First World War 1914–1918 was caused by the aggravation of contradictions between the leading powers of the world in the struggle for the redistribution of spheres of influence and investment of capital. 38 states with a population of more than 1.5 billion people were involved in the war. The reason for the war was the assassination of the heir to the Austrian throne, Archduke Ferdinand, in Sarajevo. By the beginning of the war, Germany had 8 armies (about 1.8 million people), France - 5 armies (about 1.3 million people), Russia - 6 armies (more than 1 million people), Austria-Hungary - 5 armies and 2 army groups (more than 1 million people). Military actions covered the territory of Europe, Asia and Africa. The main land fronts were the Western (French) and Eastern (Russian), the main naval theaters of military operations were the North, Mediterranean, Baltic and Black Seas.

On the Russian side, World War I, 1914–1918. was carried out in order to counter the expansionist policies of Germany and Austria-Hungary, protect the Serbian and other Slavic peoples, and strengthen Russia’s position in the Balkans and the Caucasus. Russia's allies in the war were England, France and other Entente countries, the main allies of Germany and Austria-Hungary were Turkey and Bulgaria. During the war, the Russian command deployed 5 fronts and 16 armies. In 1914, Russian troops failed in the East Prussian operation against German troops, and successfully acted in the Battle of Galicia against Austria-Hungary and the Sarykamysh operation against the Turks.

Having failed to bring France out of the war, Germany inflicted the main blow on the Eastern Front (Gorlitsky breakthrough) in 1915, but by October Russian troops managed to stabilize the front line. A period of positional struggle began (as before on the Western Front). In 1916, the troops of the Russian Southwestern Front carried out a successful offensive against the Austro-Hungarian troops (Brusilovsky breakthrough), but it did not lead the armed struggle out of the positional deadlock. After the February Revolution of 1917 in Russia, the summer offensive of Russian troops was the last attempt by the Provisional Government to be active in a war that was unpopular with the people and the army.

The October Revolution brought Russia out of the war, but this subsequently resulted in major territorial losses in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, concluded between Russia and Germany on March 3, 1918. The pressure of the combined forces of the Entente countries and the growth of revolutionary sentiment in Germany and Austria-Hungary led to the capitulation of the latter in November 1918 .

The total losses in the war were 9.5 million killed and 20 million wounded.

During the war, the Russian army conducted five campaigns. The most significant battles and operations involving Russian troops are given below.

Battle of Galicia (1914)

The Battle of Galicia is a strategic offensive operation of the troops of the Southwestern Front under the command of General N.I. Ivanova was carried out against the Austro-Hungarian troops on August 5 – September 8, 1914. The offensive zone of the Russian troops was 320–400 km. As a result of the operation, Russian troops occupied Galicia and the Austrian part of Poland, creating the threat of an invasion of Hungary and Silesia. This forced the German command to transfer some troops from the Western to the Eastern theater of operations.

Warsaw-Ivangorod offensive operation (1914)

The Warsaw-Ivangorod offensive operation was carried out by the forces of the North-Western and South-Western fronts against the 9th German and 1st Austro-Hungarian armies from September 15 to October 26, 1914. In oncoming battles, Russian troops stopped the enemy’s advance, and then, in a counteroffensive, they threw him back to their original positions. Large losses (up to 50%) of the Austro-German troops forced the German command to transfer part of their forces from the Western to the Eastern Front and weaken their attacks against Russia’s allies.

Alashkert operation (1915)

The Alashkert operation was carried out by Russian troops in the Caucasian theater of military operations from June 26 to July 21, 1915. From July 9 to July 21, the strike force of the 3rd Turkish Army pushed back the main forces of the 4th Corps of the Caucasian Army and created a threat of breaking through its defenses. However, Russian troops launched a counterattack on the left flank and rear of the enemy, who, fearing an encirclement, began to hastily retreat. As a result, the plan of the Turkish command to break through the defense of the Caucasian Army in the Kara direction was thwarted.

Erzurum operation (1915–1916)

The Erzurum operation was carried out by the forces of the Russian Caucasian Army under the command of Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich on December 28, 1915 - February 3, 1916. The goal of the operation was to capture the city and fortress of Erzurum, defeat the 3rd Turkish Army before reinforcements arrived. The Caucasian army broke through the heavily fortified defenses of the Turkish troops, and then, with attacks on directions converging from the north, east and south, stormed Erzurum, throwing the enemy 70–100 km to the west. Success in the operation was achieved thanks to the correct choice of the direction of the main attack, careful preparation of the offensive, and extensive maneuver of forces and means.

Brusilovsky breakthrough (1916)

In March 1916, at the conference of the Entente powers in Chantilly, the actions of the allied forces in the upcoming summer campaign were agreed upon. In accordance with this, the Russian command planned to launch a major offensive on all fronts in mid-June 1916. The main blow was to be delivered by the troops of the Western Front from the Molodechno region to Vilno, with auxiliary strikes by the Northern Front from the Dvinsk region, and the Southwestern Front from the Rivne region to Lutsk. During the discussion of the campaign plan, differences emerged among the top military leadership. Commander of the Western Front, Infantry General A.E. Evert expressed concern that the front troops would not be able to break through the enemy’s well-prepared engineering defenses. Recently appointed commander of the Southwestern Front, cavalry general A.A. Brusilov, on the contrary, insisted on intensifying the actions of his front, whose troops not only can, but also must advance.

