastic in Tolstoy has an ambivalent nature. On the one hand, the "dark" forces are destroying Rybarenko and Antonio and endangering the lives of Vladimir, Dasha, Runevsky, but, on the other hand, the intervention of the fantastic leads to the fact that the lovers unite safely and retribution for the ancient betrayal is performed. But it cannot be argued that the fantastic finally leaves reality. The ending of the story is twofold: despite the fact that the plot ends well, Runevsky is deeply imbued with faith in otherworldly forces and fantastic worlds.

In the story "The Ghoul," the dark fantasy is personified in a number of characters whose nature is dual: for example, the foreman turns out to be a cursed beauty, the state councilor is a ghoul. The description of these characters is not devoid of romantic irony. The image of the Black Domino, which has not been previously considered by researchers, stands apart. The dissertation examines the infernal nature of this character and proposes his following interpretation: by invading the human world, evil becomes even more terrible and destructive because the appearance that it takes is indistinguishable from the human. The extreme blurring of this image allows one to "suspect" the Black Domino in every person. Black Domino is "Somebody", nobody, and therefore - everyone, anyone, everything. Any person you meet can turn out to be the bearer of a dark, hostile beginning, and this is the tragic pathos of Tolstoy's philosophy.

The fantastic in "Ghoul" comes closest to everyday life, becomes inseparable and practically indistinguishable from it. Tolstoy makes extensive use of the technique of "everyday life" of fantasy, and the whipping up of the terrible in the spirit of the Gothic tradition is closely intertwined with the romantic irony that often accompanies the introduction of the fantastic: the jewelry Rybarenko bought from a smuggler turns into human bones, including a child's skull, and at the same time An ordinary pistol becomes an effective weapon in the fight against ghost vampires.

The relationship of the fantastic and the real is clearly manifested in the causal relationships between the events taking place in the story "Ghoul". The priority in relation to the causality of events is given by the author to the fantastic. This corresponds to the romantic understanding of life as a miracle and in many ways reflects the worldview of Tolstoy himself. "The affirmation of the greatest" miracle "of life, birth, death, the" miracle "of creation and creativity - this was precisely the pathos of romanticism and the reasons for its greatest charm and popularity."

Third paragraphcalled "The system of images of the story" Ghoul "".

Creating a developed system of images, Tolstoy is based on the principle of the duality of characters and, at the same time, their different psychological reactions: heroes find themselves in similar situations, the test is fantastic, because in Tolstoy's understanding, the fantastic is “an astral force, an executor of decisions, a force that serves both good and evil. ". The different behavior of the characters contributes to the disclosure of their characters.

The dissertation compares three heroes (Runevsky, Rybarenko and Vladimir), clarifies their roles in the artistic world of the story. In our opinion, the romantic motive of high madness is associated with the image of Rybarenko. The hero acts as an exponent of the mindset of an entire era, but this era is coming to an end. On the other hand, the image of Rybarenko affirms the vitality and relevance of romantic ideals and aspirations.

The protagonist of the story, Runevsky, is given by Tolstoy in evolution. At the beginning of the story, this is an ordinary secular young man, but, joining the fantastic world, he plays his role in resolving the family curse. The dissertation traces the change in the hero's outlook as the plot develops. The dialectic character of Runevsky's image reflects the attention to the inner world of man, which originated in the literature of romanticism and developed in realistic literature.

The image of Dasha is of particular research interest. The heroine has no features that could be called portrait. It does not have a specific appearance, it is like a shaky vision. But, starting to paint the image in a romantic way, in the future Tolstoy takes a different path: resorting to psychological analysis, he seeks to concretize the image, to give it a greater likeness of life.

In the fourth paragraph - "Genre and problems of the novel" Amena " - the genre is specified and the artistic features of the latest work in the series of Tolstoy's fantastic prose are investigated.

In our opinion, relying on the literary tradition, systematizing his own artistic finds, Tolstoy sums up certain results of his literary activity and creates an extraordinary work in terms of structure, genre and collision.

In comparison with previous works, the historical basis of "Amena" deepens. Tolstoy refers to a very difficult, in many ways tragic time in ancient history: the era of early Christianity. The color of this era is recreated in the details of the situation, the characters of the characters, their behavior. At the same time, the historical time reflected in Amen, without losing its specific features, acquires a mythological character. The motives of the moral decline of Rome and the suffering of early Christians are bizarrely combined with fantastic motives. The mythological character of the time in "Amen", as well as the eternal problems of friendship, love, betrayal and remorse developed in the passage, determine the universality of the theme. In a particular episode, the general laws of historical development are traced, history appears in its movement and manifests itself in the lives of specific people. An important idea for the author is being developed that the history of mankind is an inseparable process, and that events that happened once do not pass without a trace, but have long-term consequences.

Amen has a double framework. In terms of genre, the text inserted into the frame is a philosophical literary parable that combines a description of specific events and an allegorical layer containing religious and moral instruction. The crime committed by Ambrose are crimes against conscience, against the general moral and ethical laws, the expression of which is Christianity. Tolstoy deviates from the tradition of early romanticism, which idealized antiquity, and turns out to be closer to the religious ideas of the later romantics.

Further in the paragraph, the complexity and ambiguity of constructing the image of the protagonist of "Amena" Ambrose is subjected to special consideration. At first glance, his glare and behavior evokes associations with the image of an infernal villain: Ambrose tells a terrible instructive story. But gradually it becomes clear that the hero of this story is himself, and a dissonance arises between the conventional Gothic appearance and the complex inner world of man. The character of Ambrose is revealed in dynamics, reflecting a difficult transitional era in the history of mankind.

The third chapter - "" Prince of Silver "as a romantic historical novel" - is a study of the artistic world and genre nature of the novel "Prince of Silver".

The first paragraph - "On some patterns of development of Russian historical prose"- is dedicated to the genre of the historical novel in Russian literature and in the works of Tolstoy.

The dissertation defends the idea of \u200b\u200bthe regularity of the appearance of a historical novel in Tolstoy's work, since interest in history, attention to historical color was already present in his early works. Historicism is naturally affirmed in the work of Tolstoy.

Tolstoy's deep interest in history is associated with its understanding in romanticism. For romantics, history was an expression of the idea of \u200b\u200ba moving, happening in front of life, the history of romance was understood as a dynamic process (,). In their works, romantics artistically comprehend reality, including historical, trying to penetrate into the laws operating in it, emphasizing its complex and contradictory nature.

The development of the Russian historical novel is most often associated with the works of W. Scott. However, it is incorrect to explain the appearance of the historical novel in Russian literature only by European influence. Throughout the XVIII century. Russia is actively joining the cultural European context, gradually moving from mechanical borrowing to meaningful and selective continuity. In this regard, the need for national self-identification, an appeal to one's own history and culture, and the search for one's roots and original ideas in all spheres of social life is becoming increasingly obvious. Thus, the appearance of the genre of the historical story, and then of the historical novel, in Russian literature is quite natural. It seems logical to turn to the history of Tolstoy: a consistent romantic, he saw in history a reflection of the current life, as well as the causes of many problems and difficulties of modern Russian society.

In the second paragraph - "Principles of Romantic Historicism" - based on existing research, some features of Tolstoy's historical concept are clarified

As you know, Tolstoy retained interest in national history and culture throughout his entire career. History provided Tolstoy with ample opportunities both for artistic creation and for expressing his philosophical, ethical, aesthetic, civic position. However, the most important in the works of Tolstoy are moral conflicts. History in its dynamics becomes both the embodiment and the development of these conflicts, revealing the close connection between past eras and the present. In the novel "Prince Silver" Tolstoy explores the moral meaning of the era of Ivan the Terrible in an artistic form and comes to the conclusion that the lessons of history do not pass without leaving a trace. Tolstoy affirms the idea of \u200b\u200bthe connection between generations and the responsibility of one generation for what was done by the previous one. This idea, which developed in the novel, originates in early fantastic prose.

Tolstoy, like many Russian writers, in the past was interested in bright, strong, strong-willed personalities, who were often not found in modern times. The novel presents a thorough (almost painstaking) study of the personality of Grozny. The character of the Silver is manifested in his actions, which are performed at the behest not so much of the mind as of the heart. The character of Godunov, whose life position, on the contrary, is fundamentally rationalistic, is revealed in disputes with Serebryany. A love conflict helps to understand the image of Vyazemsky, Skuratova - a family one. And although the methods of psychologism that Tolstoy resorts to are different, through the images of all the heroes of the novel, one way or another, the complexity and ambiguity of the transitional era in the history of Russia is expressed.

As researchers have repeatedly noted, Tolstoy, working in the creation of works with many sources and insisting on observing even the historical spelling, still handles history itself rather freely. He allows anachronisms and a kind of montage of historical time. For Tolstoy as a romantic writer, the high moral meaning of history and its movement was of paramount importance, and by no means external historical plausibility. In romantic art, the most important is not the truth of the fact, but the truth of the ideal, the fateful aspiration of history, its regularity and higher meaning. Tolstoy sees this meaning in overcoming evil with good, love, forgiveness.

In the third paragraph - "Moral conflict and problems of the novel" Prince Silver "" - the problematics of the novel is analyzed and the transformation of themes, ideas and motives of early prose in the novel is traced.

Considering the conflict of the "Prince of Silver", we note its romantic nature. Enthusiasm and despotism collide in the novel: the deeds for the good of people that Serebryany performs without hesitation are opposed to the crimes of Grozny, who deliberately suppresses both individual people and the whole Russian people.

Special attention in the dissertation is given to the ending of the novel. The dissertation proves its complex, "promising" nature: the appearance of the theme of the conquest of Siberia, further Russian history, the image of the heroism and prowess of the Russian people create a brighter historical perspective and soften the gloomy image of the cruel age of Ivan the Terrible. The creation of a bright historical perspective is seen in the dissertation as a striking feature of the romantic history novel.

In the novel, Tolstoy continues to develop the themes, ideas, motives that he declared in fantastic works, and resorts to some already tested artistic techniques.

Thus, in the organization of the novel, traces of the framework structure characteristic of early science fiction prose are felt. In the preface and at the end of the novel, the author's narrative principle is powerfully manifested, which holds the artistic unity of the work together.

Another structural feature of Tolstoy's early fantastic prose, realized in the novel, is the nodal element. In the novel, it is a scene of prophetic witchcraft at the mill. The key element in the works of Tolstoy is that point in the development of the plot from which the further course of events and the fate of the heroes can be seen. The presence of key elements is an important principle of organizing Tolstoy's prose.

A number of motives of Tolstoy's early prose are originally refracted in the novel. "Prince Silver" is built as a novel-journey. Silver moves actively throughout the action; we meet him and part on the road. Silver's journey, with no apparent ultimate goal, is not meaningless. At each stage of the path, the hero does what his moral duty, loyalty to the king, loyalty to the fatherland dictate to him. Silver is an enthusiastic hero and active movement is an important aspect of his image. Every time, acting as his conscience and honor tell him, Serebryany begins a new stage of his journey, by his actions in every situation unconsciously contributing to the affirmation of goodness and justice.

The death of Serebryany, which caused bewilderment among Tolstoy's contemporaries, seems to us logical. The hero himself admits: “My thoughts have gone mad ...<…> now everything in front of me has darkened; I do not see anymore, where is the lie, where is the truth. All good perishes, all evil overcomes!<…> Often, Elena Dmitrievna, Kurbsky would come to my mind, and I drove away these sinful thoughts from myself, while there was still a purpose for my life, as long as there was strength in me; but I have no more goal, and my strength has reached the end ... ". The destruction of state foundations, the collapse of the ideals of a just government, national disasters are perceived by Serebryany as a personal catastrophe. Throughout the novel, the hero follows his ideals, "the dictates of a noble heart," but those events, the witness or participant of which he turns out to be, do not pass without a trace for him. By the end of the novel, the hero finds himself face to face with the need to reconsider his priorities, reassess spiritual and civic values. Serebryany's early death saves him from moral torment, which could turn into betrayal (of the fatherland or his ideals) and insanity. Thus, throughout his entire life, Silver remains faithful to the ideals of honor, nobility and active good. Tolstoy's idea of \u200b\u200bthe integral being of an integral personality in the novel "Prince of Silver" was embodied most fully.

Family and home motives occupy an important place in the novel. The families depicted in the novel "Prince of Silver" are not well-being, but conflicts between members of the same family are based, as a rule, not on family, but on moral and ethical grounds (for example, the conflict between Maxim Skuratov and his father). The novel shows the process of disintegration of family ties, coupled with the motives of homelessness and wandering, characteristic of the romanticism of the Byronic period.

