Years of life: 470/469 BC e. - 399 BC e.

State: Ancient Greece

Field of activity: Philosophy

Greatest Achievement: Opened a new direction in philosophy - the study of human personality

Socrates (469-399 BC), considered by many as the founder of Western philosophy, is the most exemplary and strangest of the Greek philosophers. He grew up in Pericles' golden age of Athens, served as a soldier, but became its most famous orator. His teaching style—immortalized as the Socratic method—involved not the transmission of knowledge, but the posing of a question, and only through dialogue between individuals can understanding be achieved.

He wrote nothing himself, so everything that is known about him is filtered through the writings of several contemporaries and followers, most notably his student Plato. He was accused of corrupting the youth of Athens and sentenced to death. Deciding not to run away, he spent his last days in the company of his friends before drinking a cup of poison hemlock.

early years

Socrates was born and lived almost all his life in Athens. His father Sophroniscus was a mason, and his mother Fenarete was a midwife. As a young man, he showed an interest in learning. describes how he eagerly acquired the works of the leading modern philosopher Anaxagoras and says that he studied rhetoric from Aspasia, the talented mistress of the great Athenian leader Pericles.

Although he never rejected the standard Athenian view of religion, Socrates' beliefs were nonconformist. He often referred to God rather than gods, and reported that he was guided by an inner divine voice.

His family apparently had the funds necessary to begin Socrates' career as a hoplite (infantryman). As an infantryman, Socrates showed great physical endurance and courage in rescuing the future Athenian leader Alcibiades during the siege of Potidaea in 432 BC.

During the 420s, Socrates fought in several battles in the Peloponnesian War, but also spent enough time in Athens to become famous and beloved among the city's youth.

In 423, he was introduced to the general public as a caricature in Aristophanes' play The Clouds, which portrayed him as an unkempt joker whose philosophy was to teach rhetorical tricks.

Philosophy as life

Although many of Aristophanes' criticisms seem unfair, Socrates in Athens presented a strange image that combined the barefoot, long-haired and unwashed man with incredibly refined standards of beauty. This did not help, as he was physically deformed in every way, with an upturned nose and bulging eyes. Despite his intelligence and connections, he rejected the glory and power that the Athenians were expected to aspire to.

His lifestyle—and ultimately his death—embodied his spirit, questioning every assumption of virtue, wisdom, and the good life. His two younger students, the historian Xenophon and the philosopher Plato, wrote down the most important accounts of Socrates' life and philosophy.

In Plato's later works, Socrates says what appear to be mostly Plato's ideas, but in the earlier dialogues, which historians say are the most accurate portrayals, Socrates rarely reveals any of his views, as he brilliantly helps his interlocutors analyze their thoughts and motives.

One of the great paradoxes that Socrates helped his students explore was the possibility of making a mistake while they actually knew they were making a mistake. Thus, developing personal ethics is a matter of mastering what he called “the art of measurement,” correcting the biases that distort benefit-cost analysis. Socrates was also deeply interested in understanding the limits of human knowledge.

When one day Socrates' friend Chaerephon visited the oracle at Delphi to ask Apollo for the answer to the question: “Who is wiser than Socrates?” The Pythia replied: “There is no wiser man in the world than Socrates!”

And Socrates said: “I only know that I know nothing...” Many people know this phrase, but few remember its continuation:

“All I know is that I don’t know anything, but others don’t even know that.”

Socrates is the only one who was ready to admit his own ignorance.

Politics and the ideal death

Socrates avoided involvement in politics, although he had supporters in the bitter struggle for power after the end of the Peloponnesian War. In 406 BC. e. he was called to serve in the Athenian army, and he became the only opponent of the illegal proposal that a group of the best Athenian generals return from the battle with Sparta as dead men (the generals were executed after the meeting of Socrates).

Three years later, when the tyrannical Athenian government ordered Socrates to participate in the arrest and execution of Leon Salamis, he refused, using the so-called “act of civil disobedience” described by Martin Luther King in his “Letter from Birmingham Jail.”

The tyrants were forced from power before they could punish Socrates, but in 399 he was charged with neglecting the Athenian gods and corrupting the young.

Although some historians have speculated that there may have been political machinations behind the trial, he was convicted because of his thoughts and teachings. Plato talks about how he shows his virtue in front of the jury, but calmly accepts their verdict.

His execution was delayed by 30 days due to a religious holiday, during which the philosopher's mad friends tried unsuccessfully to persuade him to flee Athens. On his last day, says Plato, he "seemed happy in manner and words as he died nobly and without fear." He drank the cup of brewed hemlock that his executioner handed him, walked around until his legs were numb, and then lay down, surrounded by his friends, and waited for the poison to reach his heart.

Socratic method

Socrates was unique among the great philosophers in that he is portrayed and remembered as a quasi-saint or religious figure. Indeed, almost every school of ancient Greek and Roman philosophy, from skeptics to stoics to cynics, wanted him as their supporter (only the Epicureans did not accept him, calling him the “clown of Athens”).

Socrates and his followers expanded the purpose of philosophy by trying to understand the external world and trying to discern their inner values. His passion for definition and questioning inspired the development of formal logic and systematic ethics from the time of Aristotle through the Renaissance and into the modern era. Moreover, Socrates' life became an example of the complexity and importance of life (and, if necessary, death) in accordance with well-studied beliefs.

In his 1791 autobiography, he combined this concept into one line: “Humility: imitate

The teaching of which marks a turn in philosophy - from consideration of nature and the world to consideration of man. His activity is a turning point in ancient philosophy. With his method of analyzing concepts (mayeutics, dialectics) and identifying the positive qualities of a person with his knowledge, he directed the attention of philosophers to the importance of the human personality. Socrates is called the first philosopher in the proper sense of the word. In the person of Socrates, philosophizing thought first turns to itself, exploring its own principles and techniques. Representatives of the Greek branch of patristics drew direct analogies between Socrates and Christ.

Socrates was the son of the stonemason (sculptor) Sophroniscus and the midwife Phenareta, he had a maternal brother Patroclus. He was married to a woman named Xanthippe.

“Socrates’ interlocutors sought his company not in order to become orators..., but in order to become noble people and fulfill their duties well towards the family, servants (the servants were slaves), relatives, friends, the Fatherland, fellow citizens” (Xenophon, “Memoirs” about Socrates").

Socrates believed that noble people would be able to rule the state without the participation of philosophers, but in defending the truth, he was often forced to take an active part in the public life of Athens. He took part in the Peloponnesian War - he fought at Potidaea, at Delia, at Amphipolis.

He was the mentor of the Athenian politician and commander Alcibiades, a pupil of his friend Pericles, saved his life in battle, but refused to accept Alcibiades’ love in gratitude, according to prosecutors, while publicly corrupting the young men, declaring “blessed by the gods” male love “swine.”

After the establishment of a dictatorship as a result of the activities of Alcibiades, Socrates condemned the tyrants and sabotaged the activities of the dictatorship. After the overthrow of the dictatorship, citizens, angry that when the Athenian army abandoned the wounded commander-in-chief and fled, Socrates saved the life of Alcibiades (if Alcibiades had died, he would not have been able to harm Athens), in 399 BC. e. Socrates was charged with the fact that “he does not honor the gods whom the city honors, but introduces new deities, and is guilty of corrupting youth.” As a free Athenian citizen, Socrates was not executed by the executioner, but took poison himself (according to a common legend, hemlock infusion, however, judging by the symptoms, it could have been hemlock).

