Over the almost 400 years of the existence of this title, it was worn by completely different people - from adventurers and liberals to tyrants and conservatives.
Rurikovich
Over the years, Russia (from Rurik to Putin) has changed its political system many times. At first, rulers bore the title of prince. When, after a period of political fragmentation, a new Russian state emerged around Moscow, the owners of the Kremlin began to think about accepting the royal title.
This was accomplished under Ivan the Terrible (1547-1584). This one decided to marry into the kingdom. And this decision was not accidental. So the Moscow monarch emphasized that he was the legal successor. It was they who bestowed Orthodoxy on Russia. In the 16th century, Byzantium no longer existed (it fell under the onslaught of the Ottomans), so Ivan the Terrible rightly believed that his act would have serious symbolic significance.
Such historical figures had a great influence on the development of the entire country. In addition to changing his title, Ivan the Terrible also captured the Kazan and Astrakhan khanates, beginning Russian expansion to the East.
Ivan's son Fedor (1584-1598) was distinguished by his weak character and health. Nevertheless, under him the state continued to develop. The patriarchate was established. Rulers have always paid a lot of attention to the issue of succession to the throne. This time he became especially acute. Fedor had no children. When he died, the Rurik dynasty on the Moscow throne came to an end.
Time of Troubles
After Fyodor's death, Boris Godunov (1598-1605), his brother-in-law, came to power. He did not belong to the reigning family, and many considered him a usurper. Under him, due to natural disasters, a colossal famine began. The tsars and presidents of Russia have always tried to maintain calm in the provinces. Due to the tense situation, Godunov was unable to do this. Several peasant uprisings took place in the country.
In addition, the adventurer Grishka Otrepyev called himself one of the sons of Ivan the Terrible and began a military campaign against Moscow. He actually managed to capture the capital and become king. Boris Godunov did not live to see this moment - he died from health complications. His son Feodor II was captured by the comrades of False Dmitry and killed.
The impostor ruled for only a year, after which he was overthrown during the Moscow uprising, inspired by disgruntled Russian boyars who did not like the fact that False Dmitry surrounded himself with Catholic Poles. decided to transfer the crown to Vasily Shuisky (1606-1610). During the Time of Troubles, the rulers of Russia often changed.
The princes, tsars and presidents of Russia had to carefully guard their power. Shuisky could not restrain her and was overthrown by the Polish interventionists.
The first Romanovs
When Moscow was liberated from foreign invaders in 1613, the question arose of who should be made sovereign. This text presents all the kings of Russia in order (with portraits). Now the time has come to talk about the rise to the throne of the Romanov dynasty.
The first sovereign from this family, Mikhail (1613-1645), was just a youth when he was put in charge of a huge country. His main goal was the fight with Poland for the lands it captured during the Time of Troubles.
These were the biographies of the rulers and the dates of their reign until the middle of the 17th century. After Mikhail, his son Alexei (1645-1676) ruled. He annexed left-bank Ukraine and Kyiv to Russia. So, after several centuries of fragmentation and Lithuanian rule, the fraternal peoples finally began to live in one country.
Alexei had many sons. The eldest of them, Feodor III (1676-1682), died at a young age. After him came the simultaneous reign of two children - Ivan and Peter.
Peter the Great
Ivan Alekseevich was unable to govern the country. Therefore, in 1689, the sole reign of Peter the Great began. He completely rebuilt the country in a European manner. Russia - from Rurik to Putin (we will consider all the rulers in chronological order) - knows few examples of an era so saturated with changes.
A new army and navy appeared. For this, Peter started a war against Sweden. The Northern War lasted 21 years. During it, the Swedish army was defeated, and the kingdom agreed to cede its southern Baltic lands. In this region, St. Petersburg, the new capital of Russia, was founded in 1703. Peter's successes made him think about changing his title. In 1721 he became emperor. However, this change did not abolish the royal title - in everyday speech, monarchs continued to be called kings.
The era of palace coups
Peter's death was followed by a long period of instability in power. Monarchs replaced each other with enviable regularity, which was facilitated by the Guard or certain courtiers, as a rule, at the head of these changes. This era was ruled by Catherine I (1725-1727), Peter II (1727-1730), Anna Ioannovna (1730-1740), Ivan VI (1740-1741), Elizaveta Petrovna (1741-1761) and Peter III (1761-1762) ).
The last of them was German by birth. Under Peter III's predecessor, Elizabeth, Russia waged a victorious war against Prussia. The new monarch renounced all his conquests, returned Berlin to the king and concluded a peace treaty. With this act he signed his own death warrant. The Guard organized another palace coup, after which Peter's wife Catherine II found herself on the throne.
Catherine II and Paul I
Catherine II (1762-1796) had a deep state mind. On the throne, she began to pursue a policy of enlightened absolutism. The Empress organized the work of the famous laid down commission, the purpose of which was to prepare a comprehensive project of reforms in Russia. She also wrote the Order. This document contained many considerations about the transformations necessary for the country. The reforms were curtailed when a peasant uprising led by Pugachev broke out in the Volga region in the 1770s.
All the tsars and presidents of Russia (we have listed all the royal persons in chronological order) made sure that the country looked decent in the external arena. She was no exception. She conducted several successful military campaigns against Turkey. As a result, Crimea and other important Black Sea regions were annexed to Russia. At the end of Catherine's reign, three divisions of Poland occurred. Thus, the Russian Empire received important acquisitions in the west.
After the death of the great empress, her son Paul I (1796-1801) came to power. This quarrelsome man was not liked by many in the St. Petersburg elite.
First half of the 19th century
In 1801, the next and last palace coup took place. A group of conspirators dealt with Pavel. His son Alexander I (1801-1825) was on the throne. His reign occurred during the Patriotic War and Napoleon's invasion. The rulers of the Russian state have not faced such serious enemy intervention for two centuries. Despite the capture of Moscow, Bonaparte was defeated. Alexander became the most popular and famous monarch of the Old World. He was also called the "liberator of Europe."
Within his country, Alexander in his youth tried to implement liberal reforms. Historical figures often change their policies as they age. So Alexander soon abandoned his ideas. He died in Taganrog in 1825 under mysterious circumstances.
At the beginning of the reign of his brother Nicholas I (1825-1855), the Decembrist uprising occurred. Because of this, conservative orders triumphed in the country for thirty years.
Second half of the 19th century
All the kings of Russia are presented here in order, with portraits. Next we will talk about the main reformer of Russian statehood - Alexander II (1855-1881). He initiated the manifesto for the liberation of the peasants. The destruction of serfdom allowed the Russian market and capitalism to develop. Economic growth began in the country. Reforms also affected the judiciary, local government, administrative and conscription systems. The monarch tried to get the country back on its feet and learn the lessons that the lost beginnings under Nicholas I taught him.
But Alexander's reforms were not enough for the radicals. Terrorists made several attempts on his life. In 1881 they achieved success. Alexander II died from a bomb explosion. The news came as a shock to the whole world.
Because of what happened, the son of the deceased monarch, Alexander III (1881-1894), forever became a tough reactionary and conservative. But most of all he is known as a peacemaker. During his reign, Russia did not wage a single war.
The last king
In 1894, Alexander III died. Power passed into the hands of Nicholas II (1894-1917) - his son and the last Russian monarch. By that time, the old world order with the absolute power of kings and kings had already outlived its usefulness. Russia - from Rurik to Putin - has known a lot of upheavals, but it was under Nicholas that more than ever happened.
In 1904-1905 The country experienced a humiliating war with Japan. It was followed by the first revolution. Although the unrest was suppressed, the tsar had to make concessions to public opinion. He agreed to establish a constitutional monarchy and parliament.
Tsars and presidents of Russia at all times faced a certain opposition within the state. Now people could elect deputies who expressed these sentiments.
In 1914, the First World War began. No one then suspected that it would end with the fall of several empires at once, including the Russian one. In 1917, the February Revolution broke out, and the last tsar was forced to abdicate. Nicholas II and his family were shot by the Bolsheviks in the basement of the Ipatiev House in Yekaterinburg.
Empress Catherine I, who replaced Peter I (in 1725), actively enjoyed all the joys of life, including abundant wine drinking, to which her royal husband taught her. Unable to bear the excessive stress, she died in 1727. The son of Tsarevich Alexei and the grandson of Peter I, Peter II, ascended the throne, no less determined than his predecessor in terms of entertainment, despite his tender 12-year-old age. State affairs were in complete disrepair. People who had the good fortune to attract the attention of the highest persons were in a hurry to take advantage of the moment and rob everything they could.
Peter II completely repeated the entire cycle of the first Russian empress and died at the beginning of 1730, not having reigned for even three years. After his death, the prospects for further rule began to be discussed in various layers of Russian society. The result of a clash of opinions on this issue was the accession to the Russian throne of the niece of Peter I, Duchess of Courland Anna Ioannovna.
It soon became clear that the choice made was far from the best. Married to the Duke of Courland in her youth, widowed at an early age, and living away from Russia for many years, Anna brought with her a significant burden of ideas, habits and affections, the implementation of which could have far-reaching consequences for the inhabitants of the country.
The Prussian envoy Marfeld reported already in February 1730 that the empress “in her soul is more disposed towards foreigners than towards Russians, which is why she does not keep a single Russian in her Courland staff, but only Germans.” According to V.O. Klyuchevsky, with Anna’s accession, “the Germans were sent to Russia like rubbish from a holey bag, they surrounded the courtyard, inhabited the throne, and climbed into all the profitable places in the administration.” The central figure among them can rightfully be recognized as the former groom Johann Biron, who, as Anna quite clearly explained, “was especially kind and faithful to us... after many years he was in our service at our room.” The Empress openly focused on foreigners, of whose loyalty she could be confident, because, like her, having no roots in Russian society, they could only see in her the guarantor of their prosperity.