Romantic fiction, which determines the main content of Tolstoy's early prose, also occupies an important place in his novel. Fantastic and real-historical principles are not opposed, but actively interact with each other, generating an organic world of a work of art, the originality of which is ensured by the implementation of the author's expanded concept of reality. Compared to early prose, where fiction was explicit (terminology), in the novel it becomes veiled, but does not lose its significance. First, the key element of the novel is associated with the interpenetration of the fantastic and the real. Secondly, the fantastic reflects the beliefs of the people of the 16th century and helps to recreate the national and historical flavor of the novel.

The conclusion summarizes the results of the dissertation research. Consideration of genre evolution led us to the conclusion that Tolstoy's prose is an integral phenomenon, it reveals the constancy of his aesthetic principles and writers' interests. There was no sharp transition between the stages of Tolstoy's work: what appeared in his novel was laid down in his early prose works.

The main provisions of the dissertation are reflected

in the following publications:

Publications in peer-reviewed scientific journals included in the register of the Higher Attestation Commission of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation:

1. Gromova: on the issue of creative evolution // Izvestia RGPU im. ... Series: Social and Human Sciences. - No. 000. - St. Petersburg: Russian State Pedagogical University named after , 2011. - No. 000. - P. 54 - 61.

2. Gromova and Problems of Prose // Vestnik TVGU. Series: Philology. - Tver: Tver. state un-t, 2011. - Issue. 3. - S. 206 - 210.

Publications in other publications:

3. By the way about literary hoaxes and creative searches of the count (based on the stories "The family of a ghoul" and "Meeting in three hundred years") // Romanticism: edges and destinies. Uch. app. NIUL CYPRUS TvSU. - Tver: Tver. state un-t, 2008 .-- S. 44-48.

4. Gromova images in the story "Ghoul" in the context of the Russian historical and literary movement from romanticism to realism // World of romanticism: materials of Intern. scientific conference "The World of Romanticism". - Tver, May 26 - 29, 2008 - Tver: Tver. state un-t, 2008. - T.13 (37). - S. 253 - 258.

5. Gromov's science fiction in early prose // Word: Sat. scientific. works of students and graduate students. - Tver, 2009. - Issue. 7. - S. 18 - 23.

6. Gromova's dualism and the spatial organization of prose // World of romanticism: collection of articles. scientific. Tr .: To the 95th anniversary of the professor's birth and the 50th anniversary of the romantic school he created. - Tver: Tver. state un-t, 2009. –T– S. 210-219.

7. Gromov's fantasy and fiction in the aesthetics of Western European romantics // Romanticism: facets and destinies: Scientific notes. REC CYPRUS TvSU. - Tver: Scientific book, 2010. - Issue 9. - pp. 19–25.

8. Thunderous nights in prose // Romanticism: facets and destinies: textbook. app. REC CYPRUS TvSU. - Tver: Scientific book, 2010. - Issue 9. - S. 81-86.

9. Gromov of Moscow in the novel "Prince Silver" // Moscow in Russian and world literature: abstracts. report II International Scientific Conference. - Moscow, RAS IMLI them. , 2010 .-- P.8 - 9.

10. Gromova Skopins-Shuisky in creative understanding // Materials of the regional scientific conference "Tver book: ancient Russian heritage and modernity." - Tver, 2010 .-- pp. 37 - 49.

11. Gromova is a prose hero in the context of the theory of passionarity. // Materials of the International Scientific Conference “V Akhmatov Readings. ,: Book. Piece of art. Document". - Tver: Tver. state un-t, 2009 .-- P.74 - 81.

12. "Amena" to the problem of the hero // Bulletin of the Tver State University. Series: Philology. - Tver: Tver. state un-t, 2010. - Issue. 5. - p. 176 - 180.

Tver State University

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Fedorov, fantastic prose and the traditions of romanticism in Russian prose of the 40s: an abstract of the dissertation ... of a candidate of philological sciences. –M., 2000. - 33 p.

See: Fedorov. op.

Literary manifestos of Western European romantics / ed. ... - M .: Nauka, 1980 .-- P. 411.

Zhirmunsky romanticism and modern mysticism.- SPb .: Akhuma, 1996.

Kartashov's fiction in romantic works of the forties // World of romanticism: collection of articles. scientific. works. - Tver: TvGU, 2003. - T - S. 87.

Tolstoy staging the tragedy "" on the stage // Tolstoy's works in 4 volumes - M .: Pravda, 1980. - T. 3. - P. 446.

See: Reizov's novel of the 19th century. - M .: Higher school, 1977 .-- S. 9 - 31.

Memoirs of Count de Gramont. - M .: Hood. lit., 1993.

Kartashov into the theory of romanticism. –Tver: TVGU, 1991. –S. 53.

Tolstoy from 01.01.01 // Tolstoy. cit. - T. 4. - P. 353.

According to most biographers, "Amena" was written in 1846. See about this:,: Biography and analysis of his main works. - St. Petersburg: I. Zagryazhsky, 1909; Kondratyev: materials for the history of life and work. - SPb .: Lights, 1912; "The heart is full of inspiration ...": Life and work. - Tula: Priok. book ed., 1973.

Tolstoy Silver // Tolstoy. op. - T. 2. - P. 372.

Gorky said about Tolstoy that his works were "written with terrible, almost miraculous power." This power of depicting life is determined by the unsurpassed realism of Tolstoy's work. Lenin calls Tolstoy's realism "the most sober realism." Painting Russian reality with rich, multicolored paints, Tolstoy at the same time acts as a judge of the false sides of life, fearlessly tearing "all and all kinds of masks" from people and life. It is enough to point to the depiction of the horrors of war in the novel War and Peace, to Andrei Bolkonsky's reasoning about the essence of war (in Chapter XXV of the third volume of the novel) and the characterization of high society in the novel to understand the "terrible" revealing power of Tolstoy's realism.

Tolstoy's technique of exposure is expressed, in particular, in the fact that he likes to call things "by their proper names." Thus, in the novel War and Peace, he calls the marshal's baton simply a stick, and the magnificent church robe in the novel Resurrection — a brocade sack.

Tolstoy's striving for realism also explains the fact that Tolstoy impartially points out flaws in the character of even his favorite characters. He does not hide, for example, that Pierre Bezukhov threw himself headlong into unrestrained revelry, that Natasha cheated on Prince Andrei, etc.

The great artistic achievement of Tolstoy the realist was his deep comprehension of "fluidity", the mobility of human nature (people are like rivers ... "). He was attracted not only by finished, already formed characters, but also by heroes who did not stop in their development, capable of moral crises, spiritual rebirth. Overcoming the rationalistic explanation of the human character, Tolstoy did not agree with the idea of \u200b\u200bthe irresistible influence of the environment on a person. The great artist strove in every possible way to awaken people's self-awareness. And it is no coincidence that his beloved heroes were so persistently looking for independent answers to the most important, most pressing questions about the meaning of life, about the purpose of human existence. The writer was convinced that a person himself should bear moral responsibility for his actions, for his entire life. And quite naturally, the growing resistance of his heroes to those circumstances that prevent the fullest manifestation of their spiritual essence.

The striving for the deepest truth of life, right up to the "tearing off of all and all kinds of masks" is the main feature of Tolstoy's artistic realism.

For example, in War and Peace, realism manifests itself in the fact that historical figures, nobles (Bolkonsky, Bezukhov, Rostov, etc.) become its heroes. Every character, every character is typical.

The most important features of L. N. Tolstoy - artist and thinker:

1. Tolstoy reflected the era of preparation for this revolution, reproduced in his books the period from 1861 to 1904, “when everything just turned upside down and began to fit in.” So, Tolstoy's era is a post-reform and pre-revolutionary era, this is an era of acute crisis of the Christian religion, classical culture and the human spirit. Tolstoy in his works showed the tragedy of the spirit in this era of crisis.

2. Reflecting an entire epoch in the history of Russia, Tolstoy's work became the result of the development of Russian literature over the entire century.

3. Tolstoy was the first noble writer in Russian literature, who finally broke with the social psychology of his class and deliberately converted to the peasant faith, that is, to the position of the patriarchal peasantry.

4. Tolstoy is not just and not only an artist of words. He saw in literature not a profession, but a means of education and self-education of a person. In the process of creativity, he was not worried about technical issues of plot, composition, language, but only moral and religious problems of the meaning of life, conscience, death and immortality, freedom, dependence, truth, fate, happiness. Therefore, Tolstoy is also a moralist, preacher, philosophizing thinker, who created an original doctrine, which had 3 main directions:

Simplification (example from the novel "War and Peace": Pierre after captivity under the influence of Karataev);

Moral self-improvement (the leading idea of \u200b\u200bTolstoy's entire life);

Non-resistance of evil by violence (a call to fight evil by any means, except for one - violence; example, position - “I can’t be silent!” Meaning: the statement of double humanism: the humanism of not only goals, but also the humanism of the means of achieving them.

Leo Tolstoy attached special importance to moral self-improvement, therefore the ideological and moral searches of the heroes became the core of the problematic of the entire work. His characters are developing characters, changing under the influence of impressions and experiences. L. Tolstoy uses psychological techniques to make character evolution look as convincing as possible. The writer never depicts the inner world of the hero just like that: in any spiritual movement and experience, a moral meaning is important to him. The peculiarities of L. Tolstoy's approach to man determined the principles of psychologism in his novels.

The most important method of Leo Tolstoy's psychologism is the dialectic of the soul. The term belongs to Chernyshevsky

The main feature of the dialectic of the soul is that mental life appears as a process, as a change of feelings, thoughts, volitional impulses with other feelings and thoughts, including those directly opposite. Tolstoy shows something extremely important that determines the structure of a person's mental life and does it first: he reveals the secret of the very appearance of feeling. All the others worked with feeling as with a ready-made, happened fact, Tolstoy shows how it comes into being. In modern terms, this is the realm of the subconscious. The dialectic of the soul is the spontaneous life of the psyche, uncontrollable, not meaningful and not summed up even for the hero himself.

In the sphere of reception, the method of dialectic of the soul most adequately implements the inner monologue of the hero. In Tolstoy's world, he acquires significant specificity: here logic disappears, sometimes even grammar norms are violated - this is how spontaneous inner mental life proceeds.

The dialectic of the soul made it possible to visually and artistically convincingly trace in all details the process of a person's moral self-improvement. The dialectic of the soul required the most complete and detailed reproduction of all the nuances of a person's inner life, for which L. Tolstoy resorts to such a variety of narrative-compositional form as the stream of consciousness. This technique is an internal monologue, taken to its logical limit, and creates the illusion of an absolutely chaotic, disordered movement of thoughts and experiences.

Another feature of L. Tolstoy as a writer-psychologist is a kind of understanding of the external detail: the external, sometimes even accidental detail at key moments becomes an element of the hero's inner world. This "detail-impression" becomes the last point that makes clear to the hero himself his psychological state (for example, "high, endless sky" over Austerlitz for Prince Andrew).

The organization of artistic time in psychological analysis is remarkable in the works of L. Tolstoy. The writer is characterized by a discrepancy between the time in which the experience actually occurs and the time of the story about it. The duration of the story about the state does not depend on the duration of the experience itself. Such an organization of artistic time allows the reader to convey to the reader all the richness of the heroes' inner world, to explain in detail the psychological processes and states.

AUTOBIOGRAPHIC TRILOGY

The appearance in 1852 on the pages of the Sovremennik magazine of the stories of L. Tolstoy “Childhood”, and then “Boyhood” (1854) and “Youth” (1857) became a significant event in Russian literary life.

It has rightly been noted that Tolstoy's autobiographical trilogy was not intended for children's reading. Rather, it is a book about a child for adults. According to Tolstoy, childhood is the norm and model for humanity, because the child is still spontaneous, he learns simple truths not by reason, but by an unerring feeling, he is able to establish natural relationships between people, since he is not yet connected with the external circumstances of nobility, wealth, etc. The point of view is important for Tolstoy: narration on behalf of a boy, then a young man, Nikolenka Irteniev, gives him the opportunity to look at the world, evaluate it, and understand it from the standpoint of the "natural" child's consciousness, not tainted by the prejudices of the environment. The difficulty of the life path of the hero of the trilogy lies precisely in the fact that gradually his fresh, still direct perception of the world is distorted as soon as he begins to accept the rules and moral laws of his society. The idea of \u200b\u200bmoral improvement is becoming one of the most essential features of the philosophical thought, aesthetics and artistic creation of L. Tolstoy.

Already in the autobiographical trilogy, Tolstoy's intense interest is clearly visible not in external events, but in the details of the inner world, the inner development of the hero, his "dialectic of the soul," as Chernyshevsky wrote in his review of the writer's early works. The reader has learned to follow the movement and change of feelings of the heroes, the moral struggle that takes place in them, the growth of resistance to everything bad - both in the world around them and in their souls. Dialectics of the Soul largely determined the artistic system of Tolstoy's first works and was almost immediately perceived by his contemporaries as one of the most important features of his talent.