Sources

Socrates expressed his thoughts orally, in conversations with different persons; We have received information about the content of these conversations in the works of his students, Plato and Xenophon (Memoirs of Socrates, Defense of Socrates at the Trial, Feast, Domostroy), and only in an insignificant proportion in the works of Aristotle. In view of the large number and volume of the works of Plato and Xenophon, it may seem that the philosophy of Socrates is known to us with complete accuracy. But there is an obstacle: Plato and Xenophon present Socrates' teaching differently in many respects. For example, in Xenophon, Socrates shares the general opinion that enemies should do more evil than they could do; and in Plato, Socrates, contrary to general opinion, says that one should not pay offense and evil to anyone in the world, no matter what evil people have done. Hence the question arose in science: which of them represents the teachings of Socrates in a purer form. This question has given rise to deep debate in philosophical literature and is resolved in completely different ways: some scientists see in Xenophon the purest source of information about Socratic philosophy; others, on the contrary, consider Xenophon to be a worthless or unsuitable witness and give preference to Plato. However, it is natural that the famous warriors Socrates and the commander Xenophon, first of all, discussed the problems of attitude towards enemies in war; with Plato, on the contrary, it was about the enemies with whom people deal in peacetime. Some argue that the only reliable source for the characterization of Socrates is the comedies of Callias, Telecleides, Eupolis and especially the comedies of Aristophanes "Clouds", Frogs, Birds, where Socrates is presented as a sophist and atheist, the ideological leader of reformers of all stripes, even the inspirer of the tragedies of Euripides, and where reflected all counts of future charges at trial. But many other contemporary playwrights portrayed Socrates sympathetically - as a selfless and good-natured eccentric and an original, steadfastly enduring adversity. Thus, Ameipsia in the tragedy “Horses” gives the following characterization of the philosopher: “My Socrates, are you the best in a narrow circle, but unsuitable for mass action, a sufferer and a hero, among us?” Finally, some consider the testimony about Socrates of all three main witnesses important: Plato, Xenophon and Aristophanes, although Aristophanes’s sponsor was the main enemy of Socrates, the rich and corrupt Anytus.

Philosophical views of Socrates

Using the method of dialectical debate, Socrates tried to restore through his philosophy the authority of knowledge, shaken by the sophists. The Sophists neglected the truth, and Socrates made it his beloved.

“... Socrates investigated the moral virtues and was the first to try to give their general definitions (after all, of those who reasoned about nature, only Democritus touched on this a little and in some way gave definitions of hot and cold; and the Pythagoreans - before him - did this for a few things, the definitions of which they reduced to numbers , indicating, for example, what opportunity, or justice, or matrimony is). ...Two things can rightly be attributed to Socrates - proofs through induction and general definitions: both concern the beginning of knowledge,” wrote Aristotle (“Metaphysics”, XIII, 4).

The line between the spiritual processes inherent in man and the material world, already outlined by the previous development of Greek philosophy (in the teachings of Pythagoras, the Sophists, etc.), was more clearly outlined by Socrates: he emphasized the uniqueness of consciousness in comparison with material existence and was one of the first to deeply reveal the sphere of the spiritual as an independent reality, proclaiming it as something no less reliable than the existence of the perceived world (monism).

Socratic paradoxes

Many statements traditionally attributed to the historical Socrates are characterized as “paradoxical” because they, from a logical point of view, seem to contradict common sense. The so-called Socratic paradoxes include the following phrases:

• Nobody wishes harm.
• No one does evil of his own free will.
• Virtue is knowledge.

Socratic method

Socrates compared his research techniques to the “art of the midwife” (maieutics); his method of questioning, suggesting a critical attitude to dogmatic statements, was called “Socratic irony”. Socrates did not write down his thoughts, believing that this weakened his memory. And he led his students to a true judgment through dialogue, where he asked a general question, received an answer, asked the next clarifying question, and so on until the final answer.

Trial of Socrates

The trial of Socrates is described in two works by Xenophon and Plato with the similar title Apology of Socrates (Greek. Ἀπολογία Σωκράτους ). “Apology” (ancient Greek. ἀπολογία ) corresponds to the words “Defense”, “Defensive speech”. The works of Plato (see Apology (Plato)) and Xenophon “Defense of Socrates at the Trial” contain Socrates’ defensive speech at the trial and describe the circumstances of his trial.

At the trial, Socrates, instead of the appeal to the mercy of judges, which was accepted at that time, which he declares degrading the dignity of both the defendant and the court, speaks of the words of the Delphic Pythia to Chaerephon that “there is no person more independent, just and reasonable than Socrates.” Indeed, when he, with one large club, dispersed the Spartan phalanx, who were about to throw spears at the wounded Alcibiades, not a single enemy warrior wanted the dubious glory of killing or at least wounding the elderly sage, and his fellow citizens were going to sentence him to death. Socrates also rejects accusations of blasphemy and corruption of youth.

The picture of hemlock poisoning is much more unsightly; seizures resembling epileptic seizures, foam at the mouth, nausea, vomiting, and paralysis are possible. Plato himself never mentions in his work what exactly Socrates was poisoned with, only calling it the general word “poison.” Recently, an attempt was made to identify the poison from which Socrates died, as a result of which the author came to the conclusion that hemlock was used (lat. Conium maculatum), the picture of poisoning which is more suitable to what Plato described. The modern legal assessment of the judges' decision is contradictory.

Theories about the personality of Socrates

The identity of Socrates is the subject of much speculation. In addition to philosophers and moralists, many psychologists have tried to explain the character of Socrates. Nineteenth-century psychology and philosophy were especially interested in this issue, which at times considered his case pathological. In particular, the man's willpower and his physical exercise aroused curiosity. Through various activities, Socrates strengthened his body in order to strengthen himself against suffering. He often remained in the same position, from dawn to dusk, “motionless and straight as a tree trunk.” At the beginning of the Peloponnesian War, Athens was devastated by an epidemic; as Favorin believed, the philosopher owed his salvation to the constancy of his regime and his removal from voluptuousness, being preserved from illness thanks to a clean and healthy lifestyle.

see also

Notes

Literature

Books

• Xenophon. Socratic works: [translation from ancient Greek] / Xenophon; [intro. Art. and note. S. Sobolevsky]. - M.: World of Books: Literature, 2007. - 367 p. - (Great thinkers). ISBN 978-5-486-00994-5
• Zhebelev S. A. Socrates. - Berlin, 1923.
  • Zhebelev S. A. Socrates: biographical sketch / S. A. Zhebelev. - Ed. 2nd. - Moscow: URSS: LIBROCOM, 2009. - 192 p. - (From the heritage of world philosophical thought: great philosophers). ISBN 978-5-397-00767-2
• Cassidy F.H. Socrates / F.H. Cassidy. - 4th ed., rev. and additional - St. Petersburg: Aletheya, 2001. - 345 p. - (Series Ancient Library. Research). ISBN 5-89329-445-9
• Nersesyants V. S. Socrates / V. S. Nersesyants. - M.: Publishing house. group "INFRA-M": Norma, 1996. - 305, p. ISBN 5-86225-197-9 ( first edition - M.: Nauka, 1984)
• Fankin Yu. Condemnation of Socrates. - M., 1986. - 205 p.
• Ebert Theodor. Socrates as a Pythagorean and anamnesis in Plato’s dialogue “Phaedo” / Theodor Ebert; [transl. with him. A. A. Rossius]. - St. Petersburg: St. Petersburg Publishing House. Univ., 2005. - 158, p. ISBN 5-288-03667-5
• Fomichev N. In the name of truth and virtue: Socrates. The story is a legend. [For children] / Nikolay Fomichev; [Artist. N. Belyakova]. - M.: Mol. Guard, 1984. - 191 p.
• Toman, J., Tomanova M. Socrates / Joseph Toman, Miroslava Tomanova; - M.: Raduga, 1983.