In October 1740, Anna Ioannovna died. On the eve of her death, she proclaimed the Duke of Courland Biron as regent under the two-month-old Emperor Ivan Antonovich - the son of Anna Ioannovna's niece - Anna Leopoldovna and the Duke of Brunswick. However, Biron lasted very little - literally a few weeks. A “small” palace coup took place - Biron was pushed aside by Minich, who contributed to the fact that Anna Leopoldovna was proclaimed regent. The Guard was worried, because Minich, not having Biron’s impenetrable aplomb and his derogatory contempt for the Russians, was a more practical and cautious person - in all the highest positions, with rare exceptions, there were only Germans. They wanted guarantees of victory and lost - they overdid it in ensuring the reliability of what they had achieved. The critical mass of foreigners robbing indigenous people has exceeded its permissible limit, which allows them to do this unnoticed and effectively. In their excess there was an openness that aroused opposition. And among the guards, those attitudes began to mature that resulted in the events of November 25, 1741, when the Brunswick dynasty was overthrown and “Petrov’s daughter”, Elizabeth, ascended the throne. For the first time since the beginning of the 17th century. The monarch in Russia is dethroned.
9. Death of Catherine II.
Accession of Paul I
Somehow, the long-prepared primary conspiracy of Catherine II against Paul I (the scale and duration of which is vast. If we start counting, of course, from 1776, the year of poisoning, by Catherine II, the first wife of Paul I, Princess Wilhelmina of Darmstadt.), - with the goal of “rolling him past the throne”! - which we, you, already told about in the first chapter of our essay, did not work.
In this note, we do not touch upon this issue, although it is also interesting, since it overturns all the ideas we have, with the help of official historians, about the Ekaterino-Alexandrovsky coup of 1801. And, contrary to the plans of the impostor, Paul I nevertheless reigned.
There are many reasons and circumstances here: the sudden death of Catherine II; and the eternal indecision of Alexander I, supported by fear, of his father. And, by the way: the very atmosphere of suspicion created at that time by Paul I, which, as you already know, was noted by Pushkin in his diary. And, even, the very fear of Catherine’s nobles, of the harsh disposition of Paul I, and the fact that, at that time, somehow the St. Petersburg and Moscow nobles did not work hard! - Freemasons. And so on.
We will not disassemble them. Let us dwell only on the main events of the very accession of the already 42-year-old Paul I. Events that are direct - and immediate! - they will touch upon - the most important secret desecration, by Tsar Nicholas I, of both the name of Pushkin and his grave in the Svyatogorsk Monastery. And that’s what they are, in short.
At a quarter past midnight, November 6, 1796, Catherine II died. Pushkin takes her “death” in “The Queen of Spades”, as you already know, “at a quarter to three” at night. He takes it in order, once again, to smoothly “translate” his inattentive readers - in time, of course! - in the next day.
What will cause the capture, by P. Vyazemsky, is the moment of the poet’s death, January 29, 1837, precisely “a quarter to three,” but only, of course, in the afternoon. By the way, the Vyazemsky spouses were constantly “on duty” in the poet’s house: on the night of the 27th to the 28th; and on the night from January 28 to 29, in order to “catch” - exactly the night “quarter to three”. This is clearly visible from the diary of A.I. Turgenev.
He became emperor, as you already know from the second chapter of our essay, through the Privy Council, organized, at the will of the already deceased Catherine II, by Count A.A. Beardless! - precisely Paul I. And he reigned, as they write to us, almost with rapture! - official historians, four years, four months and four days. And to revel here in such precision (With all the signs of some mysticism.)! – perhaps it’s not worth it.
Most likely, that the Russian Masons, carrying out the will of the already deceased Catherine II, - but not the deceased Englishmen and Prussians standing behind her! - it was a little boring to kill right away, like Peter III in 1762! – the newly-minted Emperor Paul I. And evidence of this is, as the historian-playwright E. Radzinsky tells us! - the fact that it was Count A. Bezborodko who not only assembled the above-mentioned Privy Council, but was also the first to propose the candidacy of Paul I for emperor at the Council.
That’s probably why they created it – a certain mysticism. This is their kind of “black mark”. But they really created mysticism because Paul I finally “got” them. “I got tired of it,” to use youth vocabulary, because of the rapprochement with Napoleon.
By the way, Pavel became emperor precisely by proposal - and personal initiative! - Count A. Bezborodko, was still distrustful of the count himself. Only about six months later he gave him a “prince.” And then he made him chancellor. This is where the story with A. Bezborodko ended, because after some time he will die. But the Orlovs, Zubovs and other Catherine’s nobles will not die. Which, one must assume, will continue the plan of Catherine II, begun by Catherine II and Count A. Bezborodko.
We will give it to you here - to expand your knowledge about the last months of the life of Catherine “The Great”! – and some information from the TV show “Seekers”, on the ORT channel, dated May 30, 2006. The main essence of it boils down to approximately the following. There was no will of Catherine II. Comment by V.B. - But her plan was “to drive Paul past the throne with the accession of her grandson, Alexander,” which, as you will see below, was well known not only to the Russian Masons, but also to their masters, the British and Prussians. .
In August 1796, a comet appeared over St. Petersburg, foreshadowing, according to superstition, something bad. After Catherine II, in conversations with her closest noble circle, - A. Bezborodko, P. Zubov! – she said that she was weakening. In September 1796 she had her first stroke, on November 5th she had her second, and on November 6th she would die.
The Privy Council actually assembled A.A. Bezborodko. He nominated Paul as a candidate for emperor. But Paul I treated Bezborodko himself with suspicion. Only six months later he gave him the title of “prince.” And then he made him chancellor. However, A. Bezborodko was already seriously ill. He will die in 1799. So Paul became, as the “Seekers” said, “emperor by the grace of God.”
They gave “Seekers” a kind of epilogue to their program. The main meaning is approximately as follows. Catherine II did not leave a will, but Paul I left some kind of document as a legacy. On which he wrote: “Open in a hundred years. After reading it, burn it." And, as the same “Seekers” testify, this document was opened by Emperor Nicholas II. I read it and burned it.
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However, let us return to the events highlighted at the beginning of the section precisely after the accession of Paul I. And then the usual ceremonies for these cases began. Catherine was “dressed” like an empress in a white satin dress. They put her from the mattress she was on into the prepared coffin. And they transferred the coffin, with the body of the deceased, to the court church.
So, it turns out, where Tsar Nicholas I’s conspiracy against Pushkin will come from is the court church. Will appear even despite N.N.’s announcement. Pushkina, notifying that the funeral service or memorial service, according to Pushkin, will take place on February 1, 1837, in St. Isaac's Cathedral. The fact, by the way, is documented. In addition, the house in which Pushkin lived belonged specifically to the parish of the named cathedral.
We have already told you a little about the Stables Court Church above (And there will be a special conversation about it below and, of course, in subsequent brochures of our book series; - explanation by V.B.). In general, in it, in the court church, after the Privy Council, Paul I appeared. Where, the majority of the courtiers, began to swear allegiance to the newly-minted emperor who appeared in the church for these purposes.
Here is the “white dress” of the mother lying in the church, already in the coffin, and reminded Paul I: both about the rumors circulating in St. Petersburg that Peter III was not his father, and about the murder by Alexei Orlov - in Ropsha, in 1762 year, - Peter III. It reminded him of rumors that had also been around for a long time - but also very vague and vague! - reached the 42-year-old newly-minted king. Which is what made him send for Count Alexei Orlov. To bring him to the church to take the oath to the new emperor.
It seems that Alexei Orlov will not go to church and will swear allegiance to Paul I in his palace. This is not so important. Another thing is important. After taking the oath, Pavel, remembering the rumors that had just been highlighted to you, immediately went to Catherine’s office. To learn there as many secrets of his mother’s reign as possible. Including learning as much as possible: about the circumstances of your birth; and about the circumstances of the murder of Peter III in Ropsha. By the way, this was done not only by Russian emperors, but also by all rulers of nations and kingdoms! - all over the world! Pavel is no exception here.
It was in his mother’s office that he, without going to bed that night, learned about at least three things. And the first of them will be the “Notes” of Catherine II, addressed, on the package, by Catherine, to him personally: “To His Highness, my son, Pavel Petrovich.” We don’t know exactly what Catherine the impostor and intriguer was planning when she created the package for her son. Most likely - as we already suggested in the second chapter of our essay! - to “ride”, “His Highness”, namely “past the throne”.
There is probably no other option here. Yes, this is no longer so important. But we will still devote a few lines - in order to comply with the principles of storytelling! - specifically Catherine’s “Notes”. Notes, a preliminary conversation about which, as you remember, we already had in the first chapter of our essay.
The main content, you already know from our first chapter: not Peter III, but the chamberlain of the Elizabethan era, S.V. Saltykov, according to the “Notes” of Catherine II herself, is the father of Paul I. “Notes”, let us once again highlight, are false from beginning to end. And they were intended “personally for Pavel Petrovich,” one must assume (Based on the package specially prepared by Catherine II for her son.), so that it was precisely Pavel Petrovich - when Catherine II created, of course, the appropriate conditions and circumstances! - “roll past the throne.” And in order to somehow justify the murder by Catherine II, through the Orlov brothers, of her husband, who, upon accession, became Emperor Peter III.
This was precisely their main purpose, the Notes. While Catherine II is still alive, place on the Russian throne not Pavel Petrovich, but his son, Alexander Pavlovich! In any case, the “Notes” do not have the character of a “testamentary document”. However, let us return precisely to the contents of the above-mentioned “Notes”, since we have not yet told everything about them.
Let us add to the first chapter that they denigrated not only Peter III, but also - and to the strongest extent! - Elizaveta Petrovna herself. The Russian Empress, whom Catherine II “brought out” - in her correspondence with Williams (And in her “Notes.”)! - a limitless Despot and Tyrant. Which, in its specifics, does not correspond to reality.
Their further fate is as follows. Unable to restrain himself from emotions, Paul I allowed them to be examined - so that, after that, they would be sealed forever (Not realizing, at the same time, that they would end up in the Russian archive.)! - to one of his courtiers (It seems, if my memory serves me right, to Prince Kurakin.). And that one - being very agile and quick-witted! - skillfully dividing them into parts, he secretly ordered the scribes to quickly rewrite these parts. What was done was soon fulfilled.