Psychological innovation L.N. Tolstoy

L.N. Tolstoy, his inimitability lies in the fact that, unlike others, he is most interested in the psychological processes taking place in a person, their forms and laws, and not only in the fixation of emotional experiences. That is, the dialectic of the human soul is important for him. And the study and identification of this can only be achieved by huge, painstaking work on oneself. In general, to achieve something, and not only, but simply to be a person, by his definition, you need to constantly work on yourself.

This is clearly seen in his letter to his relative, Alexandra Andreyevna Tolstoy in October 1857, in which he speaks about the basic content of the human soul. Tolstoy writes that calmness is a spiritual meanness. He argues that in order to live honestly, you have to torn, get confused, fight, make mistakes, read, quit and start again. There is no need to sit idly by.

Based on this, we can conclude that the work of the writer is inseparable from his moral quest, from his personality. The greatness of Leo Nikolayevich Tolstoy lies precisely in the fact that everything he wanted to tell people was borne and suffered by him.

Introduction …………………………………………………………………….… 2

Chapter 1. Theoretical foundations of the problem of the role of "dialectics of the soul" considered in the works of critics and literary scholars ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... 3-6

Chapter 2. The role of "dialectics of the soul" as the main artistic method used by L. N. Tolstoy to reveal the character of the main character Nikolenka in the story "Childhood" ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... ... .... .7-13

Conclusion ………………………………. ………………. …………. ………… .14

References …………………………. ……………… .. ………………… 15

Introduction

The topic of this essay is the role of the "dialectic of the soul" as the main artistic method used by Leo Nikolaevich Tolstoy to reveal the character of the main character Nikolenka in the story "Childhood".

Relevance. Russian psychological novels were created by A.S. Pushkin, M. Yu. Lermontov, I.S. Turgenev, F.M. Dostoevsky, who before Tolstoy or in parallel with his work developed a method of psychological analysis. Tolstoy's new discovery consisted in the fact that for him a tool for the study of mental life - psychological analysis became the main one among other artistic means. The concept of "dialectics of the soul" was introduced by Chernyshevsky.

In the 7th grade, students study the work of Leo Tolstoy "Childhood", in which the concept of "dialectics of the soul" is first defined. My essay will help to better understand the role of the artistic method of "dialectics of the soul" for the students of this class.

Comprehension of the works of literary critics and critics (N.G. Chernyshevsky, A. Popovkin, L.D. Opulskaya, B. Bursov) made it possible to formulate the purpose of the abstract.

Purpose of the abstract: understand the role of the method "dialectic of the soul" in the work "Childhood".

Objectives of the abstract: 1. determine the qualitative characteristics of the method of "dialectics of the soul" in the work of Leo Tolstoy

2. to analyze the role of “dialectics of the soul” as the main method used by L. N. Tolstoy to reveal the character of the main character Nikolenka in the story “Childhood”.

Chapter 1

Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy entered Russian literature as a mature and original artist. The story "Childhood" is the first part of the big trilogy "Four ages of development".

The theoretical basis of the abstract was made by the articles of the following scientists: (N.G. Chernyshevsky, A. Popovkin, L.D. Opulskaya, B. Bursov)

According to N.G. Chernyshevsky the main feature of Tolstoy's psychologism is the “dialectic of the soul” - a constant image of the inner world in motion, in development. Psychologism (showing characters in development) allows not only to objectively depict a picture of the spiritual life of the heroes, but also to express the author's moral assessment of the depicted. Tolstoy found the main way to reveal the "dialectic of the soul" - an internal monologue. NG Chernyshevsky wrote in this regard: “Psychological analysis can take different directions: one poet is occupied more than the outline of characters; another - the influence of social relations and clashes on characters; the third - the connection of feelings with actions; fourth, analysis of passions; Count Tolstoy most of all is the psychic process itself, its forms, its laws, the dialectic of the soul, to be expressed in a definitive term ”.

N.G. Chernyshevsky also names another no less important feature of the writer's work: “There is still another force in L. Tolstoy's talent, imparting to his works a very special dignity with its extremely remarkable freshness - the purity of moral feeling ... These two features ... will remain essential features of his talent, no matter what new sides are shown in him during his further development. " So already according to the first works of the great writer, Chernyshevsky brilliantly predetermined the main features of Tolstoy's artistic method, which will finally be formed in his subsequent works.

N.G. Chernyshevsky in an article about "Childhood", "Adolescence" by Count L.N. Tolstoy, noting the distinctive features of his talent, pointed out that the writer is primarily interested in the "dialectics of the soul" of the hero, the psychic process itself, its forms, its laws, such a state of it when some thoughts and feelings develop from others, when "feeling that directly arises from a given position or impression, subject to the influence of memories and the strength of the combinations presented by the imagination, passes into other feelings, again returns to the previous starting point and wanders again and again, changing along the entire chain of memories. " (7)

Considering the image of Nikolenka in the development of a literary critic ( B. Bursov and A. Popovkin) supplement Chernyshevsky's observations on this issue.

From a critical article A. Popovkina ( “The childhood years of L.N. Tolstoy and his story "Childhood") we learn that “Childhood” has a lot of autobiographical information: individual thoughts, feelings, experiences and moods of the protagonist, Nikolenka Irteniev, many events from his life: children's games, hunting, a trip to Moscow, classes in the classroom, reading poetry. Many of the characters in the story resemble the people who surrounded Tolstoy in childhood. "

But the story is not only an autobiography of the writer. This is a work of fiction, which summarizes what the writer saw and heard - it depicts the life of a child of an old noble family of the first half of the 19th century. "

Leo Tolstoy writes in his diary about this story: "... my intention was to describe the story not of my own, but of my childhood friends."

A. Popovkin says that Tolstoy amazingly conveys these childish direct, naive and sincere experiences, reveals the child's world, full of joys and sorrows, and tender feelings of the child for his mother, and love for everything around him. Tolstoy portrays everything good, good, more precious than childhood, in Nikolenka's feelings. (five)

From article B. Bursova ( “Autobiographical trilogy by L.N. Tolstoy ") we understand that "the leading, fundamental principle in the spiritual development of Nikolenka Irteniev and in childhood ... is his striving for goodness, truth, truth, love, beauty."

The critic describes Nikolenka's feelings. Each chapter contains a certain thought, an episode from a person's life. Therefore, the structure within the chapters is subordinated to internal development, the transfer of the hero's state. Sadness and memories of Nikolenka's deceased mother; anger towards his teacher Karl Ivanovich when he kills a fly over his bed, sincerity, worries. ...

Bursov says that Nikolenka Irtenyev's childhood years were restless, in childhood he experienced a lot of moral suffering, disappointment in the people around him, including those closest to him, disappointment in himself.

"No one with such clarity and insight has depicted the complex process of the formation of the spiritual world in a child, as Tolstoy did," B. Bursov noted in an article on Leo Tolstoy's autobiographical trilogy. "This is the immortality and artistic greatness of his story." (1)

L. D. Opulskaya ( "The first book of Leo Tolstoy") notes about "fluid substance". Tolstoy says that “one of the greatest errors in judging a person is that we define a person as intelligent, stupid, kind, evil, strong, weak, and a person is everything: all possibilities are“ fluid substance ”.
This "fluid substance" is most responsive and mobile in the early years of life, when every new day is fraught with inexhaustible opportunities for discovering the unknown and the new, when the moral world of the emerging personality is receptive to all "impressions of being."

L. D. Opulskaya says that the image of Irteniev is inseparable from the historical, social and everyday circumstances that shape the character and are reflected in psychological conflicts and contradictions, which, in fact, determine the meaningfulness of Tolstoy's first book, its plot and style. Simplifying the problem somewhat, we can note two principles that dominate this character: imitative, inspired by the example of adults and secular upbringing, and innate, associated with the gradually emerging consciousness of the motherland, meaningful life, and great destiny. (4)

Following N.G. Chernyshevsky, we believe that the "dialectic of the soul" is

a concept that denotes a detailed reproduction in a work of art of the process of the origin and subsequent formation of thoughts, feelings, moods, sensations of a person, their interaction, the development of one from another, showing the mental process itself, its laws and forms (the outgrowth of love into hatred or the emergence of love from sympathy etc.). « Dialectics of the Soul ”is one of the forms of psychological analysis in a work of fiction.

In modern literary criticism by means of psychological depiction L.N. Tolstoy are:

2. Revelation of involuntary insincerity, subconscious desire to see oneself better and intuitively seek self-justification.

3. An internal monologue that gives the impression of "overheard thoughts"

4. Dreams, disclosure of subconscious processes.

5. Impression of heroes from the outside world. Attention is focused not on the object and phenomenon itself, but on how the character perceives them.

6.External details

7. The discrepancy between the time in which the action actually took place and the time of the story about it. (6)

Chapter 2

The story "Childhood" was published in the most advanced magazine of that time - in "Sovremennik" in 1852. The editor of this magazine, the great poet N.A. Nekrasov noted that the author of the story has a talent, that the story is notable for its simplicity and truthfulness of content.

According to Tolstoy, each of the epochs of human life is characterized by certain features. In the pristine spiritual purity, in the spontaneity and freshness of feelings, in the credulity of an inexperienced heart, Tolstoy sees the happiness of childhood. (1)

The embodiment of the truth of life in the artistic word - this is the task of creativity common for Tolstoy, which he solved all his life and which became easier over the years and experience - can only be more familiar. When he wrote Childhood, it was unusually difficult.

Characters in the story: mom, dad, old teacher Karl Ivanovich, brother Volodya, sister Lyubochka, Katenka - the daughter of the governess Mimi, a servant.

The main character of the story is Nikolenka Irteniev - a boy from a noble family, he lives and is brought up according to the established rules, is friends with children from the same families. He loves his parents and is proud of them. But Nikolenka's childhood years were restless. He experienced many disappointments in the people around him, including those closest to him.

As a child, Nikolenka especially strived for goodness, truth, love and beauty. And the source of all the most beautiful in these years for him was his mother. With what love he recalls the sounds of her voice, which were "so sweet and welcoming", the gentle touch of her hands, "a sad, charming smile." Nikolenka's love for his mother and love for God “somehow strangely merged into one feeling,” and this made him feel “light, light and gratifying,” and he began to dream that “God would give happiness to everyone, so that everyone was satisfied...".

A simple Russian woman, Natalya Savishna, played an important role in the boy's spiritual development. “Her whole life was pure, disinterested love and selflessness,” she instilled in Nikolenka the idea that kindness is one of the main qualities in human life.

Nikolenka's childhood years lived in contentment and luxury at the expense of the labors of serfs. He was brought up in the belief that he was a master, master. Servants and peasants respectfully call him by name and patronymic.

Even the old, honored housekeeper Natalya Savishna, who enjoyed the honor in the house, whom Nikolenka loved, does not dare, in his opinion, not only punish him for his prank, but also tell him "you." “Like Natalya Savishna, just Natalya, you tell me, and she also hits me in the face with a wet tablecloth, like a yard boy. No, it's terrible! " he said with indignation and malice.

Nikolenka acutely senses falsehood and deception, punishes herself for noticing these qualities in herself. One day he wrote poems for his grandmother's birthday, in which there was a line saying that he loves his grandmother like his own mother. His mother had already died by that time, and Nikolenka reasoned as follows: if this line is sincere, it means that he has ceased to love his mother; and if he loves his mother as before, it means that he made a falsity in relation to his grandmother. The boy is very tormented by this.

An important place in the story is occupied by the description of the feeling of love for people, and this ability of the child to love others delights Tolstoy. But the author at the same time shows how the world of big people, the world of adults, destroys this feeling. Nikolenka was attached to the boy Seryozha Ivin, but did not dare to tell him about his affection, did not dare to take his hand, to say how glad he was to see him, “did not dare even call him Seryozha, but certainly Sergei”, because “every expression sensitivity was proved by childishness and the fact that the one who allowed himself it was still a boy. " Having matured, the hero more than once regretted that in childhood, "without having gone through those bitter trials that bring adults to caution and coldness in relationships," he deprived himself of "the pure pleasures of tender childish affection for only a strange desire to imitate the big ones." ...

Nikolenka's attitude to Ilenka Grap reveals another trait in his character, which also reflects the bad influence of the "big" world on him. Ilenka Grap was from a poor family, he became the subject of ridicule and mockery from the boys of Nikolenka Irteniev's circle, and Nikolenka also participated in this. But then, as always, he felt a sense of shame and remorse. Nikolenka Irteniev often deeply regrets her bad deeds and is acutely worried about her failures. This characterizes him as a thinking person, able to analyze his behavior and a person starting to grow up. (1)

There is a lot of autobiography in the story "Childhood": individual thoughts, feelings, experiences and moods of the main character - Nikolenka Irteniev, many events in his life: children's games, hunting, a trip to Moscow, classes in the classroom, reading poetry. Many of the characters in the story resemble the people who surrounded Tolstoy in childhood.