Articles

• Foreign philosophical antiquity: Critical. analysis / [Kuliev G. G., Kurbanov R. O., Drach G. V. et al.]; Rep. ed. D. V. Dzhokhadze; USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of Philosophy. - M.: Nauka, 1990. - 236, p. ISBN 5-02-008066-7
  • Antipenko Z. G. The problem of Socrates in Nietzsche // Foreign philosophical studies of antiquity ... - M., 1990. - P. 156 - 163.
  • Vdovina I. S. Socratic teaching about man in the interpretation of French personalism // Foreign philosophical antiquity ... - M., 1990. - P.163-179.
• Vasilyeva T.V. Delphic oracle about the wisdom of Socrates, superior to the wisdom of Sophocles and Euripides // Culture and art of the ancient world. - M., 1980.
• Vasiliev V. A. Socrates on goodness and virtue // Social and humanitarian knowledge. - M., 2004. - No. 1. - P. 276-290.
• Divers G. G. Our contemporary Socrates // Social sciences and modernity. - M., 2005. - No. 5. - P.109-117; No. 6. - P.128-134.
• Gabdullin B. A few words about Abai’s criticism of Socrates’ ethical ideas // Philosophical Sciences. - 1960. - No. 2.
• The universe of Platonic thought: Neoplatonism and Christianity. Apology of Socrates. Materials of the IX Platonov Conference on June 23-24, 2001 and the historical and philosophical seminar on May 14, 2001, dedicated to the 2400th anniversary of the execution of Socrates. - St. Petersburg, 2001.
  • Demin R.N. Socrates on dialectics and the doctrine of gender division in ancient China // Universe of Platonic thought: Neoplatonism and Christianity. ... - St. Petersburg, 2001. - P. 265-270.
  • Kosykh M. P. That man is Socrates // Universe of Platonic thought: Neoplatonism and Christianity. ... - St. Petersburg, 2001.
  • Lebedev S.P. The place of the doctrine of logical definition in the philosophy of Socrates // Universe of Platonic thought: Neoplatonism and Christianity. ... - St. Petersburg, 2001.
• Rozhansky I. D. The riddle of Socrates // Prometheus. - 1972. - T.9.
• Oseledchik M. B. Dialogues of Socrates through the eyes of a logician // Logical-philosophical studies. - M., 1991. - Issue 2. - P.146 - 156.
• Toporov V.N. Socrates of Plato’s “Apology of Socrates” as a man of the “axial time”] // Slavic and Balkan linguistics: Man in the space of the Balkans. Behavior. scripts and cultures. roles: [Sb. Art.] / Ross. acad. Sciences, Institute of Slavic Studies; [Ans. ed. I. A. Sedakova, T. V. Tsivyan]. - M.: Indrik, 2003. - 468 p. - pp. 7-18. ISBN 5-85759-239-9
• Florensky P. A. The personality of Socrates and the face of Socrates // Questions of Philosophy. - M., 2003. - No. 8. - P.123-131.
• Fokht B. A. Pedagogical ideas of Socrates // Didact. - M. 1998. - No. 1 (22). - P. 60-64.
• Chernyakhovskaya O. M. Political views of Socrates in Xenophon // Historical and Philosophical Yearbook 2007. - M., 2008. - P.5-30.
• Steinkraus Warren E. Socrates, Confucius, and the rectification of names. Philosophy East and West 30 (2). 1980. - P. 261-264.
• Yu, Jiyuan The Beginnings of Ethics: Confucius and Socrates // Asian Philosophy 15 (July 2005): 173-89.

Links

- an Athenian born into a simple family, became the most famous ancient Greek thinker of his time. What was the philosophy of Socrates, biography and statements in the article.

Biography of Socrates

Socrates was born into an ordinary family in the 5th century BC. His father worked as a sculptor, and his mother as a midwife. The future philosopher studied independently. He learned his skills as a sculptor from his father. He gathered young people who were eager to gain new knowledge. He held conversations on walks and squares, influencing his surroundings. Speaking as a teacher, he did not take money for conversations, considering trading in wisdom unacceptable. His biography was written by listeners, students and friends, since he himself did not write anything down. The philosophy is expounded in the works of Xenaphon and Plato. But Plato inserted his own reasoning into the notes, presenting it in the form of discussions between Socrates and the participants in the conversation.

The personality of Socrates is attractive to his contemporaries. They formed other philosophical schools. Each continued his teaching. He was seen as the founder of a new philosophy. He was a teacher, an example of a clear mind and inner peace. His external mediocrity refuted the deep-rooted ideas of the Greeks that a beautiful soul can only be found in a beautiful body. The sage's nose was flattened, his nostrils wide and upturned.

He talked with people from different social classes, and for each he tried to pose the question in such a way that the interlocutor could correctly understand the meaning of what was said. The questions forced the interlocutor to think. Conversations with those who wanted him led him to prison. He was charged with anti-state activities and serving a demon. The demon was the name given to the inner voice that prompted the philosopher to reason and think. He refused to escape from prison, despite the escape plan organized by his students and associates. In the spring of 399 BC. the philosopher drank from a cup that contained poison that paralyzed breathing. Until the last day he was calm and continued philosophical conversations and reasoning with himself.

The meaning of Socrates' philosophy

Socrates is remembered by history as a reformer of theoretical and practical philosophy. Aristotle noted that it was Socrates who founded scientific methodology in the form of inductive reasoning and determination.

Socratic method

The main idea of ​​the Socratic method is to seek truth through conversation, or argument. From it came the idealistic dialectic. Dialectics is the art of finding truth through revealing contradictions in the interlocutor’s reasoning and overcoming them. The method is based on two parts:

1. Irony.
2. Majeutics.

The Socratic method is based on systematic questions asked of the interlocutor, the purpose of which was to lead him to understand his own ignorance. It's irony. But the ironic presentation of contradictions is not the essence of the method. The main thing in it is to find the truth through revealing contradictions. Maieutics continues and complements the Socratic method.

The thinker himself said that his method, like a midwife, helps to give birth to the truth. Thought is divided into links. From each question a question is formed, to which there is a short or clear answer. To put it simply, this is a dialogue with the seizure of initiative.

Let us list the advantages of the Socratic method:

1. The interlocutor's attention is focused and does not wander.
2. The illogicality in the chain of reasoning is quickly noticed.
3. Disputants find the truth.
4. In the chain of reasoning, other issues that are not related to the original topic are resolved.

Socrates' teaching about goodness

Let's consider how Socrates understood good. Improving educational conditions is the sacred duty of people. The most important thing is education, both personal and other people. The highest human wisdom is the ability to distinguish good from evil. Every person should be guided by justice in his actions. A doctor will not give useful advice to someone who monitors their health. Knowledge is the only good, and ignorance is the only evil. Anyone who follows his own pleasures will not be able to keep his body and soul pure. Whoever wants to move the world must first move himself.

Women's love is worse than men's hatred. This is poison, dangerously sweet. Wisdom rules the world and heaven. Drunkenness reveals vice, but happiness does not change character. The ability to enjoy little things is a sign of a rich nature. Evil arises when a person has not known good.

About truth

The opinions of others don't matter. It is not the decision of the majority that wins, but the decision of a single person.

Socrates' Doctrine of God

Theology became the completion of the philosophy of the sage. He claims that people are not capable of understanding the truth; only God knows everything. The Athenian philosopher had no fear of death, because he did not know whether it was good, evil, or the highest good, and said that a person in the face of death can prophesy. The sign does not leave him on the way to court and leaving the courtroom, everything happens as it should. Otherwise, he would have been stopped by a sign. The Gods protect a good person during life and after death, taking care of his affairs. Socrates said about God: “I know he exists and I know what he is.” Matter in his definition is the expression of divine thoughts. He rejected the study of nature, considering it to be interference in the affairs of the gods.

People combine two opposites – the soul and the body of which they are composed. The soul strives to cognize knowledge and virtue, the body strives for comfort and base desires. Differing goals implies a conflict between soul and body. You need to take care of the soul and ignore bodily needs. The ideal is higher than the good, even at the risk of life and health.

The moral character of the mind places it above the body. The mind has a supra-personal universal part. This part is the Universal Mind, or God.

The philosopher placed one God above the recognized Greek ones. The Divine manifests itself in the soul of man, and the truth is hidden within him. God is not a person, but a world order endowed with reason. A person's wisdom costs nothing.

Ethics

What are the ethics of Socrates? The ethical meaning in his philosophy is virtue, knowledge of goodness and actions in accordance with this knowledge. A brave person knows the right action and takes it. A fair person is one who knows what to do in public affairs and does so. A pious person knows and observes religious rituals. Socrates spoke about the inseparability of virtue and knowledge. By acting immorally, people are mistaken and suffer from a lack of understanding of good and evil.

Virtue is achieved only by noble people. Among the virtues, the philosopher identified:

1. Restraint is the ability to cope with passion.
2. Courage is the ability to overcome danger.
3. Justice is observance of the law of people and God.

The philosopher considered virtues to be unchangeable and eternal.

Consider the philosophical ethics of Socrates:

Cognition of space is impossible; man will not find a way out of contradictions. He is able to know what belongs to him - his own soul. This is where the philosopher’s demand “Know thyself” came from. The purpose of knowledge is to guide a person in life. The value of knowledge of phenomena is the ability to live wisely.