So, the named “Notes” of Catherine II began to secretly “behind the scenes” - in the salons of the highest Russian nobility. Which, also multiplying them in copies, began to store them in their personal libraries. And - in the archives. It is precisely through this path, most likely, “Notes” - presumably through the library of Count M.S. Vorontsova! - or, perhaps, through the personal library of officer-agent I.P. Liprandi ended up in southern exile with Pushkin.
To the poet who - if we take into account the library of Count Vorontsov! – presumably through Eliz. Xaver. Vorontsov, the wife of the count, with whom Pushkin had a love affair! – I also secretly made a leather-bound copy from them, through the scribes of Count Vorontsov. Or he made a copy from the “Notes”, which may also be in the library of the named officer. An officer who, some researchers considered, was an agent of political investigation.
The original mentioned above, sealed by Paul I, ended up in the Russian archive. From which, in 1818, A.I. Turgenev secretly removed it. By making a copy from it. Pushkin became acquainted with the contents of this copy in the same year, after reading, by him, “History of the Russian State” by N.M. Karamzin. See more about this above.
Pushkin’s copy of Catherine II’s “Notes” was read, as Pushkinian testifies, by N.N. Pushkin. And according to the poet’s diary entry, dated January 8, 1835, it is clear that Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna also read them: “The Grand Duchess took the Notes of Catherine II from me and is going crazy from them” (See Pushkin’s diary for 1833-35 .).
Here we note that historians, rummaging through the archives, also discovered earlier copies of Catherine’s “Notes” (More precisely, their drafts!). Drafts, quite sharply different in content, from Catherine’s original. They came up with all this - and from the praise of Catherine II as the “Great Empress” (that is, similar to Peter the Great.)! - God knows what.
Although the difference itself, in the content of the drafts and the original, clearly and, most importantly, unambiguously indicates that the intriguer Catherine followed the path of falsification of the events described by her in the “Notes”. She committed falsification, of course, only in the direction of her own interests. Exhibiting himself everywhere - of course! - in a favorable light for yourself. However, let us return specifically to Pushkin.
Let us emphasize that everything that has just been stated about him above is not yet dangerous for the poet. It will turn out to be dangerous for him - presumably, of course! - approximately the following. This is that it was precisely Pushkin’s copy, from the “Notes” of Catherine II, that I secretly became acquainted with in the poet’s house, in the absence of Pushkin, of course, - and the poet was very often absent from the house, due to his frequent trips to Moscow and then and to the Orenburg province to the Pugachev places! - and Idalia Poletika.
Poletika, who had already secretly illustrated, for the poet, the second, that is, not yet completely encrypted by the poet, draft of “The Queen of Spades.” And Poletika, who entered the poet’s house as a relative of N.N. Pushkina. Which, by the way, was only a pretext for secret observation: both of the poet and of his work.
And not so indirectly confirms, this is like the “posthumous search” itself, by the gendarmes - on the secret order of the tsar! – the poet’s papers (By the way, this term was introduced by Pushkinists, it seems, S. Abramovich, in Soviet times.), and mysterious for Pushkinists, to this day, item No. 1 of the gendarmerie inventory of the poet’s papers. A paragraph written, moreover, in red ink. And a point that, moreover, had nothing behind it. And the point on which they, the Pushkinists of the past, then created the myth about the existence of Pushkin, - of course, the most seditious and important! - the poet's diary number one.
While Pushkin’s copy, from the “Notes” of Catherine II, for some reason ended up in the library of the Winter Palace. In the library, which the king used most often. You know the rest about Pushkin’s copy from the first chapter of our essay: it will be found only in 1947. And the Pushkinists will no longer attach any importance to it. While it is precisely the named “Notes” - of course, together with the huge secret of the six-planned “Queen of Spades”! - and constitute the poet’s main “sedition.” In other words, unlawful sedition and, therefore, prohibited by Nicholas I.
It remains only to point out that the subsequent tsars of Catherine’s branch were secretly acquainted with the “Notes” of Catherine II: Alexander I, Nicholas I, Alexander II, etc., right up to Nicholas II. So they knew very well that they, according to Catherine herself, were the second! - impostors. However, let’s continue the conversation specifically about the events characterizing the accession of Paul I.
And the second, interesting thing for him, turned out to be three letters, from Alexei Orlov (And he is a direct, - and immediate! - killer of Peter the Third.), to Catherine II. Three letters in which all the circumstances of the murder of Peter the Third by Alexei Orlov and his accomplices were revealed.
The third should include several notes from Peter III to Catherine, his wife. Notes in which he, humiliatingly and tearfully, asked for mercy and leniency. And to Catherine, who, let us once again highlight, has absolutely no rights to the Russian throne due to the dynastic Anglo-Prussian intrigue against Russia.
Which, I think, did not add to Paul I’s respect for his mother. Especially in the last years of her reign, when she began to change her lovers - several times a day.
This is all, in its totality, and even with an obviously unkind attitude towards his mother, who has illegally usurped “his throne” for many years! - and enraged the already unbalanced Paul I.
By the way, Pavel, especially when he grew up, even in his dreams felt like a king. Over all the long years of his “non-reign,” he developed so many Russian laws that they were often used by his subsequent descendants. During four years and four months of his reign, he issued 2251 decrees. Which is, of course, a very unusual record. And the law on succession to the throne by male tribe was introduced by Paul I in 1797! - was strictly followed by them until 1917.
And the first thing he will do is after getting acquainted with the main secrets of the reign of Catherine the Second! – it will turn out to be the following. He will suspend, if my memory serves me right, all ceremonies for the burial of Catherine II. Her coffin will remain, for now, in the court church.
And, having suspended all preparations for burial, he will immediately begin to restore, - scolded by Catherine II and the Orlovs! - the authority of his father - as the legitimate Russian emperor. Moreover, on top of everything else, they were contemptuously buried by Catherine II - and the Orlov brothers! - not in the Peter and Paul Fortress - as it was supposed to be, a deceased emperor, according to Russian laws, status or protocol, or something! – a – in the Alexander Nevsky Lavra. What happened next, if my memory serves me right, is the following.
Education
Who ruled after Peter 1? Russia after Peter 1
November 21, 2014The history of Russia is rich in various eras, each of which left its mark on the life of the country. One of the most intense and controversial reigns was the reign of Peter I the Great, which ended on January 25, 1725 due to the sudden death of the emperor.
Russia without a Tsar? Who ruled after Peter 1
Three years before his death, the autocrat managed to issue a decree that changed the previously existing order of succession to the throne: now the heir became not the eldest son, but the one of the sons whom the father considered worthy to take such an honorable place. This decision was due to the fact that the king’s son, the potential heir to the throne, Tsarevich Alexei, was accused of preparing a conspiracy against his own father and, as a result, was sentenced to death. In 1718, the prince died within the walls of the Peter and Paul Fortress.
However, before his death, Peter I did not have time to appoint a new tsar, leaving the country, for the development of which he had made so much effort, without a ruler.
As a result, the next few years were marked by numerous palace coups, the purpose of which was to seize power. Since no official heir had been appointed, those wishing to sit on the throne tried to prove that they had earned this right.
The very first coup, carried out by the guards of the wife of Peter I - by birth Martha Skavronskaya, popularly known as Ekaterina Alekseevna Mikhailova (Catherine I) - brought the first woman in Russian history to power.
The enthronement of the future All-Russian Empress was supervised by an associate of the late Tsar, Prince Alexander Danilovich Menshikov, who became the de facto ruler of the state.
Russia after Peter 1 is a special milestone in world history. The strict orderliness and discipline that had partly characterized the emperor's reign now lost their former force.
Catherine I: who is she?
Marta Skavronskaya (the empress's real name) came from a family of Baltic peasants. She was born on April 5, 1684. Having lost both parents at an early age, the girl was raised in the family of a Protestant pastor.
During the Northern War (between Sweden and Russia), in 1702, Martha, along with other residents of the Marienburg fortress, was captured by Russian troops, and then into the service of Prince Menshikov. There are two versions of how this happened.
One version says that Marta became the mistress of Count Sheremetyev, the commander of the Russian army. Prince Alexander Danilovich, the favorite of Peter the Great, saw her and, using his authority, took the girl to his house.
According to another version, Marta became the managing servant of Colonel Baur, where Menshikov set his sights on her and took her into his house. And already here Peter I himself noticed her.
Video on the topic
Rapprochement with Peter I
For 9 years Martha was the king's mistress. In 1704, she gave birth to his first son, Peter, and then his second son, Pavel. However, both boys died.
The education of the future empress was carried out by the sister of Peter I, Natalya Alekseevna, who taught Martha to read and write. And in 1705, a girl was baptized into Orthodoxy under the name of Ekaterina Alekseevna Mikhailova. In 1708 and 1709, Catherine’s daughters were born from Peter Alekseevich - Anna and Elizaveta (who later took the throne under the name Elizaveta Petrovna).
Finally, in 1712, the wedding with Peter I took place in the Church of John of Dalmitsky - Catherine became a full member of the royal family. The year 1724 was marked by the solemn coronation of Martha Skavronskaya in the Assumption Cathedral in Moscow. She received the crown from the hands of the emperor himself.
Who ruled Rus' and when?
After the death of Peter 1, Russia fully learned what a country is worth without an imperious ruler. Since Prince Menshikov won the favor of the Tsar, and later helped Catherine I become the head of state, to the question of who ruled after Peter 1, the correct answer would be Prince Alexander Danilovich, who actively participated in the life of the country and made the most important decisions. However, the reign of the empress, despite such strong support, did not last long - until May 1727.
During Catherine I's reign, an important role in Russian politics at that time was played by the Supreme Privy Council, created even before the empress ascended the throne. Its members included such noble and prominent people in the Russian Empire of that time as Prince Alexander Menshikov (who headed this body), Dmitry Golitsyn, Fyodor Apraksin, Pyotr Tolstoy.