But the story is not only an autobiography of the writer. This is a work of fiction, which summarizes what the writer saw and heard, depicting the life of a child of an old noble family of the first half of the 19th century.

Lev Nikolaevich Tolstoy writes in his diary about this story: “my intention was to describe the story not of my own, but of my childhood friends”.

Exceptional observation, truthfulness in the depiction of feelings and events, characteristic of Tolstoy, manifested itself in this first work of him.

But the mood changes quickly. With amazing truth Tolstoy betrays these childish, direct, naive and sincere experiences, reveals the child's world, full of joys and sorrows, and tender feelings of a child for his mother, and love for everything around him. Tolstoy portrays everything good, good than childhood, in Nikolenka's feelings. (5)

Using the means of Tolstoy's graphic expressiveness, one can understand the motives of Nikolenka's behavior.

In the scene "The Hunt", the analysis of feelings and actions comes from the perspective of the main character of the story, Nikolenka.

“Suddenly Giran howled and lunged with such force that I almost fell. I looked around. At the edge of the forest, putting one ear and raising the other, a hare jumped over. The blood hit my head, and I forgot everything at that moment: I shouted something in a frantic voice, let the dog go and started running. But before I had time to do this, I began to regret it: the hare squatted down, made a leap, and I never saw him again.

But what was my shame when, following the hounds, who were loudly brought to the cannon, Turk appeared from behind the bushes! He saw my mistake (which consisted in the fact that I could not stand it) and, looking at me contemptuously, said only: "Eh, master!" But you need to know how it was said! It would be easier for me if he hung me on the saddle like a hare.

For a long time I stood in great despair in the same place, did not call the dog and only kept repeating, hitting my thighs.

My God, what have I done!

In this episode, Nikolenka experiences many feelings in motion: from shame to contempt for himself and the inability to fix anything.

In the scene with a boy from a poor family, Il'ka Grap, the involuntary sincerity of the subconscious desire to see oneself better and to intuitively seek self-justification is revealed.

“From childhood, Nikolenka knows that he is no equal not only to the courtyard boys, but also to the children of poor people, not nobles. Ilenka Grap, a boy from a poor family, also felt this dependence and inequality. Therefore, he was so timid in relation to the boys Irteniev and Ivin. They mocked him. And even to Nikolenka, a naturally kind boy, “he seemed such a despicable creature that one should neither regret nor even think about.” But Nikolenka condemns herself for this. He is constantly trying to figure out his actions, feelings. In his bright childish world, filled with love, happiness and joy, grief often breaks in. Nikolenka suffers when she notices bad traits in herself: insincerity, vanity, heartlessness. "

In this passage, Nikolenka felt a sense of shame and remorse. Nikolenka Irteniev often deeply regrets her bad deeds and is acutely worried about her failures. This characterizes him as a thinking person, able to analyze his behavior and a person starting to grow up.

In the chapter "Teacher Karl Ivanovich" LN Tolstoy creates an "internal monologue" that creates the impression of "overheard thoughts."

When Karl Ivanovich killed a fly over Nikolenka's head.

“Suppose,” I thought, “I am small, but why does he disturb me? Why doesn't he hit the flies near Volodya's bed? there are so many of them! No, Volodya is older than me; and I am the least of all: that's why he torments me. Only about that and thinks all my life, - I whispered, - how can I make trouble. He sees very well that he woke me up and frightened me, but he shows as if he doesn't notice ... a nasty person! And the robe, and the cap, and the tassel - how disgusting! "

In this episode, Nikolenka experiences different feelings for her teacher: from irritation and hatred for Karl Ivanovich to love. He regrets that he thought so about him.

“While I was thus mentally expressing my annoyance at Karl Ivanitch, he went to his bed, looked at the clock that hung above her in an embroidered beaded shoe, hung a cracker on a carnation and, as was noticeable, in the most pleasant mood turned to us. - Auf, Kinder, auf! .. s "ist Zeit. Die Mutter ust schon im Saal *)," he shouted in a kind German voice, then went up to

me, sat down at my feet and took a snuff-box out of my pocket. I pretended to be asleep. Karl Ivanitch first sniffed, wiped his nose, snapped his fingers, and then only began to work on me. He chuckled and began to tickle my heels. - Nun, nun, Faulenzer! **) - he said.

*) Get up, children, get up! .. it's time. Mom is already in the hall (German).

**) Well, well, sloth! (German)

As much as I feared tickling, I did not jump out of bed and did not answer him, but only hid my head deeper under the pillows, kicked my feet with all my might and tried to keep from laughing.

"How kind he is and how he loves us, and I could think so badly of him!"

I was vexed both with myself and with Karl Ivanitch, I wanted to laugh and I wanted to cry: my nerves were upset.

Ach, lassen sie *), Karl Ivanych! - I cried with tears

before our eyes, sticking his head out from under the pillows.

*) Ah, leave (it.).

In the chapter "Classes in the study and living room", the hero's feelings are revealed through dreams.

Maman played a concert by Field, her teacher. I dozed, and some light, bright and transparent memories arose in my imagination. She played Beethoven's Pathetic Sonata, and I remember something sad, heavy and gloomy. Maman played these two pieces frequently; therefore, I remember very well the feeling that aroused in me. The feeling was like a memory; but memories of what? It seemed that you remember something that never happened. "

This episode evokes in Nikolenka a spectrum of diverse feelings: from bright and warm memories to heavy and dark

In the chapter "The Hunt" Leo Tolstoy shows Nikolenka's impression of the outside world.

“The day was hot. White clouds of bizarre shapes appeared on the horizon in the morning; then a little breeze began to drive them closer and closer, so that from time to time they covered the sun. No matter how many clouds walked and blackened, it was clear that they were not destined to gather in a thunderstorm and interfere with our pleasure for the last time. Towards evening they began to disperse again: some turned pale, authentic and ran to the horizon; others, just above the head, turned into white transparent scales; only one big black cloud stopped in the east. Karl Ivanitch always knew where which cloud would go; he announced that this cloud would go to Maslovka, that there would be no rain and the weather would be excellent. "

He has a poetic perception of nature. He not only feels the breeze, but a little breeze; some of the clouds for him “turned pale, authentic and ran to the horizon; others just above the head turned into transparent scales. " In this episode, Nikolenka feels a connection with nature: delight and pleasure.

Conclusion

So, after carrying out this work, the purpose of which is to understand the role of the artistic method "dialectics of the soul" in the work "Childhood", it turned out that the role of "dialectics of the soul" as the main artistic method used to reveal the character of the main character Nikolenka is really very important. Since with the help of this method it is possible to determine the internal psychological state of the protagonist Nikolenka in the development of life.

List of references

1. B. Bursov

Tolstoy L.N. Childhood / Intro. Art. B. Bursov. - SPb .: Detgiz, 1966. - 367p.

2. Buslakova T.P.

Russian literature of the XIX century: Educational minimum for the entrant / T.P. Buslakova. - M.: Vyssh.gk., 2003. - 574 p.

3. N.K. Gudziy "Lev Tolstoy"

4. L. D. Opulskaya

Tolstoy L.N. Childhood. Adolescence. Youth / Entry. Art. and approx. L. D. Opulskaya. - M.: Pravda, 1987. - 432p.

5. A. Popovkin

Tolstoy L.N. Childhood / Intro. Art. A. Popovkina. - M.: Detgiz, 1957. - 128p.

6. I.O. Rodin

All works of the school curriculum in summary / Ed. - comp. AND ABOUT. Rodin, T.M. Pimenova. - M .: "Rodin and Company", TKO AST, 1996. - 616s.

7. N.G. Chernyshevsky

Chernyshevsky Literary critical articles / Vstup. Art. In Sherbina. - M .: Fiction, 1939. - 288p.

In 1869, from the pen of Leo Tolstoy came out one of the brilliant works of world literature - the epic novel "War and Peace". The genre of the epic novel is the creation of Leo Tolstoy. The ideological and artistic meaning of each novel scene and each character becomes fully clear only in their linkages with the comprehensive content of the epic, that is, in the context of historical events. The composition "War and Peace" is also subject to the requirements of the genre. The plot is based on historical events. Secondly, the significance of the fate of families and individuals is revealed. The epic novel combines detailed pictures of Russian life, battle scenes, artistic narration and philosophical digressions. The content of the epic novel is based on events of a large historical "scale," life is common, not private, reflected in the fates of individual people. Tolstoy "achieved an unusually wide coverage of all strata of Russian life - hence the huge number of characters. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe people is not that a simple people is depicted, but that at the time of historical upheavals the nation acquires a directional movement that unites all strata of society. For T, the people are not peasants, but all Russian people opposing an external enemy, and the division occurs not on a social basis, but on a basis your own - a stranger .. People in "War and Peace" it is the living soul of the nation: Russian peasants, soldiers and partisans; townspeople destroying their property and leaving long-lived places: the nobility who created militias; the population that left Moscow and showed "by this negative action the full strength of their popular feeling." The common good (victory) is portrayed by the writer as a necessary (natural) result of the unidirectional interests of many people, always determined by one feeling - "the latent warmth of patriotism." One of the chapters of the compositions of the methods of building the district is ANTITESA. Already in the title: "V and M". two antonyms. It is war in its meaning, but peace is like 1) peace; 2) universality, the whole world; 3) the world with a short I - a community, a community unit. Community implies community: everyday, interests, economic. How is the correct model of the general device. The entire text is organized with this principle: episodes of peaceful and military life are compositionally interspersed. He shows ch-ka in peacetime and wartime. Sis-ma pers-zhey also defines the building of the district. Favorite and unloved heroes. Alive, the cat is spiritually developed: Andrey, Pierre, Nikolay, Natasha. They are opposed to static heroes: Helen, Sonya (also opposed to Natasha. She did not become Tolstoy's ideal, because she is sweet, but cold (an episode of a summer night) and she does not react, does not reflect). Anatole. Napoleon and Kutuzov. Eyes are an important detail of Tolstoy's hero, a meaningful, deep look. The principle of antithesis is subordinated to 2 kopositsionny nests: War 1805-7gg and 1812. In the first war, the Russian army showed itself passively, the souls of the Russians were not affected. The second is domestic, defensive. Andrey: There was nothing to defend under Austerlitz. Do not take prisoners in Borodino, they entered my house. Compositional jacks yet. 1) families: family - a mirror of the community. Different families are shown and they are also contrasted: 1) Families, where the union is between parents and children. Rostovs, Bolkonskys. They are also opposed to each other: Rostovs - absolute trust and all-consuming love. Natasha comes to her mother and tells all her thoughts. Nikolai confesses to his father about the card debt, he helps him. The father dominates the Bolkonsky family. The obedience of children is built on the authority of the father. Maria is ready to teach geometry so that her father is happy with her. Farewell to father and Andrey. The father first gives the order if the son returns, and the father dies. Then he gives the order: I am glad that you go to the front and become a warrior, but it will hurt me if you die, but it will be bitter for me if you do not behave like the son of Bolkonsky. Andrey: you could not tell me about it. These families bring up those people who will become the basis of the Russian nation. 2) There is no connection between them. Dried apricots, carraines, bergs. Kuragins - moral decay. All that they are opposed to the French - abandon the French language. The viability of each character in "War and Peace" is tested by the people's thought. In the popular environment, Pierre's best qualities are needed: strength. disregard for the comforts of life, simplicity, disinterestedness, lack of selfishness "He seeks" to enter this common life, to penetrate with his whole being with what makes them so ".. Pierre feels his insignificance, the artificiality of his mental" constructions in comparison with truth, simplicity and the strength of the "soldiers and militias seen on the Borodino field. The highest praise for Andrey Bolkonsky is the nickname" our prince "given to him by the soldiers of the regiment. The positive traits of Natasha Rostova are revealed with particular vividness at the moment when, before the French entered Moscow, animated by patriotic feelings, she makes them throw family goods from the carts and take the wounded, and when she is in Russian dance, admiring folk music, she shows all her power the national spirit contained in it.The author creates many images of men, soldiers, whose judgments, in Volumes constitute the people's perception of the world. "The thought of the people" is embodied in many individualized images. Those people. qualities that T. always considered the integral qualities of the Russian soldier - heroism, willpower, simplicity and modesty - are embodied in the image of Captain Tushin, yavl. a living embodiment of the people's spirit. The unattractive appearance of this hero hides inner beauty and moral greatness. Tikhon Shcherbaty - people. war. The spirit of rebelliousness and a feeling of love for his land, all that rebellious that T. discovers in a serf peasant, he brought together in this image. Platon Karataev brings peace to the souls of the people around him. He is completely devoid of selfishness: he is meek and kind to everyone. "People's thought" clearly resounds in the protest against the wars of conquest by Napoleon and in the blessing of the liberation struggle, in which the people defend their right to independence, to their national order of life. The popular is revealed in War and Peace, first of all, as universal, national. Anna Karenina:began publishing in the journal "Russian Bulletin" in January 1875 and immediately caused a storm of controversy in society and Russian criticism. the main thought is a family thought. Three types of family relationships. There are 3 plot lines in the district: 1) the story of Anna's adultery, the Anna - Vronsky - Karenin triangle; 2) history of the Oblonsky family; 3) the love story of Levin and Kitty Shtcherbatskaya. At first glance, these storylines are loosely connected m-y. Anna is the sister of Steva Oblonsky. Kitty is Dolly Oblonskaya's sister; Anna and Levin meet twice in the novel (at the ball, when Levin proposes to Kitty, and shortly before Anna's death). The fates of the heroes are intertwined. These three storylines are three versions of family, human relationships, and human types. The peculiarity of the composition of the novel is that in the center of it there are two stories that develop in parallel: the story of Anna Karenina's family life, and the fate of the nobleman Levin, who lives in the village and strives to improve the economy. These are the main characters of the novel. Their paths intersect at the end of the work, but this does not affect the development of events in the novel. There is an internal connection between the images of Anna and Levin. The episodes associated with these images are united by contrast, or according to the law of correspondence, one way or another, complement other others. The principle of concentricity of arrangement of large and small circles of an event in the novel. Tolstoy made Levin's "circle" much wider than Anna's "circle". Levin's story begins much earlier than Anna's story and ends after the death of the heroine, after whom the novel is named. The book ends not with the death of Anna (part seven), but with Levin's moral quest and his attempts to create a positive program for the renewal of private and public life (part eight). Anna and Vronsky live for love, but sensual, carnal love. Karenin for social activities, and only Levin in the novel gives the final and correct answer: a person lives for the sake of love for people. Levin is the only one in the novel who ponders philosophical questions. He comes to the conclusion that nothing needs to be changed in the patriarchal structure of the Russian countryside. Anna's death leads him to the idea of \u200b\u200bthe fragility of human existence. Thoughts about death visit him too, but love for Kitty and the child, for the whole world, saves him and establishes a balance between him and the world: he acquires the meaning of life in activities for people. "Sunday". In comparison with "War and Peace" and "Anna Karenina", "Resurrection" is a new, openly social, "public" In the structure of "Resurrection" 3 points are important: 1) the main task of the district is to artistically explore the whole existence the structure of life. The work shows various social strata: aristocracy, clergy, merchants, peasants, military environment, English missionaries, workers, jailers. The scene is varied: Moscow and St. Petersburg, a poor village, a landlord's estate, a prison, transit stages, judicial institutions, a church, a tavern, etc. The tie r-on yavl. Nekhlyudov's crime against Katyusha Maslova (seduction of a girl). The rest of the material is strung on this pivot. 2) Rn was thinking about sin, repentance and the revival of the nobleman Nekhlyudov. However, in the final version, something else came to the fore as a subject - the life of the offended people, in particular the innocently convicted Maslova. The trial of Maslova is discussed in detail in the prison cell, as are all her meetings with Nekhlyudov. 3) The district is acutely publicistic. This is a district review, and a district - a sermon. The composition is one-line and is built in accordance with the main conflict. The world is divided into 2 camps of unequal and hostile: ruling classes and peasants, urban poor, prisoners, political exiles. At the center of the narrative is the situation of the fall and revival of heroes. The whole district excl. the first chapters are the story of the gradual internal rebirth of the ch-ka. Katyusha Maslova is experiencing spiritual resurrection. In her life, I can single out 2 key stages: 1) Nekhlyudov's meanness and 2) meeting with political prisoners who believed her. Affected ??? social, morality, f-fskogo x-ra. The name itself - all these problems sound in it. Resurrection is not a day of the week, it is a capacious concept. 1) Christian meanings: spiritual revival (ie moral decline and moral ascent) Atonement. When Katya Maslova becomes a prostitute, even her name changes: Lyubka. She begins to lead a different life. The point of the fate of the trial is the beginning of the spirit of rebirth. The main character learns his old love. He sees in him not Lyubka, but Katya. He breaks through the wall she has surrounded herself with and the spirit of rebirth begins. Tolstoy shows two ways of rebirth: 1) repentance, awareness. Nekhlyudov is an attempt to save dr. 2) Katya Maslova - is getting closer to the revolutionaries, socialists. Her sacrificial path is serving the people. At the end of the district, when Nekhlyudov follows her into exile in Siberia. Transshipment points - Nekhlyudov's declaration of love, marriage proposal. She loves him, but will never allow herself to hang the yoke of the past on him. She chooses a revolutionary, he becomes her husband. "Resurrection" summed up the entire TV-vu Tolstoy 80-90s. In the worst sense, the tasks of universal exposure and moral preaching were accomplished by this novel. For this work, the writer was excommunicated. Tolstoy's districts were translated into European languages \u200b\u200bduring Tolstoy's lifetime. They were accepted by European readers. They influenced the worldview, the districts were discussed, Sunday - with an open finale, therefore there are many disputes. Tolstoy influenced the traditions of the European region.