Socrates Quotes

His statements combine wisdom and simplicity. Here are the sayings of the ancient philosopher:

1. “Marriage is a necessary evil.”
2. “Get married. A good wife will make you an exception, with a bad wife you will become a philosopher.”
3. “Work without a goal is better than inaction.”
4. "Force does not preserve friendship." Friends are caught and tamed through love and kindness.”
5. “Eat to live, don’t live to eat.”

Philosophy for Socrates is an attempt to understand oneself and other people of his era. The theme of the human personality became central for the first time during the entire period of development of philosophy as a science, which began to be called “Pre-Socratic”.

Man becomes the only form. The past period of philosophy was focused on the search for existence outside of man. This was a radical revolution in the development of worldview issues. Socrates was the first to formulate questions of the relationship between subject and object, spirit and nature, thinking and being. Philosophy does not consider the division of concepts among themselves, but their relationship with each other.

Socrates spoke about the objective nature of knowledge and gave importance to man from the point of view of a being with morality. He believed in the kinship of the spiritual and the divine, and thought about the immortality of the soul. God is the source of virtue and justice, a moral, and not a natural force, as was previously believed.

He was engaged in strengthening and improving ethical idealism, but was not limited to this. The goal of Socrates' philosophical quest is to understand virtue and follow it.

Socrates said that the relationship between the state and a person is comparable to the relationship between parents and children. Children are obliged to obey their parents, just as a person is obliged to express submission to the state. Based on this principle, the philosopher did not escape the death sentence and did not escape from prison. Following truth and justice cost him his life, and death showed that the sage went to the end in his reasoning and lived in accordance with them.

The life and death of Socrates are still of great interest not only to historians, but also to his many admirers. Many circumstances surrounding the fate of this thinker remain a mystery to this day. The life and death of Socrates are covered in legends. Is it any wonder, since we are talking about one of the greatest thinkers of all time.

Origin of Socrates

Socrates is a famous Athenian philosopher who was awarded a great monument - Plato's dialogues. In them he is the main character.

It is known that the father of the future philosopher was the stonecutter (or sculptor) Sophroniscus, and his mother was Fenareta. Probably his father was a fairly wealthy man. The researchers made this conclusion based on the fact that Socrates fought as a hoplite, that is, as a heavily armed warrior. Despite the wealth of his parents, the philosopher himself did not care about property and became extremely poor towards the end of his life.

Conflicting sources

Socrates presented his teachings exclusively orally. We know about him from several sources, one of which is mentions and depictions of him in the comedies of Aristophanes, parodies and lifetime ones. The portraits of Socrates made by Xenophon and Plato are posthumous and written in a laudatory spirit. These sources, however, are largely inconsistent with each other. Apparently, Aristotle's messages are based on Plato. Many other authors, friendly or hostile, also contributed, as did the legends of Socrates.

The philosopher's social circle, participation in the war

When the outbreak broke out, the philosopher was 37 years old. Among the people with whom he communicated before her were intellectuals from the circle of Pericles - the sophist Protagoras, the scientist Archelaus, the musician Damon, as well as the brilliant Aspasia. There is information that he was acquainted with the famous philosopher Anaxagoras. In Plato's Phaedo, Socrates talks about the dissatisfaction he felt from reading the works of Anaxagoras. The philosopher we are interested in studied dialectics with Zeno of Elea, later attended the lectures of the sophist Prodicus, and also took part in debates with Thrasymachus, Gorgias and Antiphon. Socrates distinguished himself in war at the Battle of Potidaea, dating back to 432 BC. e., under Delia (424 BC) and under Amphipolis (422 BC).

Socrates - Delphic Oracle

A very important stage in the development of this philosopher was his proclamation as the Delphic Oracle, “the wisest of men.” Plato speaks about this in The Delphic Oracle himself thought a lot about these words. He compared them with his belief in the opposite, that he “knows only that he knows nothing.” The philosopher came to the conclusion that this is precisely what makes him the wisest, since many people do not even know this. Knowing the extent of both one's own ignorance and the ignorance of others is a general principle of Socrates' studies. We are encouraged to do this by the words carved at the entrance to the Delphic temple of Apollo. These words are: “Know thyself.”

Socrates and politics

By 423 BC. e. Socrates was already quite a prominent figure, which is why he became the object of satirical attacks by two famous Athenian comedians - Ameipsia and Aristophanes. The philosopher eschewed politics, although among his friends were Alcibiades, Critias, Charmides and Theramenes. The last three were the leaders of the Thirty Tyrants who overthrew democracy in Athens. And Alcibiades went so far as to betray his hometown because of political opportunism. There is evidence that connections with these people harmed Socrates during his trial.

In 406 BC. e. The philosopher we are interested in tried to prevent the illegal and hastily drawn up verdict of the strategists who were brought to justice after the Athenian fleet won the battle of the Arginus Islands. It is also known that in 404 BC. the philosopher neglected the order of the Thirty Tyrants to catch Leontes from Salamis, who was included by them in the proscription lists.

Personal life

Socrates, already in old age, tied the knot with Xanthippe. This woman gave birth to the philosopher three children. It is possible that this was Socrates' second marriage. The philosopher was poor. His unusual appearance and unpretentiousness are proverbial.

and the death of Socrates

Socrates was put on trial in 399 on charges of “corrupting the youth” and “impiety.” By a slight majority, he was found guilty. When the thinker did not want to admit guilt and did not try to ask to replace the execution with exile, a larger number of those present at the trial voted for the death of Socrates.

The philosopher was in prison for a month, then the sentence was carried out. The Thinker was presented with a bowl of poison (hemlock). He drank it, and as a result of this, Socrates died. Such works of Plato as “Phaedo”, “Crito” and “Apology of Socrates”, which tell about this trial, about the philosopher’s stay in prison and his execution, perpetuated the courage of the thinker we are interested in, the firmness of his convictions.

In 399 BC. e. Socrates died. The year is known for sure, but the date cannot be given. We can only say that the philosopher died at the end of June or beginning of July. According to the testimony of three ancient authors (Apollodorus of Athens, Demetrius of Phalerum and Plato), the thinker was 70 years old at the time of his death. The death of Socrates (the vast majority of ancient authors agree on this) did not occur as a result of natural causes. It happened because he drank poison. The cause of Socrates' death, however, is still controversial among some historians. Much later, Plato, in his dialogue “Phaedo,” immortalized the image of a philosopher who is alien to death by nature, but in the face of prevailing circumstances must die. However, Plato himself was not present at the death of his teacher. He did not personally witness the death of Socrates. Plato briefly described it based on the testimony of his contemporaries.

Text of the accusation

The text of the accusation against the philosopher, which was presented for judicial review, has survived to this day. For this we should express gratitude to such a little-known author as Diogenes Laertius. He owns an essay entitled “On the Lives of the Philosophers,” dating back to the first half of the 3rd century AD. e. Diogenes Laertius, in turn, borrowed this important information from the works of Favorinus of Arelates. This man was an admirer of antiquity, a philosopher and a writer. He lived only a century earlier, however, unlike Diogenes, he personally saw this text in the Athenian Metroon.

The overwhelming majority of researchers agree that it was as a result of taking poison that the heroic death of Socrates occurred. However, we cannot know exactly how everything happened. The circumstances of Socrates' death are one of the most interesting moments in his biography.

Teachings of Socrates

Socrates, as a teacher, is a very controversial figure. Usually the death sentence handed down to him is explained by the degeneration of democracy. But it must be said that in 403 BC. e. In Athens, a regime was restored that was completely moderate and humane. He relied on the principles of political amnesty, which were strictly observed. In this case, everything suggests that the most serious and specific accusation was Socrates of “corrupting youth.” However, one can only guess what is meant by this. Plato's dialogue "Crito" speaks of the philosopher's defense against accusations of "undermining the laws." It is quite possible that this indicates that Socrates' influence on young people at that time was considered an attack on the very foundations of his contemporary society.

Changing social norms

Since the time of Homer, a young man who has already left school age has received “higher education” through communication with his elders. He listened to their verbal instructions and also imitated the behavior of the mentors. Thus, the young man acquired the qualities characteristic of an adult citizen. Among the political elite, in turn, methods of exercising state power were passed on from generation to generation. But during the time of Socrates, the family circle ceased to perform all these functions. They were transferred to another authority, which received the form of an institution founded specifically for this purpose after Plato's Academy became the prototype of this organization. At the head of this process was precisely the group of intellectuals to which Socrates belonged. It was these people who brought the concept of "vocational" education from western Greece and Ionia.