At the beginning of the reign of Catherine I, taxes were reduced and many people sentenced to exile and imprisonment were pardoned. Such changes were caused by the fear of riots due to price increases, which invariably should lead to discontent among ordinary people.
In addition, the reforms carried out by Peter were canceled or modified:
The Senate began to play a less prominent role in the political life of the country;
governors replaced local authorities;
For the improvement of the troops, a special Commission was organized, consisting of flagships and generals.
Innovations of Catherine I. Domestic and foreign policy
For those who ruled after Peter 1 (we are talking about his wife), it was extremely difficult to surpass the reformer tsar in the versatility of politics. Among the innovations, it is worth noting the creation of the Academy of Sciences and the organization of an expedition led by the famous navigator Vitus Bering to Kamchatka.
In foreign policy in general, Catherine I adhered to her husband’s views: she supported the claims of the Holstein Duke Karl Friedrich (who was her son-in-law) to Schleswig. This led to strained relations with England and Denmark. The result of the confrontation was the accession of Russia to the Union of Vienna (which included Spain, Prussia and Austria) in 1726.
Russia after Peter 1 acquired significant influence in Courland. It was so great that Prince Menshikov planned to become the head of this duchy, but local residents showed discontent about this.
Thanks to the foreign policy of Catherine I and Alexander Danilovich (who ruled Russia after the death of Peter 1 in fact), the empire was able to take possession of the Shirvan region (having achieved concessions in this matter from Persia and Turkey). Also, thanks to Prince Raguzinsky, friendly relations with China were established.
End of the Empress's reign
The power of Catherine I came to an end in May 1727, when the empress died at the age of 44 from lung disease. She was buried in the Peter and Paul Fortress.
Before her death, Catherine wanted to make her daughter Elizabeth empress, but once again she listened to Menshikov and appointed her grandson, Peter II Alekseevich, heir and Tsar of Russia, who was 11 years old at the time of his ascension to the throne.
The regent was none other than Prince Alexander Danilovich (this fact once again proves who ruled after Peter 1 in Russia). Menshikov soon married the newly-crowned tsar to his daughter Maria, thus further strengthening his influence on court and state life.
However, the power of Prince Alexander Danilovich did not last long: after the death of Emperor Peter II, he was accused of state conspiracy and died in exile.
Russia after Peter the Great is a completely different state, where the first place was not reforms and transformations, but the struggle for the throne and attempts to prove the superiority of some classes over others.
Palace coups were associated mainly with three points. First, the decree on the succession to the throne 1722 gave the monarch the right to appoint an heir, and with each new reign the question of a successor to the throne arose. Secondly, the coups were facilitated by the immaturity of Russian society, which was a consequence of Peter’s reforms. Thirdly, after the death of Peter, not a single palace coup took place without the intervention of the guard. It was the military and political force closest to the authorities, clearly aware of its interests in this or that coup. This is explained by the composition of the guards regiments - they consisted mainly of nobles, so the guard reflected the interests of a significant part of its class. With the strengthening of the political role of the nobility, their privileges also grew (palace coups played a significant role in this).
Peter died (January 1725) without leaving a will. Under pressure from the guards and A.D. Menshikov The Senate made Peter's wife, Ekaterina Alekseevna, empress. During her short reign, Menshikov acquired enormous power, becoming the de facto ruler of the state. This caused strong discontent among the ruling elite group and the old boyars, who remained in power under Peter. As a result of a compromise in February 1726, the Supreme Privy Council, which included representatives of the old and new nobility. It became the highest body of government, depriving the Senate of its former significance.
After the death of Catherine I, according to her will, the 11-year-old grandson of Peter I, Peter Alekseevich (son of Tsarevich Alexei), was proclaimed emperor. Until he came of age, the regency of the Supreme Privy Council was established. Under the new emperor, Menshikov initially retained his position, then the Dolgorukov princes became the favorites of Peter II. Menshikov fell into disgrace and was sent into exile, where he soon died.
In January 1730 Just before his marriage to Princess E. Dolgorukova, Peter II suddenly fell ill and died. Members of the Supreme Privy Council (“sovereigns”) intended to offer the throne to Anna Ioannovna, the niece of Peter I. They believed that the Dowager Duchess of Courland, who had long lived in Mitau and was loosely connected with court circles and the guard, would not interfere with them, as D.M. put it. Golitsyn, “increase your willpower.” Anna was offered condition(conditions) of eight points, the main one of which ordered her to resolve all important matters only with the “supreme leaders”. Rumors about the “venture” (this is the name these events received in history) spread throughout Moscow and caused discontent among the nobility, who were afraid of getting several rulers at once instead of one autocrat. Using the support of the guard, Anna tore up the previously signed conditions and thereby, in essence, stopped all talk about limiting the autocracy.
With the accession of Anna Ioannovna, the process of transforming the nobility from a serving class into a privileged class began. The service life was reduced to 25 years. The role of the Secret Chancellery (political police), investigation and denunciations (“word and deed”) increased.
While still the Duchess of Courland, Anna surrounded herself with German favorites, among whom the first and most influential was the son of the dukes’ court groom, E. Biron. According to his name, the reign of Anna Ioannovna (1730–1740) got the name Bironovism.(By the way, foreign dominance during Anna’s reign – already under Elizaveta Petrovna – was greatly exaggerated, but was gladly picked up and replicated by Russian historians.)
Anna's sister, Catherine, was married to the Duke of Mecklenburg, and their daughter, Anna Leopoldovna, married Prince Anton of Brunswick. Shortly before her death, Anna Ioannovna appointed their two-month-old son Ivan Antonovich as her heir, and Biron as regent. But a short time after the accession of Ivan VI, Biron was deprived of power and sent into exile. The regency post was taken by the emperor's mother Anna Leopoldovna, giving herself the title of ruler, but real power remained in the hands of B.K. Minikha, and then A.I. Osterman.
Reign of Elizabeth Petrovna
Meanwhile, society got rid of the fear that Biron and Minich inspired, and the colorless rulers caused increasing discontent. The situation was fueled by the French ambassador in St. Petersburg, who was interested in bringing Russia closer to France. A conspiracy has matured in favor of the daughter of Peter I, Elizabeth, who was removed from the court during the times of previous rulers. On the night of November 25-26 1741 With the help of the guards of the Preobrazhensky Regiment, Elizabeth carried out a palace coup. Ivan VI and his parents were arrested and sent into exile (Ivan was later imprisoned in a fortress, where he died). The slogan of the new reign was a return to the traditions of Peter I.
The Empress herself paid little attention to state affairs; her reign was called the time of “cheerful Elizabeth.” She loved balls, masquerades, pleasure trips and other entertainment. After her death, Elizabeth left 15,000 dresses. Domestic and foreign policy was dealt with primarily by her favorites and confidants - A.G. Razumovsky, I.I. Shuvalov, his cousins Alexander and Pyotr Shuvalov, M.I. Vorontsov. Among the military, Elizabeth singled out I.G. Chernysheva, V.Ya. Levashov and P.A. Rumyantseva.
The main content of the policy of Elizabeth's government was Europeanized nationalism, which arose under Peter I. In the field of governing the country, it manifested itself in the elimination of the Cabinet of Ministers of the times of both Annes (the Cabinet of Ministers at one time replaced the Supreme Privy Council) and the restoration of the Senate to its former functions. Other government institutions of the Peter I era were also recreated.
In class politics, there was an increase in noble privileges and the strengthening of serfdom. The government transferred a significant part of its power over the peasants to the nobles.
Due to extensive development, the country's economic growth continued. To develop entrepreneurship, the Noble Loan Bank was opened, and the Merchant Bank was established. Of great importance for the development and expansion of the all-Russian market was the decree of the Empress (1753) on the elimination of customs duties within the country.
In foreign policy under Elizabeth, Russia gradually freed itself from French influence and renewed its defensive alliance with Austria, directed against the increasing aggression of Prussia, whose king at that time was Frederick II. The alliance between Prussia and England became the diplomatic preparation for the Seven Years' War between the European powers. Russia, after some hesitation, sided with Austria, France and Saxony. IN 1756 she declared war on Prussia, and in the summer of the following year Russian troops entered East Prussia. Having defeated the Prussian army near the village of Gross-Jägersdorf, the commander-in-chief of the Russian army S.F. Apraksin unexpectedly ordered a retreat. The retreat turned into a stampede. Apraksin's indecisiveness and court intrigues led to the loss of all the fruits of the victory at Gross-Jägersdorf.
The second campaign in East Prussia (in the winter of 1757/1758) ended with the capture of Koenigsberg and the annexation of all East Prussia to Russia. However, there were no more successes in the 1758 campaign. The battle at Zorndorf due to the fault of the commander of the Russian troops V.V. Fermor did not lead to victory. However, in 1759, when Fermor replaced P.S. Saltykov achieved the most significant victory over the Prussian troops led by the previously invincible Frederick. In August 1759 Russian troops, together with the Austrians, defeated the enemy at Kunersdorf. The most notable event of 1760 was the capture of the Prussian capital of Berlin by Russian troops for several days. In 1761, Russian troops under the command of the young general P.A. Rumyantsev won a number of victories in Pomerania and took the strategically important fortress of Kolberg. However, Russia was unable to take advantage of these successes. In December 1761, Elizabeth died. The accession of Peter III dramatically changed the political situation and saved Frederick from final defeat. IN 1762 the new emperor signed an agreement under which all lands occupied by Russian troops during the war were returned to Prussia.
The reign of Elizaveta Petrovna was a relatively calm time. The sinister Secret Chancellery ceased to exist, and the practice of “the word and deed of the sovereign” was eliminated. Elizabeth's twenty-year reign was marked by a unique phenomenon in Russian history - upon ascending the throne, she vowed to abolish the death penalty and fulfilled her promise.