13. Creativity of A.P. Chekhov.A.P. Chekhov (17.01.1860 - 2.07.1904). 1st lane - TV-in 1st floor. 1880s (1879-1885)... Collaborates with humorous magazines (eg "Shards"). Signed as: Antosha, a man without a spleen, my brother's brother, often like Antosha Chekhonte. During the first half of the 1880s. Chekhov works in different genres: humorous little thing (comic aphorisms, captions to figures, parody calendars, reports, etc.) literary parody, feuilletons, anecdote story, novella ("Living Goods", "Late Flowers"), the genre of the scene (a short humorous story, a picture from life, the comedy of which consists in conveying the conversation of the characters), comic short story (81-82gg): a humorous story, built according to the laws of novelistic, action-packed and with unexpected resolution. ("The Death of an Official" and "Fat and Thin" (1883), "Chameleon" and "Quarreled with His Wife" (1884), "Dear Dog" and "Horse Family" (1885), "On Frailty" (1886)). The main novelistic techniques: double denouement, violation of the traditions of the plot cliché, finals, "contrastingly wrapped around the beginning of the story", circular composition, typical for a comic short story "motive of unjustified expectation", etc. short story of moresrising to sharp satire. C ikl stories of 1883 ode about officials, which are built on the same principle: the hero drastically changes his behavior or says something opposite to what he just spoke of out of inner conviction, “instinctively, by reflex,” automatically and instantly. "Chameleon" It was first published in the Oskolki magazine; in 1884, A. Chekhonte was signed. Features of the genre. The action begins immediately. There is no detailed author's reasoning. The part bears a special load. The plot of the story is based on a certain everyday conflict, a specific situation: goldsmith Khryukin was bitten by a dog, and the police overseer Ochumelov must resolve the conflict in the market square. Feature of the composition: the same scene is repeated several times. but repeats itself as in a mirror. Depending on who owns the dog, Ochumelov is ready to consider her or Khryukin as the culprit of the incident. Little man theme. The story "Death of an Official" shows a paradoxical situation when a small man pursues a strong man. Chekhov emphasizes in the little man a slave who has no self-esteem. The person turns into a rank. Another type of little person was developed by the author in the stories "Woe", "Tosca" and others. This is a humiliated, oppressed, but human dignity person, for example, like the old cabman Iona Potapov from the story "Tosca". 2nd lane - TV-in the 2nd half of the 80s - 90s. In 1885-1889. Chekhov begins his professional literary career as a contributor to the monthly magazines Severny Vestnik, Russkaya Mysl, and Zhizn. The stories and stories "Steppe", "Name days" (1888), "Attack", "Boring story" (1889) belong to this period. During this period, the collections "In the Twilight" (1887), "Innocent Speeches" (1887), "Stories" (1888), "Gloomy People" (1890) were published. Chekhov works a lot for the theater: the play "Ivanov" (1887-1889), the one-act play "The Wedding" (1889, published in 1890), the play "Leshy" (1889, published in 1890; then transformed into the play "Uncle Vanya"), vaudeville "Bear", "Proposal", "Jubilee" and others. The story "Steppe" is considered to be a transitional stage in the writer's TV-ve. In it, Chekhov, moving away from the specific everyday localization of early stories, changes spatial reference points, expands his field of vision. "The Steppe" was published in 1888. In the "Northern Bulletin". The main themes and problems of the story: 1) the theme of the Motherland, its endless expanses, powerful people: 2) man and nature; 3) beauty and meaning of life: 4) people's happiness: Happiness is understood as overcoming, gaining life experience, mastering living space, unity with people: 5) as well as the formation of a human personality. The subtitle of the story "The Story of One Trip" indicates that the work can be perceived on two levels: external, objective, realistic, and then it is almost an ethnographic sketch, in which one picture successively replaces another in front of a traveling 9-year-old boy Yegorushka. The name “Steppe”, which absorbs a whole complex of associations, brings the story to a symbolic, metaphysical level. The peculiarity of the plot was included in the volume. that two storylines are intertwined in the story: the life of man and the life of nature. The landscape of the story: the steppe with human destinies included in it. The steppe is a holistic image-character. The author uses the method of correlating the hero with nature (for example, a singing peasant woman is a singing grass. Dranitskaya is a black bird, Solomon is a plucked bird). The story can be roughly divided into 3 parts: Yegorushka's past life, given retrospectively, in memoirs, is very short: Yegorushka's future, which is still unclear. In the present, the bare steppe, living its own life. Features of the composition: each chapter is a special story. . Compositionally "Steppe" is built in the same way. like many of Chekhov's later stories, the beginning and end, as well as numerous repetitions round off the narrative, forming a circular composition. Artistic features: 1) the author's striving for maximum generalization (the steppe is an image of the yearning homeland): 2) associativity: 3) sound writing; 4) a kind of chronotope: in the steppe, the present and the past are superimposed on each other, there is a condensation of time. Yegorushka goes from patriarchal antiquity to the world of civilization. A road in a work is a road from one space-time plane to another. This is Russian history, the history of the path of Russia. In 1890 Chekhov made a trip to about. Sakhalin, the result of which is the essay-journalistic book "Sakhalin Island" (1893-1894, separate ed. 1895). In the same 1890 he buys the Melikhovo estate in the Moscow province, where he builds schools, helps the poor and treats peasants, works as a district doctor during the cholera epidemic of 1892-1893, participates in the general population census of 1897. In 1898-1900 The writer creates his most famous stories: the trilogy "Man in a Case", "Gooseberry", "About Love", as well as "Ionych" and "Lady with a Dog". Around 1893, a new stage begins in Chekhov's work (plays "The Seagull" (1896), "Uncle Vanya" (1897), "Three Sisters" (1900-1901, awarded the Griboedov Prize), "The Cherry Orchard" (1903-1904)). In Vishn. in the garden in the center is the sale of the estate. But from the first act to the end of the play, Ranevskaya's drama immerses in the driving process of common everyday life. The Cherry Orchard " is a combination of comedy - "sometimes even farce", as the author himself wrote, with a gentle and subtle intrigue. Making fun of their weaknesses and vices, the author will sympathize with them at the same time. The main conflict also develops in the souls of the heroes. It was concluded not in the struggle for the cherry orchard, but in dissatisfaction with life, in the impossibility of uniting dream and reality. The particular confl entailed changes in the portrayal of the dramatist har-ra. The author does not give harsh speeches of the har-ki ger, rather, their speech merges into one melody. With this effect, the author created a sense of harmony. Innovation of the Ch-playwright. in the fact that he is a departure from the prince of the classic drama and reflects the dramatic s-you not only the problems, but also the show of the psychological after experiencing the characters. Chekhov's plays became a new wave in theatrical art.