What is the essence of the accusation of “corruption of youth”

Socrates had a particularly difficult time, because he had to act in Athens. In 423 BC. e. two comedy writers at once - Aristophanes ("Clouds") and Ameipsius (the lost comedy "Conn") - branded the philosopher, since he led a newfangled school, which was based on the lessons of filial disobedience and youthful rebellion. This idea of ​​the thinker we are interested in by 399 BC. e. crystallized into the famous accusation against Socrates of “corrupting the youth.” If we turn to the dialogues of the disciples of this philosopher, we will see that they often pose the question: can elders and fathers pass on virtue to youth, or does this need to be specially learned?

Socrates as the herald of an abstract idea

By delving even deeper into the consideration of the cultural crisis of the era, we will come closer to understanding why Socrates' dialectic was so powerful. At first glance, it is not clear how to explain the fact that over the course of two generations the Greeks were invariably fascinated by the death of which was quite logical. And this despite the fact that the teachings of this thinker were seen as an instrument of destruction.

To understand this, it is necessary to consider what mode of communication was adopted at the time of Socrates' birth and how it changed later. Athens was at the stage of completing the transition to the written word from oral speech. This, in turn, influenced the vocabulary, and also forced changes that occurred in the forms of consciousness. These changes can be defined as a transition from image to abstraction, from poetry to prose, from intuition to rational knowledge. At that time, an abstract idea was seen as a new, startling discovery. It was Socrates who was its herald.

In Aristophanes' "Clouds", the philosopher is ridiculed as an abstract thinker, heading a "thought room", looking for "thoughts". He was also represented as a priest of concepts floating in the heavens like clouds. “Thoughts” at that time caused laughter only because they were such. It should also be noted that in Aristophanes, Socrates uses new speech in conversations, expresses himself in abstract jargon, in which ideas take shape.

For the students of the thinker we are interested in, the preoccupation with ideas, ridiculed by Aristophanes, is represented as a search for definitions for various kinds of abstract concepts, such as “just” and “good”, as well as a process of creating a precise language with the help of which it would be possible to express non-specific experience, and conceptual cognition.

The life, teaching, death of Socrates - we talked about all this. We could talk for a long time about this outstanding philosopher. We hope this article has piqued your interest in it.

Briefly about Socrates

Socrates (/sɒkrətiːz/; Greek: Σωκράτης, Socrates; 470/469 – 399 BC) was a classical Greek (Athenian) philosopher recognized as one of the founders of Western philosophy. He is an enigmatic figure, known mainly through the tales of the classics, especially the writings of his students Plato and Xenophon and the plays of his contemporary Aristophanes. Plato's dialogues are among the most complete accounts of Socrates since ancient times, although it is unclear to what extent Socrates is overshadowed by his "best student" Plato.

Through the descriptions in Plato's dialogues, Socrates became known for his contributions to the field of ethics, and it is this Platonic Socrates who ascribes his name to the concepts of Socratic irony, the Socratic method, or sophism. The latter is still a widely used tool in a wide range of discussions, and is also a type of pedagogy in which a series of questions are asked not only to provide individual answers, but also to gain fundamental understanding of an issue. Plato's Socrates also made major contributions to the field of epistemology, and his ideologies and approach have proven to be a strong foundation for much of Western philosophy.

Who is Socrates?

Nothing that Socrates wrote has survived. Information about him and his philosophy became known from secondary sources. Moreover, a careful comparison of the contents of these sources reveals contradictions, thereby creating concerns about the possibility of deep knowledge of the real Socrates. This question is known as Socrates' problem or Socrates' question.

To understand Socrates and his thoughts, one must first turn to the works of Plato, whose dialogues are the most informative source for the life and philosophy of Socrates, as well as Xenophon. These works are the Socratic dialogues, which consist of information about conversations apparently associated with Socrates.

The difficulty is that the ancient sources are philosophical or dramatic texts other than Xenophon, so it is quite difficult to know about the real life of Socrates. There are no direct histories of Socrates' contemporaries that relate to him in time or territory. Therefore, it is impossible to assert the historical accuracy of these sources mentioning Socrates. For example, those who persecuted and accused Socrates left no evidence. Thus, historians are faced with the problem of comparing various data from existing texts to try to accurately and coherently describe the life and work of Socrates. The result of such efforts is not always correct, even if it is consistent.

Amid all the controversy caused by contradictions within the sources relating to Socrates, two factors arise. He seemed to be nasty, and at the same time possessed of a brilliant intellect.

Personality of Socrates

The character of Socrates as presented in the Apology, Crito, Phaedo and Symposium is comparable to other sources to the same extent that it seems possible to rely on Plato's Socrates as shown in Socrates' dialogues in history. At the same time, many scholars believe that in some works Plato, as a literary artist, promoted his overtly idealized version of "Socrates" far beyond what the historical Socrates could have done or said. We are talking about numerous discussions about what Plato described, or perhaps even invented, about some details of the life of Socrates. Xenophon, being a historian, is a more reliable witness to the historical Socrates. As the British philosopher Martin Cohen put it, "Plato, an idealist, a leading figure in philosophy, a saint, a prophet of the "Sun God" and a teacher condemned as a heretic for his teachings."

It is also clear from other writings and historical artifacts that Socrates was not just a character or discovery of Plato. The testimony of Xenophon and Aristotle, along with some of Aristophanes' works (especially The Clouds), are useful in detailing an understanding of Socrates beyond the work of Plato.

Philosopher Socrates

The problem with the philosophical views of the insightful Socrates stems from the contradictory statements made by Socrates in various dialogues of Plato. These contradictions raise doubts about the actual philosophical teachings of Socrates, both among himself and in the testimony of others. Aristotle, in Magna Moralia, addresses Socrates with the words of the statement that the virtue of doctrine is the knowledge that Socrates held. In metaphysics, he argues that Socrates was engaged in the search for moral virtues, being "the first to seek universal definitions for them."

The problem of understanding Socrates as a philosopher is manifested in the following: in Xenophon, Socrates reports that he devotes himself only to philosophy, since he considers it the most important art and occupation. However, in The Clouds, Aristophanes depicts Socrates accepting tuition fees and running a sophistical school. Although, in Plato's Apology and Symposium, as well as in Xenophon's accounts, Socrates explicitly denies accepting tuition fees. More specifically, in the Apology, Socrates emphasizes his poverty as evidence that he is not a teacher.

Two fragments relating to Socrates survive in the writings of Timon Phlius, although he is known to have written to ridicule and challenge philosophy.

Biography of Socrates

Details of Socrates' life can be gleaned from three modern sources: the dialogues of Plato and Xenophon (both supporters of Socrates), and the plays of Aristophanes. He has been portrayed by some scholars, including Eric Havelock and Walter Ohnom, as a defender of verbal modes of communication, arguing against the haphazard diffusion of writing.

In Aristophanes' play The Clouds, Socrates becomes a sophistical buffoon who teaches his students how to get out of debt. However, since most of Aristophanes' works function as parodies, it is assumed that his characterization in this play was also not literal.

Early years of Socrates

Socrates was born in Alopeka and belonged to the tribe of Antioch. Socrates' father, Sophroniscus, was a skilled stonemason by profession, processing marble for sculptural work. His mother was a midwife named Faenaret. Socrates married Xanthippe, known for her bad character. She bore him three sons, Lamprox, Sophronicus and Menexenus.

Socrates initially worked as a mason, which was a tradition in ancient times. There is information, not confirmed by modern science, that Socrates was the creator of the statue of the Three Graces, which were located near the Acropolis until the 2nd century AD. era.

As Xenophon reports, since the youths were not allowed to enter the Agora, they gathered in nearby workshops. Socrates visited these workshops to communicate with the merchants. The most notable among them was the shoemaker Simon

Military service of Socrates

For a time, Socrates served as a hoplite (heavily armed foot soldier) while fighting in the Peloponnese War, a conflict that was intermittent for a period spanning 431,404 BC. Some of Plato's dialogues refer to Socrates' military service.