OPINIONS OF HISTORIANS
With the light hand of V.O. Klyuchevsky second quarter of the 18th century. began to be called the era of palace coups (see . The era of palace coups). As depicted by Russian and Soviet historians (S.M. Solovyov, S.F. Platonov, N.Ya. Eidelman and others), this period was a significant step back in the development of Russian statehood compared to the vigorous activity of Peter. The rulers and rulers of this era in historical works seemed insignificant compared to the powerful figure of the reformer king. The characteristics of the era of palace coups included ideas about the weakening of absolutism, the dominance of foreigners during the times of both Annas, the exaggerated role of the guard in resolving political issues, and the patriotic motives of Elizabeth Petrovna’s coup. Bironovshchina, for example, was interpreted as a particularly ferocious regime, similar to the oprichnina of Ivan the Terrible. The works of modern historians (D.N. Shansky, E.V. Anisimov, A.B. Kamensky) outline a rejection of such unambiguous assessments and recognition, albeit contradictory, of the development of Russian statehood.
Personalities
Anna Ioannovna (1693–1740)- Russian empress since 1730. Daughter of Ivan V Alekseevich, niece of Peter I. In 1710 she was married to the Duke of Courland Friedrich Wilhelm. Granted significant benefits to the nobility. She paid little attention to government affairs. Anna Ioannovna's main support was the Baltic German nobles, who, led by her favorite Biron, occupied a dominant position in the government.
Anna Leopoldovna (1718–1746)- ruler of Russia in 1740–1741. with his young son, Emperor Ivan VI Antonovich. Daughter of the Duke of Mecklenburg-Schwerin and Princess Catherine, sister of Empress Anna Ioannovna. Overthrown by Elizaveta Petrovna during a coup and exiled to Kholmogory.
Biron Ernst Johann (1690–1772) - favorite of Empress Anna Ioannovna. From 1718 he was at her court in Courland, and came with her to Russia in 1730 as chief chamberlain. In 1737, with the assistance of the Empress, he was elected Duke of Courland. According to Anna Ioannovna's will, after her death in 1740, Biron became regent under the young Tsar Ivan VI Antonovich. After the palace coup on November 9, 1740, he was sentenced to death, then replaced by exile. Biron was returned to St. Petersburg by Peter III, restored by Catherine II to the Ducal throne of Courland.
Volynsky Artemy Petrovich (1689–1740)- statesman, cabinet minister of Empress Anna Ioannovna, opponent of Bironovism, one of the authors of the project for state reorganization. He spoke out for an autocratic form of government, at the same time he proposed increasing the role of the Senate and expanding the competence of the Cabinet of Ministers. He called for improving the situation of the peasantry while maintaining landownership. In 1740 he was executed on charges of embezzling public funds and attempting to seize the throne.
Vorontsov Mikhail Illarionovich (1714–1767)- statesman, diplomat, count. Participant in the palace coup on November 25, 1741 in favor of Elizabeth Petrovna. Since 1744 - Vice-Chancellor. In 1758 he directed Russian foreign policy. Since 1759 - senator. In 1758–1762 – Chancellor.
Vorontsov Roman Illarionovich (1707–1783) - statesman, count, chief general. Since 1760 - senator. In 1760–1763 – member and then chairman of the Legislative Commission. At the court of Peter III, whose favorite was his daughter Catherine, he was the most influential figure. After the overthrow of Peter III, he was arrested and exiled to Moscow, deprived of many estates. Governor of the Vladimir, Penza, Tambov, Kostroma provinces, famous for bribery and abuse of official position (popularly nicknamed “Roman - a big pocket”).
Golitsyn Dmitry Mikhailovich (1665–1737)- prince, statesman; from 1686 – steward of Peter I; from 1694 - captain of the Preobrazhensky regiment. In 1718–1722 - President of the Chamber Board. In 1726 he was one of the organizers of the Supreme Privy Council, president of the Commerce Collegium. After the death of Emperor Peter II, he initiated the invitation to the throne of Anna Ioannovna and the limitation of her power by the Supreme Privy Council. After the dissolution of the Council, he was exiled to an estate near Moscow, where he lived, retaining the title of senator. In 1737 he was stripped of his ranks and titles and imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress, where he soon died.
Catherine I Alekseevna (1684–1727) – nee Marta Skavronskaya. Russian Empress from 1725 to 1727, second wife of Peter I. Born into the family of a Baltic peasant. In 1702, during the capture of Marienburg by the Russians, she was captured and soon became the common-law wife of Peter I and converted to Orthodoxy. In 1712 she married Peter I in a church marriage. Only two daughters survived from this marriage - Anna and Elizabeth. After the death of Peter I, who did not appoint a successor, Catherine was enthroned by the guard regiments under the leadership of A.D. Menshikov. Ruled the country with the support of the Supreme Privy Council. Among its main decisions were the prohibition of serfs from freely going to work, the organization of the first Kamchatka expedition of V. Bering, and the conclusion of an alliance treaty with Austria. A few days before her death, Catherine I signed a will transferring the throne to Peter I’s grandson, Peter II.
Elizaveta Petrovna (1709–1761)- Russian empress in 1741–1761. The daughter of Peter I and Catherine I. Elizaveta Petrovna, with the support of the guard, carried out a coup d'etat on November 25, 1741, during which she overthrew Ivan VI and the ruler-regent Anna Leopoldovna. She proclaimed a return to Peter’s reforms as the basic principles of domestic and foreign policy. During her reign, significant successes were achieved in the development of the economy, culture and foreign policy of Russia; the orders and bodies created under Peter I were restored; organizational improvements and rearmament of the army and navy were carried out. In 1755, by her order, the first university in Russia was founded in Moscow. The Academy of Arts was formed, outstanding cultural monuments were created (Tsarskoye Selo Catherine Palace, Winter Palace in St. Petersburg, etc.). The privileges of the nobles expanded. Peasant protests were brutally suppressed by armed force. Elizabeth appointed her nephew (the son of her sister Anna) Pyotr Fedorovich as the official heir to the throne.
Ivan VI Antonovich (1740–1764) – Russian Emperor in 1740–1741, the “iron mask” of Russian history. He was proclaimed king as a baby. Biron was his regent for a short time, then his mother, Anna Leopoldovna. After the coup of 1741, he and his family were sent into exile, then kept in the Shlisselburg fortress. In 1764 he was killed while trying to free him by Lieutenant V.Ya. Mirovich.
Minich Burchard Christoph (Christopher Antonovich) (1683–1767)- count, statesman and military leader. In Russian service since 1721. Field Marshal General (1730), Count (1728). Since 1728 - Governor-General of Karelia and Finland. Under Anna Ioannovna he was president of the Military Collegium. During the Russian-Turkish War of 1735–1739. commanded the Russian army in Crimea and Bessarabia. After the death of Anna Ioannovna, he participated in a conspiracy against Biron. He became the first minister during the regency of Anna Leopoldovna, but was soon dismissed. After the accession of Elizabeth Petrovna, he was exiled in 1742 to Pelym, from where he returned only under Peter III. During the palace coup of 1762, he initially supported Peter III, but then joined the supporters of Catherine II. Later he was the commander of the Baltic ports and canals. He had no political influence in the last years of his life.
Osterman Andrey Ivanovich (Heinrich Johann Friedrich) (1686–1747)- statesman, diplomat, count (1730). Son of a Lutheran pastor from Westphalia. In Russian service since 1703. Since 1723 - Vice-President of the College of Foreign Affairs. In 1725–1741 - Vice-Chancellor. Since 1726 - member of the Supreme Privy Council. In 1727–1730 - educator and mentor of Peter II. In 1730 he took the side of Anna Ioannovna in her fight against the “supreme rulers”. Since 1731 - the de facto leader of Russia's domestic and foreign policy. After the death of Anna Ioannovna, he achieved the resignation of Biron and Minikh. Under Anna Leopoldovna he again took key positions. After the palace coup of 1741, he was arrested, put on trial, and sentenced to death. By decision of Elizaveta Petrovna, the execution was replaced by exile to Berezov, where Osterman died.
Peter II Alekseevich (1715–1730)- Russian emperor since 1727, son of Tsarevich Alexei Petrovich, grandson of Peter I. In the first months of his reign, power was actually in the hands of A.D. Menshikov. After his exile, Peter II was influenced by the old boyar aristocracy, led by the Dolgorukov princes. Peter II declared himself an opponent of his grandfather’s reforms and moved the royal court to Moscow. At the same time, the institutions created by Peter I were destroyed. He was engaged to Princess E.A. Dolgorukova. During preparations for the coronation, he died of smallpox.
Peter III Fedorovich (Karl Peter Ulrich) (1728–1762) - Russian Emperor in 1761–1762. Grandson of Peter I. Son of Duke Karl Friedrich of Holstein-Gottorp and Tsarevna Anna Petrovna, daughter of Peter I. In 1742 he was declared heir to the throne by Elizabeth Petrovna. Since 1745 he has been married to Princess Sophia Frederica of Anhalt-Zerbst (future Empress Catherine II). After the death of Elizabeth Petrovna on December 25, 1761, he was proclaimed emperor. Ruled for 186 days. At the end of June 1762, he was overthrown as a result of a conspiracy headed by his wife, Empress Ekaterina Alekseevna. He was arrested and soon killed with her knowledge. From her marriage to Peter III, Catherine had a son, Pavel. The palace coup of 1762 gave rise to unfounded rumors that Peter Fedorovich, who “miraculously slept,” was overthrown by the nobles for his intention to free the peasants. Many impostors acted under the name of Peter III, the most famous of them being Emelyan Pugachev.
Razumovsky Alexey Grigorievich (1709–1771) – statesman, count. He comes from a family of registered Ukrainian Cossacks. From 1731 he was a singer in the Ukrainian chapel at the imperial court. Favorite of Tsarevna Elizaveta Petrovna. After the palace coup of 1741 he became chamberlain, lieutenant general, and in 1756 - field marshal general. In 1742 he secretly married Empress Elizaveta Petrovna. Resigned after the coup of 1762.