14. History, theoretical foundations and artistic practice of Russian symbolism. Poetry of A.A. Blok. Symbolism was first recognized as a new literary direction in the article by D.S. Merezhkovsky in 1893. He proclaimed 3 main elements of Russian l-ry: mystical content, symbols and the expansion of artistic impressionability. The word-symbol was considered as a sign with the help of which the artist comprehended the "mystical content". Bryusov, Balmont, Sologub belonged to the generation of "senior" Symbolists. Decadent moods in their work were reflected in the pessimistic perception of the world as a prison (Gippius, Sologub), in the self-deification of “I” (Bryusov), in the motives of loneliness, disbelief in life and their own strength. In the works of the senior Symbolists, the apocalyptic theme associated with the image of the city clearly manifests itself. “Younger Symbolists”: A. Blok, A. Bely, Vyach.Ivanov, S. Soloviev, Ellis (L.L. Kobylinsky) - came to literature at the beginning of the 20th century. and acted as adherents of a philosophical and religious understanding of the world in the spirit of the late philosophy of Vl. Solovyov. The younger Symbolists tried to overcome the extreme subjectivism and individualism of the older ones. Peering into the surrounding life in search of mysterious signs, many felt tectonic processes within Russian culture, Russian society, and all mankind as a whole. The presentiment of an impending catastrophe literally permeates all the lyrics of the mature Blok and A. Bely. The book "Gold in Azure" by A. Bely is imbued with the expectation of apocalyptic terms; in the books Ashes and Urn (1909), these expectations are replaced by tragic pictures of dying Russia. And in the cycle "City" from the book "Ashes" a sign of revolution appears - a red domino, an ominous sign of an impending catastrophe. The main features of symbolism:- Duality: leaving the real earthly and creating an ideal world of dreams and mysticism, existing according to the laws of Eternal Beauty; - Images-symbols: the language of premonitions, hints, generalizations, mysterious visions, allegories; -Symbol of color and light: azure, purple, gold, shadows, shimmer; - The poet is the creator of ideal worlds - mystical, cosmic, divine; -Language: orientation to the classical verse, exquisite imagery, musicality and lightness of the syllable, the attitude to the word as a cipher, the symbolic content of everyday words. Manifestos: 1)Merezhkovsky "On the causes of decline and on new trends in modern Russian literature"; 2) Bryusov "Keys of Secrets"; 3) Viach. Ivanov "Thoughts on Symbolism"; 4) Block "On the current state of Russian symbolism." A.A. Blok(1880-1921) Blok's early poems made up the first book, published in 1904 - " Poems about the Beautiful Lady"multidimensional. These poems are symbolist, the mournful HERE and the beautiful THERE are opposed, the sacredness of the hero's ideals, the striving to the promised land, the decisive break with the surrounding life, the cult of individualism, beauty. The plot of the cycle is the expectation of a meeting with a beloved who will transform the world and the hero. The heroine, on the one hand, a real woman “She is slender and tall, // Always haughty and harsh.” On the other hand, we have before us the heavenly, mystical image of the “Virgin”, “The Great Eternal Wife”, “Incomprehensible.” “He” is a lover a knight, a humble monk, ready for self-denial. "She" is the disembodied focus of faith, hope and love of the lyric hero. His second book, " Unexpected joy", made the poet's name popular in literary circles. Among the poems" The Stranger "," The Girl Sang in the Church Choir "," Autumn Wave ". Blok's hero becomes an inhabitant of noisy city streets, eagerly peering into life. He is alone surrounded by drunks, he rejects this world terrifying his soul, similar to a farce, in which there is no place for anything beautiful and holy. The world poisons him, but amid this intoxicating intoxication a stranger appears, and her image awakens bright feelings, it seems that she believes in beauty. Her image is surprisingly romantic and alluring, and it is clear that faith in goodness is still alive in the poet. The vulgarity, dirt cannot tarnish the image of a stranger, reflecting Blok's dreams of pure, selfless love. And the poem "Autumn Wave" became the first embodiment of the theme of the motherland, Russia in the work of Blok. poems, Nekrasov's intonations appear - love for the motherland - love-salvation, the understanding that it is impossible to imagine one's own fate apart from it. After a trip to Italy in 1909, Blok wrote a cycle " Italian poetry", in the spring of 1914 - cycle" Carmen". In these poems, Blok remains the subtlest lyric poet, praising beauty and love. Through the deepening of social trends ( cycle "City"), religious interest ( cycle "Snow mask"), comprehension of the "terrible world", comprehension of the tragedy of modern man (play "The Rose and the Cross") Blok came to the idea of \u200b\u200bthe inevitability of "retribution" ( cycle "Yamba"; poem "Retribution"). Hatred for the world of the “well-fed”, for the ugly, inhuman features of life (cycle “The Terrible World”, 1909-16) is persistently and strongly expressed in Blok's work. Love lyricsBloka is romantic, it carries in itself, along with delight and rapture, a fatal and tragic beginning (sections of the cycle "Snow Mask", "Faina", "Retribution", 1908-13, "Carmen", 1914). The theme of poet and poetry... The idea of \u200b\u200bthe poet's freedom, his independence from public opinion, superiority over the crowd runs through all early poems on the theme of creativity. poems “To Friends” and “Poets. To the Muse, creativity is not a reward, but hard work, which more often brings disappointment and dissatisfaction than laurels and joy. Inspiration has been sent down by God, but for any gift you have to pay, and the poet pays with personal happiness and peace, comfort and prosperity. Blok considers the main theme of his work motherland theme... From the first poems about Russia ("Autumn Wave", "Autumn Love", "Russia") a two-faced image of the country appears - a beggar, pious and at the same time free, wild, robber. During this period, the poet creates cycles of poems "Homeland", "On the Kulikovo field". The ambivalent attitude towards Russia is especially vividly embodied in the poem "To sin shamelessly, not awake ...". Blok paints a realistic picture of contemporary Russia. And under the icon lamp near the icon / Drink tea, snapping off the bill, / Then peeing the coupons, / Pot-bellied opening the chest of drawers ... But the work ends with the words: Yes, and such, my Russia, / You are dearer than all the edges to me. The revolution of 1917 was reflected in the largest post-October poem " Twelve"(1918). It reflected both real events and the poet's views on history, the essence of civilization and culture. The very beginning of the poem sets the reader up for struggle; two worlds stand in sharp contrast - the old and the new, just born: Black Evening. / White snow. / Wind, wind! / A man does not stand on his feet. Human passions and raging elements act in unison, destroying everything that has become obsolete, embodying the old way of life. / She turned up to another ... / - We were crying, crying ...- / Slipped / I-bam-stretched! And then twelve people follow, shaking off the fragments of a dead society. Who are they - the builders of the future or cruel destroyers, Blok used many symbols in his poem: names, numbers, colors. The leitmotif of the poem appears from the first bars: in the break and opposition of “white” and “black.” Black is a vague, dark beginning. White symbolizes purity, spiritual awn, this is the color of the future. The image of Christ is also symbolic in the poem. Jesus Christ is a messenger of new human relationships, an exponent of holiness and cleansing suffering. For Blok, his "twelve" are real heroes, since they are executors of a great mission, they are doing a sacred deed - a revolution. As a symbolist and mystic, the author expresses the sanctity of the revolution religiously. Emphasizing the sanctity of the revolution, Blok puts before these "twelve" the invisibly walking Christ.

15. Acmeism in Russian literature: main representatives, aesthetic program, artistic practice. Plaziya A.A. Akhmatova. Acmeism as a literary movement stood out from Symbolism, the emergence of the current dates back to the early 1910s. The formation of the new movement takes place first in the Society of Zealots of the Artistic Word (Poetic Academy), and then in the “Workshop of Poets” created in 1911, headed by N. Gumilyov and S. Gorodetsky. The most prominent representatives of the new trend were N. Gumilev, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, S. Gorodetsky, M. Zenkevich, V. Narbut. Later they were joined by G. Adamovich, G. Ivanov, I. Odoevtseva, N. Otsup. The program of acmeism was proclaimed in such manifestos as: 1) "The legacy of acmeism and symbolism" by N. Gumilyov; 2) "Some trends in modern Russian poetry" S. Gorodetsky; 3) "Morning of Acmeism" by O. Mandelstam. The organs of the new trend were the magazines Apollo (1909-1917), created by the writer and historian S. Makovsky, and Hyperborey, founded in 1912 and headed by M. Lozinsky. The current got three non-identical names: "Acmeism" (from the Greek acme-flowering, top, edge), "adamism" (on behalf of the first ch-ka Adam) and "clarism" (excellent clarity). The philosophical basis of this trend was pragmatism (philosophy of action) and the ideas of the phenomenological school (which defended the "experience of objectivity", "questioning things", "acceptance of the world"). Among their literary teachers, the acmeists singled out F. Villon (with his acceptance of life), F. Rabelais (with his inherent "wise physiology"), W. Shakespeare (with his gift of penetrating into the inner world of ch-ka), T. Gauthier (a champion "Flawless forms"). Also the poets E. Baratynsky, F. Tyutchev and Russian classical prose. The artistic principles of Acmeism were entrenched in his poetic practice: 1) active acceptance of the colorful and vibrant earthly life; 2) rehabilitation of a simple objective world, which has “forms, weight, time”; 3) a primitive animal, courageously firm view of the world; 4) denial of transcendence and mysticism; 5) setting on the picturesqueness of the image; 6) the transmission of psychological states of ch-ka with attention to the bodily principle; 7) the expression "longing for world culture"; 8) attention to the specific meaning of the word; 9) perfection of forms. The fate of Acmeism is tragic. He had to assert himself in a tense and moral struggle. He was persecuted more than once. The tragic fate of A. Akhmatova, and the death of Mandelstam (died in a hospital barrack in the camp), Narbut (was shot in a quarantine-transit point). The first victim was the leader of the current N. Gumilyov (was shot). Anna Andreevna Akhmatova (surname at birth - Gorenko; 1889-1966) - one of the most famous Russian poets of the XX century, writer, literary critic, literary critic, translator. Akhmatova was one of those who acted as a representative of the new trend of Acmeism (from Symbolism). In her early poems, the world around her is depicted clearly, vividly and objectively accurately. “I don’t need my legs anymore…”. Object-like expressions: water column, coolness, the heroine grabs the seaweed with her hand. She sees in front of her a bridge as distant as her former lover. The layer of water is dense and heavy, above the water there is a light smoke, into which her soul turns. The main theme of love. Dramatic moment: separation, separation approaching. Depicted psychologically accurately. Collection "Evening". "I clenched my hands under a dark veil", "I put a glove on my left hand on my right hand." Uses a detail-thing, detail-gesture. Collection "Rosary" 1914. The theme of love is expanding, while there is a complete rejection of an indifferent, frivolous attitude to love, psychologism deepens, a rejection of hedonism (sensual pleasures). "Took my friend to the front." Then 1917. Collection "White flock" and "Plantain"... Poems dedicated to the beginning of the 1st World War. "In memory of July 19, 1914". "Prayer" the heroine is ready to sacrifice everything so that a cloud over Russia becomes a cloud. Akhmatova did not accept the 1917 revolution in February and rejected the October one. “There was a voice for me, it was calling me comfortably” - voice monologue poem + author's remarks. This form is more complex than all the previous verses. The topic of emigration is "to leave or stay?" Akhmatova remains. "Not with those who have thrown the earth to be torn apart by the enemies." Positions: 1) those who abandoned the land at a difficult moment - contempt; 2) “the exile is always pitiful to me” not of my own free will, they were expelled - pity; 3) those who remained, even on the brink of disaster, reckon themselves. In the early 1920s, Akhmatova was forced to refuse to publish her poems, because comes into conflict with the totalitarian regime. He is engaged in translations, the life and work of Pushkin. In the 30s, he writes a cycle of poems, which he then combines into poem "Requiem"... sources: Akhmatova's personal tragedy (the arrest of her son), the shooting of Nikolai Gumilyov, the repression of Akhmatova's second husband. We are talking about the common grief of the totalitarian regime, the grief of all Russian women on "this side of the prison bars." "Instead of a preface." 3 plot layers: 1) personal grief of the mother who lost her son; 2) the grief of thousands of Russian women; 3) the grief of the Mother of God losing her son. The themes of life, death, madness, memory, and a monument cling together. The mother suffers so deeply that she calls for death, but madness comes. She is glad for him, because madness kills memory and frees one from suffering. A woman-mother can afford to forget, but a woman-poet cannot. She needs to preserve the memory of these "rabid years". In the epilogue of the poem, the theme of memory turns into the theme of a monument. 2 questions: 1) will they remember me, 2) for what exactly. "And I pray not for myself alone, but for everyone who stood there with me." A monument not to her, but to thousands of women who have lost loved ones. Put the monument “here, where I stood for 300 hours and where the bolt was not opened for me”. During the war Akhmatova lived in St. Petersburg. Collection "Wind of War".The tragedy of the Leningrad blockade. "Oath" and "Courage" 1942 Akhmatova addresses the Russian intelligentsia. It is necessary to preserve Russian culture, the Russian word. Mature creativity "Poem without a hero". Action in 1913 in Petrograd. This is a kaleidoscope of life in a ghostly, fantastic city. The central event is a theatrical masquerade. There are many allegories here. Lots of allusions to real people. Fragmentary episodes. In city life, as at this ball, masks dominate instead of people. However, the real drama is playing out. The dragoon cornet with poetry committed suicide under the doors of the kalambina, which rejected him. This plot is projected onto the life of an entire era. frivolous, superficial and tragic. There is a hero in it - a lyrical heroine who, from the height of the 50s, looks into her youth in 1913. And on the one hand, he admires this time, and on the other, he understands that it was then that something important was missed, which led the country to disaster. In the mature lyrics of Akhmatova, the theme of creativity develops in a new way. She explores the secret motives that lead to the creation of poetry collection "Secrets of Craft". Cycle "Northern Elegies". biblical and evangelical motives. She had to go through two opals. During the second disgrace, she died in 1966.

16. Russian futurism: futuristic groupings, main representatives, manifestos, artistic practice. Poetry of V. Mayakovsky. Futurism (from Lat - future) arose almost simultaneously in Russia and Italy.