In the monologue of the Apology, Socrates claims that he participated in the battles of Amphipolis, Delium and Potidaea. In the symposium, Alcibiades describes Socrates' valor at the battles of Potidaea and Delium, telling how Socrates saved his life in battle. Features of Socrates' service in Delium are also mentioned by General Laches, after whom the dialogue was named. In the Apology, Socrates makes a speech in his defense against the charges brought against him, mentioning the topic of military service, saying that if any of the jury thinks that he should retire from philosophy, he should compare him with soldiers, who should retreat when it seems likely that that they will be killed in battle.

Socrates and the law

During the year 406 he participated as a member of the Bule. His family of Antioch supported the Prityani on the day when it was discussed what fate should happen to the generals of the Battle of Arginus, who abandoned the ships of the dead and wounded survivors, with the goal of destroying the defeated Spartan fleet.

According to Xenophon, Socrates was the epistatist of the discussions, but Delebeck and Hatzfeld believe that this is an embellishment because Xenophon left information after Socrates' death.

The generals, according to some, failed to fulfill basic duties, and the people decided on the death penalty. However, when the Prytani refused to vote on the issue, the people reacted aggressively, threatening them with death. They relented at the moment when Socrates, as an epistatus, blocked the vote that was proposed by Callikane. The reason he gave was that "under no circumstances would he act against the law."

The trial ultimately resulted in a miscarriage of justice, but in fact Socrates' decision was not in accordance with the rules of status law, but depended on the support of a less strict and less formal moral law.

Socrates' act

Plato's Apology describes how Socrates and four other men were summoned to Tholos by representatives of the oligarchy of the Thirty (the oligarchy began to rule in 404 BC), with the goal of sending them to Salamis, and from there returning to them with Leon. The latter was to be brought in to carry out the death penalty. However, Socrates, as expected, returned home and did not go to Salamis.

Socrates lived during the transition from the height of Athenian hegemony to its decline with the defeat of Sparta and its allies in the Peloponnesian War. As Athens sought to stabilize and recover from its humiliating defeat, the Athenian public may have had doubts about democracy as an effective form of government. Socrates appears to have been a critic of democracy, and some scholars have interpreted his discontent as a form of expression of political struggle.

By demanding fair treatment of his city, Socrates found himself in conflict with the current course of Athenian politicians and society. He praised Sparta, Athens's main rival, directly and indirectly in various dialogues. Highlighting crimes against his city became his position as a social and moral critic. In addition to seeking to defend the status of his region, Socrates questioned the collective notion of “might does right,” which he believed was prevalent in Greece during this period. Plato compares Socrates to the “gadfly” of the state, since the gadfly makes the horse move, and Socrates stung with considerations of justice and the desire for the kindness of the Athenians. Perhaps his attempts to awaken the people's sense of justice became the reason for his execution.

According to Plato's Apology, Socrates' life as a "gadfly" began in Athens when his friend Cheirfon asked the oracle at Delphi if there was anyone wiser than Socrates; The oracle replied that there was no one wiser. Socrates did not consider the Oracle's answer to be correct because he did not possess any wisdom. In order to refute the Oracle's claim, he set about testing the riddle by approaching "wise" Athenians such as statesmen, poets and artisans.

However, communicating with them, Socrates came to the conclusion that everyone considered him wise, and they themselves knew very little. Socrates realized that the Oracle was right. While the so-called wise men thought they were wise and yet knew nothing, he himself knew that he was not wise, which, paradoxically, made him wiser, since he was the only person who realized his ignorance . Socrates' paradoxical wisdom caused prominent Athenians, whose wisdom he had publicly questioned, to accuse him of wrongdoing.

Socrates retained the role of "gadfly" until the end of his life. When Socrates was asked at his trial what punishment he would prefer, he offered a salary from the state and free dinners for life as a sign of honor and special services to the state. Socrates' proposal shocked the court and was perceived as impudence. However, he was found guilty of corrupting the minds of the Athenian youth and impiety ("not believing in the gods of the state"), and was subsequently sentenced to death by drinking an infusion containing poisonous hemlock.

Xenophon and Plato agree that Socrates had the opportunity to escape because his followers could bribe the prison guards. There were several reasons why he decided to stay:

He believed that such an escape indicates a fear of death, which, in his opinion, a true philosopher cannot afford.

If he had fled Athens, his teachings would not have received refuge in another country, since he continued to irritate everyone in his path and would undoubtedly have caused widespread discontent.

By knowingly agreeing to live by the city's laws, he indirectly exposed himself to the possibility of being accused of crimes by his citizens and being found guilty. Otherwise, this would lead to him violating the “social contract” with the state, and thus causing harm to the state.

If he had fled at the instigation of his friends, then his friends would have become liable to the law.

The full arguments in favor of his refusal to flee are the main theme of the dialogue "Crito".

The death of Socrates is described at the end of Plato's Faedo. Socrates rejected Crito's requests to try to escape from prison. After the poison was drunk, he was instructed to walk around until his legs went numb. After he lay down, the person who injected the poison pinched his leg, Socrates could no longer feel his legs. Numbness slowly crept up his body until it reached his heart. Shortly before his death, Socrates uttered his last words: “Crito, we are indebted to the singer Asclepius. Please remember to pay your debt."

Asclepius was the Greek god of healing diseases and Socrates' last words probably meant that death is healing and freedom of the soul from the body. In the supplement Why Socrates Died, The Dispersal of Myths, Robin Waterfield added another interpretation of Socrates' last words. He suggested that Socrates was a willing scapegoat, his death a cleanser for the misery in Athens. From this point of view, the sign of recognition of Asclepius represents a cure for Athenian diseases.

Philosophy of Socrates

Socratic method

Perhaps his most significant contribution to Western philosophy is his dialectical method of inquiry, known as the Socratic method or the elenchos method, which he primarily used to study key moral concepts such as "the good and the just." It was first described by Plato in the Socratic Dialogues. In order to solve a problem that is divided into a number of questions, a person will gradually search for answers. The influence of this approach is felt most strongly today in the use of the scientific method, in which hypothesis is the first step. The development and practice of this method is one of Socrates' most significant contributions, and is a key factor in Socrates being recognized as the father of political philosophy and ethics in Western philosophy. The Socratic method is often seen as the defining element of American legal education.

To illustrate the use of the Socratic method, a series of questions are provided to help a person or group of people determine their core beliefs and the extent of their knowledge. The Socratic method is a method of eliminating hypotheses because the best hypotheses are discovered by continually identifying and eliminating those that lead to contradictions. It was designed to force a person to examine and justify their own beliefs.

An alternative interpretation of dialectic is that it is a method of directly perceiving the Form of the Good. Philosopher Karl Popper describes dialectic as "the art of intellectual intuition, the visualization of divine realities, forms or ideas, revealing the Great Mystery behind the everyday world of ideas of the ordinary person." In a similar vein, French philosopher Pierre Hadot suggests that dialogues are a type of spiritual exercise. Hadot writes that “from Plato’s point of view, every dialectical exercise is absolutely correct because it is an exercise of pure thought, subject to the demands of the Logos, distracts the soul from the rational world and allows it to be reincarnated into good.”

Philosophical Beliefs of Socrates

It is difficult to distinguish the ideas of Socrates from those of Plato. There is little evidence to determine them. The ideas presented in most of the dialogues may have been those of Socrates himself, which may have been later modified by Plato, and some scholars believe that Plato was able to adapt Socrates' style and literary character to such an extent that it is impossible to distinguish him from the philosopher himself. Others claim that he had his own theories and beliefs. There is a certain degree of controversy associated with determining the reasons for the difficulties in distinguishing Socrates' ideas from Plato's, and the difficulties in interpreting dramatic works concerning Socrates. Therefore, it is not easy to distinguish the philosophical beliefs of Socrates from Plato and Xenophon, so it should be remembered that what is attributed to Socrates may actually refer to these two thinkers.

To complicate matters, the historical Socrates seems to have been notorious for asking questions but not answering, claiming that he lacked wisdom regarding the subjects about which he questioned others.

If anything can be said about Socrates' philosophical views, it is that he was morally, intellectually, and politically at odds with many of his fellow Athenians. When he was accused in court of heresy and corrupting the minds of the youth of Athens, he used his method of "elenchos" to demonstrate to the jury that their moral values ​​were deluded. He told them that they were concerned about their families, careers and political responsibilities when they should be concerned about "the welfare of their souls." Socrates' assertion that the gods had singled him out as a divine messenger proved to provoke irritation, if not outright ridicule. Socrates also questioned the sophistic doctrine. He liked to observe that successful fathers (such as the great military general Pericles) did not promote their sons. Socrates argued that moral superiority was a divine message rather than parental education. This belief may have developed due to a lack of concern for the future of his own sons.