Razumovsky Kirill Grigorievich (1728–1803)- statesman, count. From 1745 – chamberlain. From 1746 to 1798 - President of the St. Petersburg Academy of Sciences. Actively supported M.V. Lomonosov. Since 1750 - Hetman of Ukraine. For his active participation in the preparation of the coup in 1762, he was promoted by Catherine II to senator and adjutant general. In 1764, due to the abolition of the hetmanate, he was deprived of this position, but at the same time was promoted to field marshal general. Member of the State Council.
Shuvalov Ivan Ivanovich (1727–1797)- statesman. He began his service at the court of Elizabeth Petrovna. In the 50s XVIII century as the favorite of the empress, he had a great influence on the domestic and foreign policy of Russia. The first curator of Moscow University, president of the Academy of Arts. After the accession of Catherine II, he found himself in disgrace and was forced to go abroad. He returned to Russia in the late 70s. XVIII century, entered the circle of courtiers close to Catherine, but did not play a serious role in politics.
Shuvalov Pyotr Ivanovich (1710–1762)- statesman and military leader. Count, Field Marshal General. Participant in the palace coup of 1741. Actual head of government under Empress Elizabeth Petrovna. One of the leaders of the Russian army in the Seven Years' War. In the 50s XVIII century determined the internal policy of Russia, which was based on the ideas of “enlightened absolutism.” Author and initiator of projects for a number of reforms in the field of economics and finance. He actively participated in the work of the Statutory Commission and the reorganization of the army.
Russia in the second half of the 18th century.
Peter III and Catherine II
The second half of the 18th century can be called the era of Catherine II. Like Peter I, she was honored during her lifetime to receive the title Great from her subjects.
Catherine II, like Elizabeth, became empress as a result of a palace coup. Moreover, she reigned under two living emperors - Ivan Antonovich (imprisoned in the Shlisselburg fortress) and Peter III (her husband, killed in Ropsha a week after the coup). To understand these events, it is necessary to return to the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna.
Back in 1742, Elizabeth declared her nephew, grandson of Peter I, Duke of Schleswig-Holstein Karl Peter Ulrich, heir to the Russian throne. Soon his wedding took place with Princess Sophia of Anhalt-Zerbst. The bride came to Russia, converted to Orthodoxy and was named Ekaterina Alekseevna. After Elizabeth's death in December 1761, her nephew ascended the throne under the name of Peter Fedorovich (Peter III).
At the beginning of the reign of Peter III (18 February 1762) a manifesto was adopted, which the Russian nobility had been seeking for so long - “On the freedom of the nobility.” The document was of great importance, as it completed the process of transforming the service class into a privileged class. On this occasion V.O. Klyuchevsky wrote: “At the request of historical logic and social justice, the next day, February 19, should have followed the abolition of serfdom; it followed the next day, only 99 years later.” The nobility, exempted from compulsory service, precisely from the second half of the 18th century. sharply strengthens its power over the peasants, serfdom reaches its apogee.
The manifesto was greeted with enthusiasm by the nobility, but very quickly the policies of Peter III began to cause discontent among court circles. An unexpected peace and alliance with a recent enemy - the Prussian king, preparations for a war with Denmark for the interests of Peter's Holstein homeland, the intention to send guards to the war, the threat to imprison his wife in a monastery and much more created favorable conditions for a conspiracy in favor of Catherine. Her actions and behavior were the complete opposite of what Peter did. A group of guards officers formed a conspiracy in which Catherine and a number of senior dignitaries participated.
OPINIONS OF HISTORIANS
In pre-revolutionary Russian historiography, the personality and activities of Peter III were unanimously assessed extremely negatively. This was facilitated for a long time by the official position of the authorities regarding Peter III. Soviet historiography generally paid little attention to the personality of monarchs, considering the degree of their participation in government and their personal qualities to be secondary in determining the general policy of the Russian Empire. Attempts by a number of modern domestic and foreign historians to give the personality of Peter III more sympathetic features, noting his passion for playing the violin and Italian music, love of painting, ease of dealing with his subjects, etc., cannot, apparently, change for the better the image of this king.
Domestic policy of Catherine II
Catherine, brought up on the ideas of the French Enlightenment, in the first period of her reign tried to soften the morals of Russian society, streamline dilapidated legislation, and limit serfdom. To this end, she decided to develop new laws based on the philosophy of the Enlightenment. She wrote the “Order”, which was supposed to serve as a guide for the future legislative assembly. For that time, this document was very radical. Suffice it to say that the “Nakaz” advocated the separation of powers and the creation of elements of the rule of law, i.e., it reflected the most advanced ideas of European thought of that time. Although it should be noted that it did not talk about the liquidation of the autocracy. On the contrary, autocracy, due to the vast territory of the country, was considered a blessing for Russia. The “Nakaz” timidly spoke only about the mitigation of serfdom.
July 30 1767 In the Faceted Chamber of the Kremlin, Catherine solemnly opened the meetings of the Commission to draft a new code (legislative assembly). 565 deputies represented all classes of Russia, except for privately owned peasants and the clergy. However, the activities of the deputies, mainly due to organizational confusion, suffered a complete collapse. The very next year the Commission was effectively dissolved. But despite the Commission's failure, its activities had some positive consequences. Deputies of different classes brought with them more than a thousand orders from the localities, and these orders had a certain influence on Catherine’s further internal policy.
The reign of Catherine is usually called the era of “enlightened absolutism.” Russian historian N.I. Kareev defined the essence of enlightened absolutism as follows: an agreement “between absolute state power and rationalistic enlightenment,” which had “well-known transformative goals.” This agreement was based on the idea that the state arises from a social contract, and from this arises the mutual obligations of the monarch and his subjects. The duty of the state is to carry out reforms leading to the welfare of its subjects. The success of reforms largely depends on the education of the people, therefore it is necessary to educate citizens who would consciously fulfill their duties to the state.
This is how the ideologists of enlightened absolutism imagined the development of relations between government and society. Catherine, to a certain extent, tried to implement these ideas in her domestic policy within the framework of the serfdom state.
During the reign of Catherine II, serfdom reached its highest development. Although the empress herself understood the harm and immorality of the slave position of a significant part of the peasantry, the fear of losing the support of the nobility forced her to pursue policies primarily in the interests of the nobles. Legislation on peasants also developed in this direction, and the power of landowners over serfs was further strengthened. Thus, in 1766, landowners received the right not only to exile their serfs to Siberia (such a law was already in force under Elizabeth), but also to send them to hard labor. The landowner could give his serf as a soldier. In 1767, under pain of punishment, peasants were forbidden to complain about their landowner. It should also be noted that at the same time there was a process of spreading serfdom to territories where it had not existed before. The response of the peasantry soon followed: a revolt that grew into a powerful peasant uprising - an uprising under the leadership of E.I. Pugacheva ( 1773–1775 ). The government had to make every effort to suppress the uprising that swept through the eastern regions of the country and the Volga region. Peace was hastily concluded with Turkey (1774) , and troops from the Turkish campaign were sent to fight the rebels. The seriousness of the situation is also evidenced by the following fact: one of the best Catherine’s commanders, A.V. Suvorov at the last stage took part in the suppression of the uprising.
After the suppression of the Pugachev movement, Catherine's policy began to be more conservative. Conducted in 1775 The regional reform, having increased the number of provinces in Russia to 50, transferred local power completely into the hands of the nobility and strengthened administrative control over the peasantry. After ten years (1785) A charter of grant to the nobility was issued, which further expanded its privileges. At the same time, a charter was issued to the cities, providing a number of benefits to merchants and artisans.
During the reign of Catherine, the feudal economic system reached its highest development and the first signs of its decomposition appeared. The most important of them was the undermining of noble ownership of land. In the second half of the 18th century. More and more land was concentrated in the hands of merchants and wealthy peasants, not only in the northern and eastern regions of Russia, but also in the provinces, which were considered the citadel of noble land ownership. The exploitation of peasants in the black earth provinces reached its limit. Here landowners often transferred their peasants to month, thereby undermining the foundations of serfdom - the economy of the landowner peasants. In non-chernozem provinces it developed otkhodnichestvo peasants to work in the city, their separation from agricultural activities. The development of commodity relations gradually led to a change in the forms of feudal rent. The share of payments in kind from peasants decreased, and monetary dues increased. With the expansion of commodity relations, the preservation of serfdom became a brake on the further development of industry and agriculture.
Foreign policy of Catherine II
In foreign policy, the following main tasks can be identified: ensuring access to the Black Sea and the Polish question.
In connection with the death of the Polish king Augustus III, the Polish question was first on the agenda. Under pressure from Russia, Stanislav Poniatowski was elected as the new Polish king, and the Polish Sejm adopted a law that equalized the rights of Catholics and Orthodox Christians. In response, the Polish gentry (Bar Confederation) rebelled. Russian troops that entered Poland suppressed the uprising of the gentry. Meanwhile, Prussia and Austria agreed to divide part of Polish territory and brought Russia into this agreement. IN 1772 The so-called first partition of Poland took place. Austria captured Galicia, Prussia - Pomerania and part of Greater Poland, Russia - Eastern Belarus. Territorial losses and the threat of the collapse of the state gave rise to a patriotic movement in Poland in 1772. Under the influence of the slogans of the French Revolution, the Polish Sejm in May 1791 adopted a new constitution, the main provisions of which were supposed to strengthen Polish statehood. In response, Prussia and Russia opposed the “revolutionary ferment” in Poland and occupied it. Under the threat of military force, the Sejm was forced to 1793 submit to the second partition of Poland. Western Belarus, Volyn and Podolia went to Russia.
The following year, Polish patriots under the leadership of General T. Kosciuszko rebelled. Russian troops under the command of A.V. Suvorov took Warsaw and suppressed the uprising. IN 1795 The third partition of Poland took place between Russia, Prussia and Austria, which eliminated Polish statehood. Courland and Lithuania went to Russia.