Futurism - one of the main avant-garde trends in European art of the early XX century. Russian futurism emerged in 1910-1911. as a distinctive artistic movement. Its history was formed from the complex interaction and struggle of 4 main groups: "Gilea" (cubo-futurists), "Association of ego-futurists", "Centrifuge", "Poetry mezzanine". The earliest and most radical was "Gilea", whose participants in numerous collections ("Trap of Judges", 1910; manifesto "Slap in the Face to Public Taste", 1912; "Dead Moon", 1913, etc.) and performances mainly defined "the face of futurism ". In The Slap in the Face of Public Taste, the Futurists proclaimed a revolution of form, independent of content. The call for a revolution of form stemmed from the first and main postulate of the futurists - about art as a creation of life, about the subjective will of the artist as the decisive and main engine of the history of mankind. The upcoming revolution was desired because it was perceived as a mass thin. action involving the whole world in the game. After the February Revolution, ft. The Gileys formed an imaginary "Government of the Globe". Software for foot. was the shocking of the layman ("A slap in the face to public taste" - a manifesto). F. most of all feared indifference. The necessary condition for its existence was the atmosphere of lit. scandal. Optimal cheat. reaction to TV-in foot. there was aggressive rejection and hysterical protest, which was provoked by the extremes in the behavior of the foot. (Malevich appeared with a wooden spoon in his buttonhole, Mayakovsky - in a female yellow jacket, Kruchenykh wore a sofa pillow on a cord over his shoulder). The principle of their work is the principle of "shift", which was transferred to the literature of their avant-garde painting. Lexical renewal was achieved by depoetising the language, introducing stylistically inappropriate words, vulgarisms, those. terms. Word at ft. lost the halo of sacredness, it became objectified. Syntax. displacements appeared at ft. in violation of the laws of logical combination of words., refusal of punctuation marks. Great value ft. give the visual impact of the text. The Futurists advocated the destruction of the conventional system of literary genres and styles, insisted on unlimited “word creation and word innovation. The creation of author's neologisms is a common feature in the work of such dissimilar poets as I. Severyanin and V. Khlebnikov, V. Mayak-iy and A. Kruchenykh. V. Khlebnikov was a bright innovator in the field of language. he introduced a special term for such a language - "zaum", "abstruse language". Calling to throw Pushkin and other classics off the steamer of our time, the futurist poets were unable to break the ties that bind them to the primordial traditions of Russian culture. The countdown of the traditions of Russian futurism went from the poetics of "The Lay of Igor's Campaign" through the odic poetry of the 18th century. (G.R.Derzhavin), classical poetry of the XIX century (A.S. Pushkin), decadence of the late XIX - early XX centuries. and through the poetry of symbolism. Lighthouse - a poet of an accent verse with a distinct oratorical intonation (the text does not have a regular alternation of blows and bad syllables. In long lines of m / y stun syllables, from 1 to 6 bad ones are placed). However, there is rhyme; Mayak-go's rhyme thinking was generally strict and original. Early lyrics. City theme. The idea of \u200b\u200burban civilization as a second, man-made nature,which the c-k has created around him as opposed to the first. The poem "Signs", the theme of which is "new urban beauty." Iron books "- street signs on tin - really, are intended for reading. The subject of poetic inspiration here is the city, which is beautiful in that it was created for ch-ka. Loneliness theme. The main theme becomes psychological condition his lyric hero, the cat; despite the hospitality of the signs, feels like in a big city lonely. This hero reaches from books, from room life to the street, to people, but in the restaurant you can see a creature chewing. It was to him that Mayak-i addressed in verse "Here!":"In an hour from here into a clean alley / Your bloated fat will flow out on ch-ku." The city is inhabited not by people, but by a crowd, which Mayak-iy contemptuously calls "a hundred-headed louse." The main opposition of early creativity: i - you ("Could you?" 1913); he has so farromantic x-r, reflects a duality.“Listen!” (] 914): spit pearls. War theme ("War has been declared", "Mom and the evening killed by the Germans"). Compassion for the victims of the war. "You!" - political continuation of "Nate!" Satirical theme-Parody hymns (dinner, scholar, critic, judge) "A cloud in pants" (1915), the cat-I brought him real fame. Lighthouse revolt is addressed to the Creator, cat. created love-torment, love-suffering. The hero of the Mayak-go pretends to turn God, declaring Him to be "a dropout, a tiny little big." This is how the grandiose idea of \u200b\u200bremaking the universe grows. But the only bearer of the rebellion is the poet's lonely self. A riot occurs, in his mind, unfolding like one big metaphor. A challenge to the sky: “Hey, you! Sky! Take off your hat, ”remains simply unheard. The conflict declared in "A Cloud in Pants" was deepened and developed in the poems "The Spine Flute" (1915) and "War and Peace" (1916), where the preaching of a harmonious world order by the forces of the ch-ka was combined with the readiness of the hero Mayak-go sacrifice yourself for the future. This collision was brought to full exhaustion in the poem "Ch-k" (1916-1917), the final, final production of the pre-revolutionary Mayak-go. The revolutionThe lighthouse was greeted with enthusiasm. During the Revolution and the Civil War, he renamed the Cubo-Futurists as Komfuts (Communists-Futurists) .Then he created LEF - the Left Front of Art, which, in his opinion, was to unite the close revolutionaries of the leaders of Ku-ry - not only writers, but also musicians, artists, theater and film directors. Then LEF seemed a little to him, he wanted to become “to the left of LEF”, and he created “New LEF”. Then he reformed his group again and renamed it REF - the revolutionary front of art. Z the poet's trick- clothe a political slogan, propaganda poster, trade advertisement, current information, satirical feuilleton in poetic form, write odes in honor of the leaders of the Bolshevik Party and revolutionary holidays.In the first post-October poems, Mayak-iy calls his poems marchesand orders:"Our March", "Left March", "Order for the Army of the Arts", "Order No. 2 for the Army of the Arts." Mayak's poems of the first post-revolutionary years sound like an orator's speech at a meeting. From his poems almost disappears "I", which is preferred "we"... The lighthouse speaks as if on behalf of a new breed of people, a cat. brought to life by roar. In 1918 he writes play "Mystery Buff".Mystery is an areal staging of biblical scenes, and the word "Buff" refers to the tradition of a fun circus performance. Two plans, the sublime religious and the comic circus, determined the content and poetics of this thing. The place of action is declared to be "the entire universe", which the ark plows in search of the "Promised Land". As a result, this turns out to be the "World-Communard", that is, the earth, rinsed with a roar - the "holy washerwoman" - and turned into a universal Commune. In pursuit of "Mystery" he wrote the heroic poem "150 million" (1919), inspired by the prospects of the approaching world revolution (the revolutionary fire in 1919 was already blazing in Bulgaria, Hungary, Germany). The protagonist of the poem - the people of Russia of 150 million, rallied in "one Ivan", crushed the stronghold of the world bourgeoisie - America. M wrote 2 satirical plays "Bedbug" and "Bath"... In the play "The Bedbug" in 1929, the poet declares irreconcilable war on philistinism in all its manifestations. “Former worker, former party member, now fiancé,” Prisypkin, who was renamed Pierre Skripkin, reveals his philistine essence in his actions and speeches. Inhabitants of the "young" dormitory, people from the future, into which the viewer falls along with the heroes of the play, perceive Prisypkin and the microbe of philistinism, by whom he is amazed, as phenomena incompatible with the laws, views, way of life of the new society. wah. The ruthlessness in exposing the philistine gives the play a militant offensive character. The play "Bath" (1930) is aimed at an equally dangerous phenomenon - bureaucracy. The play is a fusion of dream and reality, an interweaving of the present and the future. This is achieved by using fantasy, which is woven into the real life of the inventor Chudakov and his comrades. The whole action is reduced to the struggle for the time machine created by Chudakov, who will allow you to see the future, to be convinced of the reality of a dream that is brought closer every day by the selfless work of thousands of people. The acute conflict between the real builders of the new society and Pobedonosikov, standing on the way of the society to the future, grows into a decisive battle of the new norms of life with bureaucracy, with Pobedonosikovism. The fantastic nature of the plot allows the poet to show the unacceptability of bureaucratic principles for the society of the future: the time machine discards those "that are not needed for communism." Political acuteness in posing the problem, accuracy of the poetic word, ingenuity in creating stage action are the distinctive features of this play by M.

17. The main trends in the development of Russian realism in the late 19th and early 20th centuries: the main representatives, artistic practice. I. Bunin's creativity. Realism in RL belongs to the ageless and eternal phenomena, and in the late XIX - early XX centuries. in the works of L.N. Tolstoy and A.P. Chekhov, he is experiencing a powerful takeoff. At Tolstoy: "Resurrection", "Father Sergius", "The Devil". In Chekhov: the play "The Cherry Orchard", the stories "Bishop", "Bride" (1903). Later, a group of young writers who continued the traditions of classical realism entered Russian literature. This is V.G. Korolenko, A.I. Kuprin, M. Gorky, I.A. Bunin, B. Zaitsev, I. Shmelev, V. Veresaev, L. Andreev. In the works of these writers, the interaction of the realistic method with the new trends of the era was peculiarly reflected. In 1902, Gorky became one of the organizers of the Znaniye publishing company, and in 1904 he began to publish collective collections of prose and poetry. At the center of the creativity of the Znaniev writers was the theme of intense resistance to the surrounding social evil, the theme of the awakening of consciousness, the formation of personality. L. Andreev, I. Bunin, V. Veresaev, S. Gusev-Orenburgsky, A. Kuprin, A. Serafimovich, M. Gorky and others collaborated in nineteen collections "Knowledge" that appeared in 1904-1907. I. Bunin (1870-1953). TV-in developed in two directions: poetry and prose. Symbolist poetry with the influence of impressionism. The prose is realistic. Bunin began his literary career as a poet. His earliest poem is dated 1883. at first he was a student of Nikitin, Koltsov, and partly also Nekrasov. Bunin followed them in the development of peasant themes, adopted the motives of their lyrics, imitated the structure and rhythm of their poems. While in the gymnasium, in January 1886, he wrote the poem "At the Village Cemetery" - about the hard lot of the Russian peasant. characteristic of one of the first poems by Bunin, which appeared in print, "The Village Beggar" (1886). In the center of it is the mournful image of an old peasant, a homeless sufferer who has been overpowered by need, forced to live out his days on beggarly alms. We find sad thoughts about the homeland in a number of poems “Homeland” (1891), “Homeland” (1896). Gradually, nature became for Bunin that healing and beneficial force that gives a person everything: joy, wisdom, beauty, a sense of infinity, diversity and integrity the world, the feeling of their unity, kinship with him. Recreating pictures of Russian nature and the image of the Motherland, the poet cannot free himself from the feeling of sorrow. "Yes, the native land is not happy now!" - he exclaims in the poem "In the Steppe" (1889), merging together the feeling of homeland and the feeling of sorrow for it. In 1903, the Academy of Sciences awarded Bunin the Pushkin Prize for the collection of poems "Leaf Fall" (1901) and the translation of "Song of Haiawat" (1896) by the American poet G. Longfellow, based on the legends of North American Indians (in 1909, the Academy of Sciences would elect Bunin as its honorary member). In 1903-1908. sorrowful poems arose about modernity, about Russia, where everything shifted - "the great and the vile", despotism and slavery, obedience, heroism and cruelty. Printing in 1908 a short poetic cycle "Rus", Bunin reveals the complex, contradictory world of Russia. The closing poem "Wasteland" is perhaps the most socially poignant poem by Bunin of those years. The theme of the people and their suffering is combined with the lyrically mournful voice of the author. Bunin's realistic poetry was associated with the motives, moods, images and themes of his prose. Bunin turned to fiction at the age of sixteen. The unfinished sketch "Song of the Lark" and the fairy tale "Light of Life" (1886 - 1887) were peculiar lyric poetry in prose; in which an attempt is made to express youthful rapture with the beauty of nature, passionate but vague dreams of happiness, to creativity. Full of lyrical animation and Bunin's first love story "Enthusiasm" (1886 - 1887), the entire narrative bears the imprint of book imitation. The theme of the first love is in the plot of the story "First Love". Young Bunin acted as a "writer of the offended and oppressed." The earliest epic Bunin stories, such as the story "Nefedka" (1887) or the essays "Two Wanderers" (1887 - 1889) and "Convulsive" (1891), introduce the reader to the world of the village poor, beggars, vagabonds, lonely wanderers, destitute, homeless people. The theme of the moral responsibility of the noble intelligentsia to the people was raised in the stories "Tanta" (1893), "News from the Motherland" (1895). In many works, the writer shows the desolation of a noble estate, the wildness of its last inhabitants ("In the Field"). In his stories, stories, poems, Bunin shows the whole range of problems of the late 19th - early 20th centuries. The main theme of the early 1900s is the theme of Russia's past patriarchal past. The stories "Antonovskie apples", "Pines", "Zakhar Vorobyov" and others were written. They capture the beauty of Russian nature, the tragedy of a beggar, destitute people. We see the most vivid expression of the problem of the collapse of the foundations of the noble society in the story “ Antonov apples". Bunin regrets the passing past of Russia, idealizing the noble way of life. Bunin's best memories of his former life are saturated with the smell of Antonov apples. The stories "The Good Life", "The Gentleman from San Francisco" and others reveal the life of the city bottom with taverns and cheap rooms, the world of human passions. In the mid-1910s, he moved away from the theme of Russia's patriarchal past to criticism of bourgeois reality. The stories "The Good Life", "The Gentleman from San Francisco" and others reveal the life of the city bottom with taverns and cheap rooms, the world of human passions. With the smallest details, Bunin describes luxury, which is the true life of the masters of modern times. In the center of the work is the collective image of the American bourgeois-millionaire, who does not even have his own name, since no one remembered him. The consumer society has etched everything human, the ability to sympathy, condolences. Bunin perceived the October Revolution as a social drama. In 1920 he emigrated to France. There he continues his creative activity, creates an autobiographical novel "The Life of Arseniev", stories "Mowers", "Lapti", writes a cycle of short stories "Dark Alleys". In the collection “ Dark alleys»The main theme is love. The book "Dark Alleys" is a whole gallery of female portraits. Here you can meet girls who matured early, and confident young women, and respectable ladies, and prostitutes, and models, and peasant women. Female images play the main role in stories, male images are auxiliary, secondary. More attention is paid to male emotions, their feelings. The stories amaze with a variety of shades of love: the simple-minded but unbreakable attachment of a peasant girl to the master who seduced her ("Tanya"); fleeting country hobbies ("Zoya and Valeria"); a short one-day novel (Antigone, Business Cards); passion leading to suicide ("Galya Ganskaya"); an innocent confession of a young prostitute ("Madrid"). The heroine of the story "Cold Autumn", who has lost her fiancé, loves him for thirty years and believes that in her life there was only that autumn evening, and everything else was "unnecessary sleep." In the story " Sukhodol»The writer revises the tradition of poeticization of manor life. The ideological orientation of the work is contradictory, for Bunin, truthfully depicting the horrors of serfdom, the cruelty and degeneration of the owners of the estate, seeks at the same time to substantiate the idea of \u200b\u200bthe blood unity of landowners and peasants, of the special closeness of their everyday life and psyche. Sukhodolskaya chronicle is refracted through the perception of the former serf Natalia. She is submissive to her masters, incapable of condemnation and protest. The Khrushchevs are reputed to be the kindest gentlemen. On the other hand, they keep their peasants at bay. There are many oddities in the Khrushchev family: grandfather, Tonya and Natalya go crazy either from boredom or from love. The house of the pillar nobles is gloomy and gloomy, like the life of its inhabitants. It seems that dry landers live in isolation from the outside world. In the entire village, the same desolation as in their souls, the death of old Khrushchev, killed by Gevraska, is predetermined by fate itself. Women, living out their days, live only with memories of the past. Above the novel " Arseniev's life“Bunin worked for a long time, with interruptions. Novel is constructed as a free lyrical and philosophical monologue, where there are no usual heroes, where it is impossible to highlight the plot in the usual sense of the left. But Life of Arseniev is not just a lyrical diary of distant days. The first impressions of childhood and adolescence, life on the estate and studying at the gymnasium, pictures of Russian nature and the life of the impoverished nobility serve only as a canvas for Bunin's philosophical, religious and ethical concept. The autobiographical material has been transformed by the writer. A huge mosaic picture of Russia is made up of many miniatures. "The Life of Arseniev" is dedicated to the journey of the soul of a young hero, who perceives the world with an unusually fresh and acute feeling. A passionate and deep feeling permeates the last, fifth book of the novel - "Lika". It was based on the experiences of Bunin himself, his youthful love for Vara Pashchenko. Time is powerless to kill genuine feeling. "Recently I saw her in a dream - the only time in my entire long life without her" - this is how Arseniev's Life ends. In the novel, death and oblivion recede before the power of love, before the heightened feeling - of the hero and the author - of life. After being awarded the Nobel Prize in 1933, Bunin became a symbol of Russian literature throughout the world.