Moreover, according to A. Long, "There is no doubt that, despite his claim to know only that he knew nothing, Socrates had strong beliefs about divinity," citing Xenophon's memoranda.

According to Xenophon, he was a teleologist who believed that God arranges everything for the best.

Socrates often said that his ideas were not his own. He mentioned the influence of several of his teachers on him: the rhetorician Prodicus and the philosopher Anaxagos. It may seem surprising that Socrates asserted that he was deeply influenced by two women besides his mother; it was Diotima (from Plato's dialogue "Symposium"), a witch and priestess from Mantinea, who taught him everything he knows about eros and love and Aspasia, the mistress of Pericles, who taught him the art of rhetoric. John Burnet claimed that his main teacher was the Anaxagorean Archelaus; Eric A. Havelock, on the contrary, considered Socrates' connection with the Anaxagorean as evidence of Plato's philosophical alienation from Socrates.

Socrates Quotes

Many of the beliefs traditionally attributed to the historical Socrates have been characterized as "paradoxical" because they contradict common sense. The so-called Socratic paradoxes include:

"No one wishes evil of his own free will."

"No one makes mistakes on purpose."

"The greatest virtue is knowledge."

"Valor is enough to be happy."

The term "Socratic paradox" can also refer to a self-referential paradox, based on Socrates' saying, "what I do not know, I do not think I know," or "I know that I know nothing."

Knowledge in Socratic philosophy

The statement "I know that I know nothing" is often attributed to Socrates, based on a statement in Plato's Apology. His traditional interpretation is that Socrates' wisdom was limited by awareness of his own ignorance. Socrates believed that virtue is “thought, meaning, judgment, practical wisdom and prudence.” Therefore, he believed that bad actions and behavior, while not virtuous, are the result of ignorance, and that those who do so simply do not know any better.

The only knowledge that Socrates, according to his own statement, possessed was knowledge of the “art of love” (ta erôtikê). This statement appears to be related to the word erôtan, which means to ask questions. Thus, Socrates claims to know the art of love because he knows how to ask questions.

Only once did Socrates call himself wise, in the Apology, where he says that he is wise "in the limited sense of having human wisdom." It is questionable whether Socrates believed that humans (as opposed to gods like Apollo) could actually become wise. On the one hand, he defined a clear line between human ignorance and ideal knowledge; on the other hand, Plato's Symposium (Diotima's Speech) and the Republic (Myth of the Cave) describe the method of ascent to wisdom.

In Plato's Theaetetus, Socrates compares his attitude towards young men who come to him for philosophical advice to the attitude of a midwife towards her patients or the role of matrimonial matchmakers. He says that he himself is in his own way a matchmaker (προμνηστικός promnestikós) in that he brings a young man closer to the best philosopher with an exceptional mind. However, he distinguishes himself from a pimp (προᾰγωγός proagogo) or supplier. This difference is reflected in Xenophon's Symposium, when Socrates jokes about his belief that he can make a fortune if he decides to pimp. For his part, as a philosophical interlocutor, he leads his respondent to a clearer concept of wisdom, although he claims that he himself is not a teacher ("Apology"). It is more correct to compare his role with the role of the obstetrician (μαῖα maia).

In the Theaetetus, Socrates explains that he himself is sterile in creating theories, but knows how to bring the theories of others to the stage of birth and determine whether they are worthwhile or just “wind eggs” (ἀνεμιαῖον anemiaion). He notes that a woman who is infertile due to her age or who has never given birth cannot become a midwife due to lack of experience and knowledge about birth. She will not be able to separate the worthy babies from those who should be abandoned on the mountainside to their fate. To make a decision, the midwife must have experience and knowledge about the subject.

Socrates' Reflections on Dignity

Socrates believed that the good for people is the pursuit of dignity, rather than the pursuit of material wealth. He always encouraged others to focus on friendship and a sense of true community, for Socrates believed that this was the best way to develop. His actions were consistent with this principle; after all, Socrates accepted the death sentence when most thought he would simply leave Athens. However, Socrates could not run away or go against the will of his community. As mentioned above, his reputation for valor on the battlefield was unquestionable.

Ideas about the existence of certain virtues formed a common thread in the teachings of Socrates. Philosophical and intellectual virtues represent the most important human qualities. Socrates emphasized that "the unexamined life is not worth living, and ethical dignity is the only thing that matters."

Socrates and politics

Socrates argued that “ideals belong to a world that only a rational man can understand,” making the philosopher the only type of person fit to govern others. In Plato's dialogue The Republic, Socrates openly objected to the democracy that ruled Athens during his adult life. It was not only Athenian democracy that did not correspond to his idea of ​​a perfect regime led by philosophers. Socrates did not see the ideal in any government that was far from his philosophy. During the last years of Socrates' life, there was a continuous stream of political upheaval in Athens. Finally, democracy was overthrown by a socio-political organization known as the Thirty Tyrants, led by Plato's relative Kritis, who was once a student and friend of Socrates. The tyrants ruled for about a year, until Athenian democracy was restored, after which it declared an amnesty for all recent events.

Socrates' opposition to democracy is often refuted, and the issue is one of the most contentious philosophical debates when attempting to determine what exactly Socrates believed. The strongest argument of those who do not believe in the philosopher's idea of ​​"kings" is that this point of view was not expressed until the appearance of Plato's dialogue "The Republic", which is considered a "middle dialogue" and does not express the historical views of Socrates. In addition, according to Plato's Apology, Socrates in the "early" dialogue refused to pursue ordinary politics and declared that he could not consider other people's affairs or tell people how to live, since he had not yet understood how he himself should live. He believed that he, as a philosopher, should be engaged in comprehending the Truth, claiming that he did not know it completely. Socrates' acceptance of the death sentence after his conviction also challenges this view. It has often been argued that much of the anti-democratic sentiment was due to Plato, who was unable to overcome his feelings of disgust at what had been done to his teacher. In any case, it is clear that Socrates considered the principles of the Thirty Tyrants alliance also controversial, and when he was called to help arrest an Athenian comrade, he refused and miraculously escaped death before the Tyrants were overthrown. While serving as Pristan during the trial of a group of generals leading a disastrous naval campaign, he maintained an uncompromising attitude despite intense pressure, and became one of those who refused to act outside the laws. Judging by his actions, he considered the power of the Thirty Tyrants less legitimate than the power of the Democratic Senate, which sentenced him to death.

Socrates' apparent respect for democracy is one of the themes highlighted in Andrew David Irwin's 2008 play Socrates. Irwin argues that it was because of his loyalty to the Athenian democracy that Socrates was willing to accept the judgment of his fellow citizens during a time of war, and of great social and intellectual upheaval, that Socrates felt it was his duty to openly express his views, regardless of the consequences. As a result, he is known today not only for his keen intellect and high ethical standards, but also for his loyalty to the view that in a democracy the best way for a man to serve himself, his friends and his city is to speak the truth publicly, even in time of war.

Mysticism and the incomprehensible in the philosophy of Socrates

In Plato's dialogues, discussions of reincarnation and the mysteries of religion are generally attributed to Plato, although Socrates sometimes supported the mystical side of this issue. This view of Socrates cannot be ignored, since we do not know exactly how different their views were, and there seems to be some information in the works of Xenophon. At the culmination of the philosophical path, as described in Plato's Symposium, a person comes to a "sea of ​​beauty" or a beautiful view of "himself", the only way to become wise. In the Symposium, Socrates quotes his speech on the philosophical path to his teacher, Diotima, who is not even sure whether Socrates is capable of reaching the highest mysteries.

Further confusion arises from the nature of these sources, for the Platonic Dialogues are perhaps the work of an artist-philosopher whose meaning does not suggest itself to the passive reader but to the lifelong scholar. According to Olympiodorus the Younger, Plato himself "received instruction from writers" before entering into the study of philosophy. His dialogues; Plato's choices, milieu of Sophocles, Euripides and the fictions of the theatre, may reflect the constantly interpretable nature of his writings, as he has been called the "dramatist of reason". Moreover, the first word in almost all of Plato's works is an important term and is used in its many connotations. Phaedrus from the Symposium every time hints at Socrates' crafty delivery of philosophical truths in conversations. Socrates Phaedrus goes so far as to demand secrecy and secrecy in all writing. We often find secrecy in Plato, appearing here and there in some mysterious use of symbol or irony, which may contradict the mysticism that Socrates expounds in some of the other dialogues. These indirect methods may not satisfy some readers.