Even at the height of the Polish events, in 1768 Turkey and Crimea, incited by France, hostile to Russia, opened hostilities with a raid of the Crimean Tatars on the border Russian lands. The first Russian-Turkish war began in the second half of the 18th century. The military advantage was on Russia's side. Commander-in-Chief of the Russian Army P.A. Rumyantsev in 1770 won brilliant victories at Ryaba Mogila, Larga and Cahul over the combined forces of the Turkish and Tatar troops. In the same year, Admiral G.A. Spiridov in Chesme Bay was destroyed by the Turkish fleet (100 warships). But with the support of France and the benevolent neutrality of Austria and Prussia, Türkiye continued to resist. In 1774, the troops of A.V. Suvorov crossed the Danube and began to threaten an invasion of the internal provinces of the Ottoman Empire. Only then did the Turks ask for peace. In July 1774 Russian-Turkish negotiations began in the village of Kuchuk-Kainardzhi. Under the terms of peace, Russia received access to the Black Sea (the mouths of the Don, Dnieper and Bug with adjacent territories). Crimea was declared a state independent from Turkey, and thus the issue of annexing Crimea to Russia was resolved (1783).
IN 1787 Turkey, accusing Russia of violating the terms of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Peace, began military operations and attacked Kinburn (on the Black Sea coast). Troops under the command of Suvorov repelled the attack. A new war with Turkey began in unfavorable foreign policy conditions for Russia (the hostile attitude of England and Sweden’s attack on Russia without declaring war). Despite this, military operations for Russia developed successfully. Suvorov's troops won victories at Focsani and near Rymnik. The young Black Sea Fleet under the command of F.F. Ushakova inflicted a number of defeats on the Turks. The victory point in the war was set by the troops of Suvorov (they took the powerful fortress of Izmail) and M.I. Kutuzov (they defeated the Turks at Babadag and at Machin). Ushakov's fleet sank the Turkish squadron at Cape Kaliakria. December 1791 The Peace of Yassi was signed between Russia and Turkey, confirming the terms of the Kuchuk-Kainardzhi Treaty.
In the last years of her reign, Catherine was greatly worried about the revolutionary events in France. Although at this time Russia did not directly participate in military operations against revolutionary France, it provided material and moral support to anti-French forces and royalists.
Summing up the results of Russian foreign policy in the second half of the 18th century, it should be noted that Catherine brilliantly completed the creation of the Russian Empire as a great power, begun by Peter I. Significant territorial acquisitions and one of the leading roles in world politics allowed Russia to act in its own interests when resolving any world issues. At the same time, the successes of foreign policy preserved the serfdom regime. The integration of newly acquired territories into the Russian Empire aggravated interethnic relations and strengthened anti-Russian sentiments.
OPINIONS OF HISTORIANS
Most pre-revolutionary historians considered the second half of the 18th century. the “golden age” of the Russian Empire and considered this time as an important stage in the development of Russian statehood and the further Europeanization of the country. In historical literature, this period of Russian history was also called “enlightened absolutism.” This is how Catherine’s era was assessed, for example, by N.M. Karamzin, S.M. Soloviev, A.S. Lappo-Danilevsky. A more critical position was taken by V.O. Klyuchevsky, A.A. Kisivetter, V.I. Semevsky.
The studies of Soviet historians focused on the pro-noble nature of the policy of the government of Catherine II, the strengthening of serfdom and police functions of the state, and the resistance of the peasantry to the serfdom policies of the autocracy. Catherine's enlightened absolutism was seen as demagoguery and maneuvering in the conditions of the disintegration of the feudal-serf system.
The modern view of Catherine’s era has freed itself from the “class approach” and has become more balanced, taking into account the nature of the era. In particular, in the works of A.B. Kamensky and N.I. Pavlenko's view of this period in Russian history is very close to the assessments of pre-revolutionary historians.
The personality and activities of Catherine II herself, who ruled Russia for 34 years, were also assessed differently by contemporaries and descendants, sometimes even diametrically opposed. If the moral character of the empress as a whole fits into the words of V.O. Klyuchevsky: “We pass in silence reviews of Catherine’s moral character, which cannot be read without a mournful sigh,” then her contribution to domestic and foreign policy is controversial to this day. For example, the concept of “enlightened absolutism” is interpreted differently. Some historians prefer to call it “enlightened despotism”, and Catherine – “enlightened despot”, and in general the question is raised: is the concept of “enlightened absolutism” applicable to Catherine’s reign?
During the reign of Catherine II, the imperial character of Russia reached its peak. There is debate among historians about the extent to which the empire as a form of organization of human society met the interests of its multinational population. A number of historians believe that the empire was an artificial formation based on the fear of the conquered population and its military power. Others hold the opposite opinion, noting that this form of statehood undermined the national isolation of the peoples inhabiting it and contributed to their inclusion in a single world process. Later, Emperor Nicholas I said: “German, Finnish, Tatar, Georgian - that’s what Russia is.”
Paul I (1796–1801)
The short reign of Pavel Petrovich was distinguished by the fact that he largely sought to act contrary to the policies of his mother. Catherine did not love her son and even made plans to make her grandson Alexander emperor, bypassing Paul.
Having become king, Paul removed most of Catherine's associates from service. It seemed to him possible to suppress all the vices of Catherine’s time, “introduce discipline” in the noble class, and ease the tax burden of the people. However, his reign is an example of how far plans and reality diverge. Preserving the good memory of his father (Peter III), Paul introduced Prussian orders into the army, which A.V. caustically ridiculed. Suvorov. Fear of the French Revolution forced the tsar to pursue social policies aimed at strengthening the autocracy. The equal lack of rights of all classes before the monarch seemed to him an important condition for strengthening his power. Paul limited the privileges of the nobility (self-government, free travel abroad and entry into Russia, exemption from corporal punishment, etc.). Paul's idea of peasant well-being was associated with the peasants being under the power of the landowners. The petty regulation of everything and everyone during Paul's reign at times reached absurdity: he forbade the use of words reminiscent of the French Revolution (citizen, club, fatherland, etc.); by a special decree of the emperor, city residents had to turn off the lights at a certain time; It was forbidden to dance the waltz, wear sideburns, etc.
Only one law of Paul had important consequences for government and the country. In 1797, the “Institution on the Imperial Family” was adopted, which regulated the order of succession to the throne (from father to eldest son). In addition, it should be noted the activities of the “Commission for the Drafting of Laws of the Russian Empire,” transformed from the inactive Catherine Commission. She was given the task of streamlining Russian legislation. During the reign of Paul I, this commission collected extensive legislative material and drew up preliminary plans for the codification of laws.
Abrupt turns in domestic and foreign policy, restrictions on the privileges of the nobility aroused dissatisfaction with Paul, primarily in St. Petersburg society. One after another, conspiracies were brewing. Finally, on the night of 11 on March 12, 1801 a group of conspirators killed the king. Paul's eldest son, Alexander, who knew about the conspiracy against his father, became emperor.
OPINIONS OF HISTORIANS
Most pre-revolutionary historians defined this period as a “reign of fear,” when the struggle against class privileges led to a sharp limitation of basic human rights, and order and discipline depended on the whim of the autocrat. Paul's policy was characterized as a desire to do everything in defiance of Catherine. A number of historians even considered Pavel Petrovich crazy (S.F. Platonov, M.K. Lyubavsky, etc.). Although the opposite view was also expressed. YES. Milyutin noted the importance of Paul's military reforms in establishing order in the administration of the army. M.V. Klochkov painted the image of Paul as a noble knight, a defender of the common people, whom the nobility disliked. Some romantic flair to Paul’s personality was given by his passion for medieval chivalry, as well as direct analogies between him and Shakespeare’s Hamlet (“Russian Hamlet” is about him).
Soviet historiography, noting the eccentricity in Paul's behavior, rejecting the pre-revolutionary point of view on the broad nature of repressions against the nobility, generally considered the government policy of that time to be a continuation of the previous, pro-noble and serfdom, although by slightly different means (S.B. Okun). N.Ya. Eidelman called Paul's policy "unenlightened absolutism."
A number of modern historians (E.V. Anisimov, E.V. Kamensky) view Paul’s policies as contradictory, and the emperor himself as one of the most mysterious figures in Russian history. Clearly apological works also appeared, for example, G.L. Obolensky.
Church in the 18th century
Reforming the state, Peter I could not help but affect the church. As the bearer of the state idea, Peter did not allow the independence of the clergy, among whom there were a significant number of opponents of the reforms. His associate in reforming the church was Feofan Prokopovich.
Patriarch Adrian died in 1700. Peter did not want the election of a new patriarch and appointed the Western Russian Metropolitan Stefan Yavorsky, devoted to him, as locum tenens of the patriarchal throne. IN 1718 When orders were replaced by collegiums, the Spiritual Collegium, or the Holy Synod, was created (see. Synod), who replaced the patriarchate. With the establishment of the Synod, the church was finally included in the system of the state apparatus and subordinated to autocratic power.
In addition, Peter transferred the monastery administration into the hands of officials. Without a royal decree, it was forbidden to tonsure new novices as monks and nuns. And men under the age of 30 were generally forbidden to be accepted into monasteries. In Peter's time, the natural decline of monks was filled, as a rule, by retired soldiers.
At the beginning of the reign of Catherine II, a secularization church lands. Land holdings were confiscated from churches and monasteries in favor of the state. About 2 million so-called monastic peasants were transferred from the jurisdiction of the clergy to the management of the College of Economy. Previously, the peasants belonging to the clergy began to be called economic (managed by the College of Economy), and later they were transferred to the category state peasants. Their situation improved somewhat, since the government replaced their corvée with a monetary quitrent in favor of the state, which unleashed the economic initiative of the peasantry. In addition, part of the monastery land was transferred to economic peasants.
Thus, in the 18th century, the political and economic struggle between the “priesthood” and the “kingdom” ended in favor of the latter.