18. Creativity of S. Yesenin. Problems. Artistic originality.S. Yesenin (1895-1925) Rod in the Ryazan province in the cross to the family. He studied at the zemstvo school in the village. Konstantinov, church-teacher in Spas-Klepiki, moving to Moscow. This is the peasant elite! There he worked as an assistant proofreader in Sytin's printing house, attended meetings of the Surikov circle and lectures at the Shanyavsky People's University. (The Surikov circle was founded in 1872 by the famous peasant poet Ivan Zakharovich. Surikov as a literary association of writers from the people).His early poems were rehearsals of Koltsov, Nadson, imitative development of folklore motifs and genres. There was a lot of bad taste and provincialism in them. I quickly realized their limitations. An important point is acquaintance with Blok and Klyuev. Blok gave him a recommendation, and at the end of 1915 Yesenin published in St. Petersburg the first book of poetry - "Radunitsa". Soon he was warmly received in the St. Petersburg salons, and critics spoke of him as "Ryazan's Lele". The first period of TV-va E. (1914-1916) called Kitezh. (Klyuev captivated E. with the role of a salon poet: it is necessary to play the role of a "shepherdess" - boots, a coat, a peasant talk. 1) Klyuev took into account the emerging fashion for everything "national", hoping thereby to win a place in the literary environment. 2) Klyuev, who considered himself a representative of the dr / rus k-ry, called E. to go to the people from the spoiled city center). Thy-in this period reflects the holy rus-mu ch-ku dual world. In everyday life, he is a pagan, but he believes in Christ and goes to church. In the center of the Yesenin world is "blue" Russia, a peasant hut with images ("In the hut"). The main motive is grace ("Black, then smelling like a howl!"). The landscape is static; built on a metaphor. Christ walks among people and calls the hero into the oak groves. The lyric-th hero of the early poems of E. appears most often in 2 guises: 1. pilgrim,walking through the field and forest expanses of Russia with a secret faith in Jesus and the Mother of God and 2. A pagan shepherd (shepherd-shepherd, he participates in the deeds of Christ): I pray at the ala dawn, I take communion by the stream. Pagan and Christian merge in the form of "double feeling". An example of double feeling is the verse of the early E. "Song of the Dog" (1915),in which a whelping red-haired bitch appears almost as the Mother of God. The puppies are drowned at her place, and one of them, likened to the red moon in the sky, is taken to heaven. The tragedy of the dog is projected onto the gospel story. Second period - 1916 - 1919... Yesenin is a utopian. search for the ideal - the kingdom of universal happiness, earthly paradise. The idea of \u200b\u200bRussia-Inonia, another Russia (the land of ancestors, mythological eternity). In small poems "Comrade", "Singing Call", "Father", "Advent", "Transfiguration", "Rural Hours", "Inonia", "Jordanian Dove". He talks about the God-chosen country of Russia, the cat. must become an earthly paradise. Christ is close to the Russian revolution - he was born in a manger and a man took him into his hardened hands. In the verses and poems of this period, the image of Jesus the baby is important and - in parallel - the image of the calving sky: "The calving sky is licked by a red heifer." A new Russia is born and brings to the world the Third - peasant - covenant. The new god is a peasant, cow-like, without a cross and torment, therefore blasphemy sounds: "I spit out the sacrament." 1918 Civil War - conflict with Klyuev, lost faith in utopia. Dystopia. In the verse "Mares' ships" the Third Testament turned into a plague. Horses are dying on the streets of cities - Apocalypse: "the mad glow of corpses"). Who is to blame? Release of October (Metaphor: the October wind will flatten the groves). He renounces February and October illusions. 1919 own poetic manifesto - "The Keys of Mary". In "The Keys of Mary" he wrote about the ancient ch-ke and its mythology, the secret of which was known to the ancient Slavic culture of shepherds and farmers. This art was associated with the sky. The remains of this culture are kept by the Russian village (This is peasant folklore - the basis of Russian imagery), cat. in the era of bourgeois, "urban", civilization dies, "like a fish splashed out on the shore of the earth by a wave." Meets Anatoly Mariengof and Vadim Shershenevich. ( circa 1920-1924 period of Imagism)Imagists assert the idea of \u200b\u200bthe intrinsic value of the image in poetry (the content is the blind gut of art). The image is built on logic, talent and intuition are questionable things. The category of the beautiful was also banished, anti-aestheticism and physiological character of the image were welcomed. In a certain sense, Yesenin followed these principles: "The sun is getting cold like a puddle that a gelding has poured", "Above the groves, like a cow, the dawn has lifted its tail." "Imaginist" period of creativity E. begins with the transformation monk and shepherd into a hooligan.1920 verse I "Bully", "Confessions of a bully." In them, not only the lyrical hero changes, but also the landscape, the cat. becomes uncomfortable, gloomy, hostile. Yesenin reinforces the motive of his rejection, calling himself a robber, horse thief, thief, boor, charlatan, brawler. But at the same time, he emphasizes in every possible way that in his soul he remains still a village b-com. In 1920. he began to work on the dramatic poem Pugachev, but he was interested in Nestor Makhno, who was then called the new Pugachev. But writing a poem about him was too dangerous. E. saw in Makhno the possibility of a third path in the revolution, but it collapsed. 1922-1923 cycle of poems "Moscow tavern". (MK)(feeling of hopeless impasse) Paradoxical combination of the theme of drunken decay with amazing poetic power. The breakup in MK is cruel and wild in the Asian way. One of the most expressive poems of the cycle ended like this: You, Scattering my ... Rass-sowing ... Asian side. Equally cruel in this cycle and lyric hero E. Purification to the hero of "MK" could come only through death and a religious return to the lost national soil. "Soviet Russia" in the works of S. Yesenin E. greeted the rev-tion with enthusiasm. First, he talks about the God-chosen country of Russia, cat. must become an earthly paradise. In the verses and poems of this period, the image of Jesus the baby is important and - in parallel - the image of the calving sky: "The calving sky is licked by a red heifer." But the civil war cooled the ardor. In the verse "Mares' ships" Paradise turned into a plague. Horses are dying on the streets of cities - Apocalypse: "the mad glow of corpses"). Who is to blame? Release of October (Metaphor: the October wind will flatten the groves). He renounces February and October illusions. He was close to the esser. He considered the Makhno republic as a new path for Russia. After traveling to America, In 1924-1925. An attempt to overcome their disagreement with reality. The concept is "I accept".He makes a peacekeeping gesture towards the Bolsheviks and tries to join the new Russia. Ye. Writes a kind of small lyrical trilogy - "Return to the Homeland", "Soviet Russia", "Leaving Russia" - in which he first turns to the life of the Soviet countryside. The language of the Yemeni utopia is alien to this village, which gave birth to a bitter confession: "The language of fellow citizens has become like a stranger to me, / In my country I am like a foreigner." Or, as he summed up in another verse: “Who am I? What am I? Is it just a dreamer, / Lost his blue eyes in the darkness. " He writes about "steel Russia", about how he wants to "lift up his pants and run after the Komsomol". In "Letter to a Woman" E. is generally inclined to condemn himself for remaining aloof from the struggle for the future, efforts to speak new language. Yesenin's last big pieces are final. In 1925 he - one after another - wrote the cycle "Persian motives", the poems "Anna Snegina" and "The Black Man". In "Persian motives", there is a conditional, invented Persia - a country of poetry and love, an illusory world of peace and silence. In The Black Man, the subject of the depiction was an empty, devalued life, in the face of which the poems were exposed as something illusory and deceitful. The poet's twin, the Black Man confesses with cynical composure. Yesenin painfully felt that he was living the fate of some kind of "adventurer", "a scoundrel and a bum." Until now, this has been a mask. In The Black Man, the mask had grown to the face and was torn off with blood and meat. Yesenin conceived "Anna Snegina" as an epic, "Nekrasov" story from peasant life, but in the end created a lyrical confession. The plot of "Anna Snegina" unfolds against the background of the struggle of men for land in 1917. The hero of the poem, a double of Yesenin himself, who is also called Sergei, returns to rest in his native places. His friend Pron Ogloblin goes with him to the estate of the landowner Snegina (with whom Sergei once had an affair) to take land. Three people who love each other face in a painful conflict - in order to end up parting forever: Anna leaves for London, Sergei goes to the capital, Pron is killed by whites. Anna from emigration sends him a letter of recognition. "" But you are still dear to me, / Like a homeland and like spring. "And if at the beginning of the poem there is an offense at a life in which there is so little love (" But they loved us a little ") , then at the end the opposite is stated: (We all loved during these years, / But, therefore, we loved too.) The author of "Anna Snegina" forgives life everything that "did not come true" in her, blessing her.