Perhaps the most interesting aspect of this is Socrates' reliance on what the Greeks called a "demonic sign," which was a warning (ἀποτρεπτικός apotreptikos) inner voice that Socrates heard only when he was about to make a mistake. It was this sign that prevented Socrates from entering politics. In Fyodor, we are told that Socrates considered this a form of "divine madness", a kind of gift from the gods that gives us poetry, mysticism, love and even philosophy. On the other hand, this sign is often perceived as what we would call "intuition", but in Socrates' interpretation, it can be assumed that its origin is divine, mysterious and independent of his own thoughts. Today, such a voice would be classified according to the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders as a hallucination.

Socrates practiced and promoted fortune telling. Xenophon was considered an expert in divination and much of his knowledge was attributed to Socrates in his work The Commander's Cavalry.

Ridicule of Socrates

Socrates was notably ridiculed in Aristophanes' comedy The Clouds, which appeared when Socrates was about forty years old. Socrates said at his trial (according to Plato) that the laughter of the theater is more difficult to answer than the arguments of his accusers. Søren Kierkegaard believed that this play was a more accurate representation of Socrates than that of his students. In the plays Callias, Eupolis and Telecleides, Socrates was ridiculed for his sloppiness, which was due to his tendency to laconize everything. There are other satirical poets who ridiculed Socrates. In all such cases, Socrates and the Sophists were criticized for "the moral dangers inherent in modern thought and literature."

Books about Socrates

Plato, Xenophon and Aristotle are the main sources of the historical Socrates, but Xenophon and Plato may have idealized him since they were his students. However, they alone left the only continuous descriptions of Socrates that have come down to us in complete form. Aristotle frequently but incidentally mentions Socrates in his works. Almost all of Plato's works focus on Socrates. However, Plato's later works appear to be his own philosophy, coming from the mouth of his mentor.

Dialogues with Socrates

The Socratic Dialogues are a series of dialogues written by Plato and Xenophon in the form of discussions between Socrates and others of his time, or discussions between Socrates' followers over his concepts. Plato's Phaedo is the latest example of this category, and its monologue is usually grouped with other dialogues.

The apologia is a recording of the defense's actual speech at trial. In the Athenian jury system, the Apology consists of three parts: a speech, a subsequent counter-evaluation, and concluding remarks. "Apology" is a transliteration, not a translation, from the Greek, which means "defense." In this sense, it does not carry the meaning of "justify" according to our modern use of the term.

Plato does not put his own ideas into the mouth of a specific speaker at all, he allows ideas to arise through the Socratic method under the leadership of Socrates. In most of his dialogues the present Socrates employs this method to some extent, but nowhere so completely as in Euthyphro. In this dialogue, Socrates and Euthyphro go through several iterations to clarify the answer to Socrates' question: "...Who are the pious and who are the impious?"

In Plato's dialogues, learning is presented as a process of memorization. The soul, before its incarnation in the body, was in the realm of ideas (much like Plato's Forms). There, she saw things as they really are, and not the pale shadows or copies that we see on earth. Through the process of inquiry, ideas can be recalled in their pure form and wisdom can be achieved.

It is not always clear from Plato's writings relating to Socrates which ideas put forward by Socrates (or his friends) were actually Socrates' and which may have been new corrections or additions by Plato, known as Socratic problems. Generally, Plato's early works are considered to be close to the spirit of Socrates, while later works, including the Phaedo and the Republic, are considered to be the product of Plato's work.

Socrates' Main Legacy

Influence of Socratic philosophy

Socrates' students immediately began to formulate their ideas about his teachings in politics, as well as to develop many new philosophical schools. Some controversial and anti-democratic despots of Athens were students of Socrates during his lifetime or after his death, such as Alcibiades and Critias. His cousin Critias founded the "Academy" in 385 BC, which gained great fame. Subsequently, the term "Academy" became standard for educational institutions in later European languages ​​such as English, French and Italian. Aristotle continued the training of Alexander the Great, and also created his own school, the Lyceum, in 335. BC, which also now means an educational institution.

While "Socrates dealt with moral questions and did not pay attention to nature as a whole," in his Dialogues Plato emphasized the metaphysical implications in mathematics, reflecting Pythagoras, who dominated Western thought during the Renaissance. Aristotle was also a philosopher and scientist who made extensive contributions to the fields of biology and physics.

Socratic thought, which challenged contract while seeking a simplified way of life, moved away from Plato's more detached and philosophical beliefs. This idea was inherited by one of the older students, Antisthenes, who became the founder of the philosophy of "Cynicism" after Socrates.

The idea of ​​asceticism associated with the ethical life or with piety, ignored by Plato and Aristotle, became to some extent the subject of cynicism. But in 281 BC. after the discovery of the works of Socrates by Zeno Kition, it formed the basis of another philosophy - “Stoicism”.

Socratic system

Although Socrates' contributions to Hellenistic and Roman culture and philosophy were lost in time, his teachings began to be revived both in medieval Europe and the Middle East, along with Aristotle and Stoicism. Socrates is mentioned in the dialogue "Kuzari" with the Jewish philosopher and rabbi Yehuda Halevi, in which the Jew tells the Khazar king about Judaism. Al-Kindi, a famous Arab philosopher, introduced and attempted to reconcile the philosophy of Socrates and Hellenism to an Islamic audience by referring to him under the name "Sucrates".

The figure of Socrates returned fully to Western philosophy beginning with the Renaissance in Europe, when political theory began to emerge under activists such as Locke and Hobbes. Voltaire went so far as to write a satirical play about Socrates' Trial. There were several paintings about his life, including Jean-Baptiste Regnault and David.

Today, the Socratic method is used in classroom and law school discourse to identify underlying issues for both subject and speaker. He has received recognition ranging from frequent mentions in pop culture (such as Bill & Ted's Excellent Adventure and the Greek rock band Socrates Drank the Conium) to numerous busts in academic institutions in recognition of his contributions to education.

Over the past century, numerous plays have been dedicated to the life and legacy of Socrates. One of the most recent is Socrates on Trial, a play based on Aristophanes' Alogistae and Plato's Apology, Crito and Phaedo, adapted for modern audiences.

Criticism of Socrates

Socrates' teachings have been criticized by both historians and philosophers from the time of his death to the present day. Given that he was not directly brought to justice for his association with Critias, the leader of the Spartan-backed "Thirty Tyrants", showing considerable courage in refusing to submit to them, he was still seen by some as the figure who mentored the oligarchs to destroy Athenian democracy . The sophistic movement, against which he protested during his lifetime, was quickly overtaken by many philosophical schools.

The death of Socrates is considered significant and the role of a martyr of philosophy overshadows the most ardent criticism of his contemporaries and posthumous condemnations. However, Xenophon mentions his "arrogance", "the art of pandering" and "self-praise". Direct criticism of Socrates almost disappears after this, but there is a noticeable preference for Plato or Aristotle on the subject of socialist philosophy even in the Middle Ages.

Some modern scholars believe that much of his own thoughts were hidden or modified by Plato, making it impossible to get a clear picture of Socrates amid all the conflicting evidence. The fact that both Cynicism and Stoicism, both heavily influenced by Socratic thought, are different from and even contradictory to Platonism further illustrates this. Ambiguity and lack of reliability lie at the heart of modern criticism, making it almost impossible to know the real Socrates. Some controversy also exists regarding Socrates' views on homosexuality and whether he believed in the gods of Olympus, was a monotheist, or held another religious viewpoint. However, he is still held up as the progenitor of Western philosophy, to the extent that the philosophers who preceded him are referred to as pre-Socratic.

Socrates in world literature

Socrates is the main character in Mary Renault's historical novel Last of the Wine. Socrates is the main character, Alexius and Lysis study under him in Athens.

A humorous version of Socrates appears in John Kendrick Banks' comic novel Houseboat and its sequels.