Personalities
Catherine II the Great (née Sophia Frederica Augusta of Anhalt-Zerbst) (1729–1796)- Russian empress in 1762–1796. Originally from Prussia. Father - Prince Christian August, general of the Prussian service. Mother - Princess Johanna Elisabeth, née Princess of Schleswig-Holstein. She arrived in Russia in February 1744 at the invitation of Elizabeth Petrovna to marry the heir to the throne, Pyotr Fedorovich. Converted to Orthodoxy. She got married in August 1745. In 1754 she gave birth to a son, Paul (the future Emperor Paul I). My relationship with my husband was tense. In the summer of 1762, he repeatedly stated the need to send his wife to a monastery. Catherine led a conspiracy of the guards and overthrew Peter III, proclaiming herself the ruling empress. Catherine II was well educated and maintained correspondence with the most prominent representatives of European culture. She provided all possible assistance to the development of culture, science, and education in Russia. She was an intelligent, businesslike, energetic, ambitious and cunning woman. Already on the throne, she repeatedly declared that she was the successor of Peter I; emphasized her “Russianness”; showed piety; improved her knowledge of the Russian language; emphasized the need to follow the best traditions of the people. Realizing that she did not have “blood” rights to the throne, she sought to rely on the upper strata of the nobility and clergy. Fearing the rightful contender for the throne - her son Paul (from the point of view of the traditions of succession to the throne), she kept her son at a respectful distance from the throne throughout her reign. With the birth of her grandson, Alexandra repeatedly announced her intention to transfer power to him, bypassing her son.
In the first years of her reign, Catherine II sought to pursue a policy of “enlightened absolutism.” In 1765, through the Free Economic Society she created, the empress announced a competition for the best solution to the question of the possible liberation of peasants from serfdom; in 1766 the Statutory Commission was convened to prepare a new set of laws for the state. However, due to the outbreak of the Russian-Turkish War (1768), the commission was dissolved and was no longer convened. After Pugachev's Peasant War, and then the Great French Revolution, the regime tightened and repressions intensified.
In the field of foreign policy, the reign of Catherine II was a time of significant expansion of the Russian Empire through the annexation of Crimea, the Northern Black Sea region, the Baltic states, Poland, the Aleutian Islands, the creation of Russian settlements in Alaska, and the taking under the protection of Eastern Georgia. The prestige of Russia in Europe under Catherine the Great grew enormously.
The reign of the empress was one of the most brilliant in the history of Russia. It intertwined into a single whole the growth of the country's power, its influence on international affairs, the cruelest feudal exploitation of the people, greatness - and internal emptiness, splendor and poverty.
Kosciuszko Tadeusz (1746–1817)– leader of the Polish uprising of 1794. Participant in the War of Independence in North America.
Orlov Alexey Grigorievich (1737–1808)- statesman and military leader. Admiral General, Count, active participant in the 1762 coup that brought Catherine II to the throne. He was one of the most influential political figures at court. In 1768–1769 developed a plan for a naval expedition against Turkey and was placed at the head of a Russian squadron sent to the Mediterranean Sea. After the naval victory over the Turks at Chesme (1770), as commander-in-chief of the fleet, he received the title of Prince of Chesme. Since 1775 - retired. A man of extraordinary talents and abilities. He bred the famous breed of Oryol trotters. After Paul I came to power, he emigrated abroad. He returned to Russia after his death in 1801.
Orlov Grigory Grigorievich (1734–1783)- military and statesman. Favorite of Catherine II. He headed the palace coup of 1762, which brought Catherine II to power. After the coup - chamberlain, count, general-feldzeichmeister (artillery commander). In 1771 he led the suppression of the “Plague Riot” in Moscow. He was the initiator of the establishment and the first president of the Free Economic Society (1765). In 1775 he retired and went abroad.
Paul I (1754–1801)- Russian Emperor in 1796–1801. Son of Peter III and Catherine II. He was educated at the court of Elizabeth Petrovna, who saw in him the future heir to the throne. Pavel's main teacher was N.I. Panin. In 1773, Paul married the Princess of Hesse-Darmstadt, and after her death, Princess Sophia of Württemberg (in Orthodoxy Maria Feodorovna). He had sons Alexander, Konstantin, Nikolai, Mikhail and daughters Alexandra, Elena, Maria, Ekaterina, Olga, Anna. Catherine II actually removed her son from government affairs and temporarily removed him from the capital, sending him on a long honeymoon trip around Europe, and then gave him Gatchina, where he lived since 1783, having his own court and a small army.
After the death of his mother and accession to the throne, Paul began a radical breakdown of everything that had been created by Catherine II. Many of her closest associates fell into disgrace. Others convicted under Catherine (including A.N. Radishchev, N.I. Novikov, T. Kostyushko) were returned from places of imprisonment and exile. At the same time, the general direction of domestic policy has not changed. The army was rebuilt according to the Prussian model. Strict censorship was introduced, private printing houses were closed, and the import of foreign books was prohibited.
In the field of foreign policy, Paul I continued the course of Catherine II to combat the pernicious influence of the French Revolution. Under him, the heroic Italian and Swiss campaigns of the Russian army took place under the command of A.V. Suvorov, who fought together with Russia's allies against Napoleonic France.
The unexpected rapprochement with France and the severance of relations with England hit the incomes of the nobles, since the bulk of exported agricultural products, the main suppliers of which were landowners, went to England.
The aggravation of relations between the emperor and the nobility led to a conspiracy against Paul. On March 12, 1801, the last palace coup in Russian history took place. Paul I was killed in Mikhailovsky Castle.
Panin Nikita Ivanovich (1718–1783)- statesman, diplomat, count. He took part in the palace coup of 1762 and the enthronement of Catherine II. Educator of Tsarevich Pavel Petrovich. Headed the College of Foreign Affairs (1763–1781). Supporter of the relative limitation of the autocratic power of Catherine II. Since 1781 - retired.
Panin Petr Ivanovich (1721–1789)- military leader, general-in-chief, brother of N.I. Panina. Graph. Participant of the Seven Years and Russian-Turkish Wars. In 1774, he was appointed commander of the troops aimed at suppressing the Pugachev uprising.
Potemkin Grigory Alexandrovich (1739–1791) – major statesman and military figure. Field Marshal General. Favorite of Catherine II. Originally from the small landed nobility of the Smolensk province. Participant in the palace coup of 1762. Distinguished himself in a number of major battles of the Russian-Turkish War (1768–1774). Since 1774 - General-in-Chief and Vice-President of the Military Collegium, Count. He proved himself to be a talented organizer. In 1774 he participated in the suppression of the Pugachev uprising. In 1775 he initiated the liquidation of the Zaporozhye Sich and its troops as potential centers of social tension. In 1776 he was appointed governor-general of the Novorossiysk, Azov and Astrakhan provinces (the entire south of Russia). In 1783 he achieved the annexation of Crimea to Russia, for which he received the title of His Serene Highness Prince of Tauride; led the creation of the Black Sea Fleet. During the Russian-Turkish War (1787–1791) - commander-in-chief of the Russian army. He died in the midst of peace negotiations with Turkey (in Iasi). Under the command of Potemkin there were such outstanding commanders as P.A. Rumyantsev and A.V. Suvorov, naval commander F.F. Ushakov.
Pugachev Emelyan Ivanovich (1740 or 1742–1775)- was born in the village of Zimoveyskaya on the Don, in a family of poor Cossacks. From the age of 17 he took part in the wars with Prussia and Turkey, and received the junior officer rank of cornet for bravery in battle. Pugachev more than once acted as a petitioner from peasants and ordinary Cossacks, for which he was arrested by the authorities. In 1773, he escaped from a Kazan prison to Yaik (Ural), where he introduced himself to the local Cossacks as Emperor Peter III. Under this name, he raised an uprising of the Yaik Cossacks in August 1773 and showed outstanding military and organizational skills. In September 1774, the conspirators handed Pugachev over to the authorities. He was executed on Bolotnaya Square in Moscow.
Rumyantsev Pyotr Alexandrovich (1725–1796)- outstanding Russian commander, field marshal general, count. He began his military journey in 1741 during the Russian-Swedish war. P.A. Rumyantsev, as a commander, was one of the creators of new forms of combat. Outstanding military theorist. He wrote a number of works that not only served as teaching aids, but also influenced the creation of regulations for the Russian army.
Spiridov Grigory Andreevich (1713–1790)- military leader, admiral. From an officer's family. In the fleet since 1723, he sailed in the Caspian, Azov, White and Baltic seas. From 1741 - commander of the battleship. Participant in the Russian-Turkish War (1735–1739), the Seven Years' War (1756–1763) and the Russian-Turkish War (1768–1774). Since 1762 - rear admiral. He made a great contribution to the development of Russian naval art.
Suvorov Alexander Vasilievich (1730–1800)- great Russian commander of the 18th century, Count of Rymniksky (1789), Prince of Italy (1799), Generalissimo (1799). In 1742 he was enrolled in the Semenovsky Guards Regiment. He began serving there as a corporal in 1748. He was a participant in the Seven Years' War. During the Russian-Turkish wars (1768–1774 and 1787–1791) he won a number of high-profile victories. In 1799, he brilliantly conducted the Italian and Swiss campaigns, defeating the French troops, and then crossed the Swiss Alps and escaped encirclement. For the most difficult campaign in Switzerland he was awarded the rank of generalissimo. He was soon dismissed. Died in exile. Suvorov is the author of the military theoretical works “Regimental Establishment” and “The Science of Victory.” He created an original and progressive system of views on methods of warfare and combat, education and training of troops, in many ways ahead of his time. The commander's strategy was offensive in nature and the main goal was the complete defeat of the enemy in a field battle. Suvorov was an enemy of the dogmatic, formulaic approach to military affairs. During his military career in the active army, he did not lose a single battle.
Ushakov Fedor Fedorovich (1745–1817)- outstanding Russian naval commander, admiral (1799). He graduated from the Naval Cadet Corps in 1766. He served in the Baltic Fleet. During the Russian-Turkish war of 1787–1791. commanded the battleship St. Paul. In 1788, the vanguard of the Black Sea squadron, led by him, played a decisive role in the victory at Fr. Fidonisi over the Turkish fleet. Since 1789 - rear admiral. Since 1793 - vice admiral. During the war against France (1798–1800), he led the expedition of a military squadron to the Mediterranean Sea. Never lost a single naval battle. Since 1807 - retired. In 2001, the Russian Orthodox Church canonized him.