At the disposal of A.A. Brusilov there were 4 armies: the 7th - General D.G. Shcherbachev, 8th - General A.M. Kaledin, 9th - General P.A. Lechitsky and 11th - General V.V. Sakharov. The front forces numbered 573 thousand infantry, 60 thousand cavalry, 1770 light and 168 heavy guns. They were opposed by an Austro-German group consisting of: 1st (commander - General P. Puhallo), 2nd (commander - General E. Bem-Ermoli), 4th (commander - Archduke Joseph Ferdinand), 7th (commander - General K. Pflanzer-Baltina) and the South German (commander - Count F. Bothmer) armies, totaling 448 thousand infantry and 27 thousand cavalry, 1300 light and 545 heavy guns. The defense, up to 9 km deep, consisted of two, and in some places three, defensive lines, each of which had two or three lines of continuous trenches.

The Allies, due to the difficult situation of their troops in the Italian theater of operations, in May turned to Russia with a request to speed up the start of the offensive. The headquarters met them halfway and decided to perform 2 weeks ahead of schedule.

The offensive began along the entire front on May 22 with a powerful artillery bombardment, which lasted in different areas from 6 to 46 hours. The greatest success was achieved by the 8th Army, which advanced in the Lutsk direction. After only 3 days, its corps took Lutsk, and by June 2 they defeated the 4th Austro-Hungarian Army. On the left wing of the front in the zone of action of the 7th Army, Russian troops, breaking through the enemy’s defenses, captured the city of Yazlovets. The 9th Army broke through the front in an 11-kilometer sector in the Dobronovac area and defeated the 7th Austro-Hungarian Army, and then liberated all of Bukovina.

The successful actions of the Southwestern Front were supposed to support the troops of the Western Front. But General Evert, citing the incompleteness of the concentration, ordered the offensive to be postponed. The Germans immediately took advantage of this mistake by the Russian command. 4 infantry divisions from France and Italy were transferred to the Kovel area, where units of the 8th Army were supposed to advance. On June 3, German army groups of generals von G. Marwitz and E. Falkenhayn launched a counterattack in the direction of Lutsk. In the Kiselin area, a fierce defensive battle of the Southwestern Front began with the German army group of General A. Linsingen.

Since June 12, there was a forced lull on the Southwestern Front. The offensive resumed on June 20. After a powerful shelling, the 8th and 3rd Russian armies broke through the enemy's defenses. The 11th and 7th armies attacking in the center did not achieve much success. Units of the 9th Army captured the city of Delyatin.

When, at last, Headquarters realized that the success of the campaign was being decided on the Southwestern Front, and transferred reserves there, time had already been lost. The enemy concentrated large forces in this direction. The special army (commander - General V.M. Bezobrazov), which consisted of selected guards units and on whose help Nicholas II really counted, in fact turned out to be ineffective due to the low combat skills of the officers. The fighting became protracted, and by mid-September the front had finally stabilized.

The offensive operation of the troops of the Southwestern Front was completed. It lasted more than 100 days. Despite the fact that the initial success was not used by the Headquarters to achieve a decisive result on the entire front, the operation was of great strategic importance. The Austro-Hungarian army in Galicia and Bukovina suffered complete defeat. Its total losses amounted to about 1.5 million people. Russian troops alone captured 8,924 officers and 408 thousand soldiers. 581 guns, 1,795 machine guns, and about 450 bomb throwers and mortars were captured. The losses of Russian troops amounted to about 500 thousand people. To eliminate the breakthrough, the enemy was forced to transfer 34 infantry and cavalry divisions to the Russian front. This eased the situation for the French at Verdun and the Italians in Trentino. The English historian L. Hart wrote: “Russia sacrificed itself for the sake of its allies, and it is unfair to forget that the allies are Russia’s unpaid debtors for this.” The immediate result of the fighting on the Southwestern Front was Romania's renunciation of neutrality and its accession to the Entente.

The First World War 1914-1918, an imperialist war between two coalitions of capitalist powers for the redivision of an already divided world, the redistribution of colonies, spheres of influence and investment of capital, the enslavement of other peoples.

First, the war involved 8 European countries: Germany and Austria-Hungary, on the one hand, Great Britain, France, Russia, Belgium, Serbia and Montenegro, on the other. Later, most countries of the world were involved in it. In total, 4 states participated in the war on the side of the Austro-German bloc, and 34 states on the side of the Entente (including 4 British dominions and the colony of India, which signed the Versailles Peace Treaty of 1919).

By nature there was a war aggressive and unfair at both sides; only in Belgium, Serbia, and Montenegro did it include elements of the national liberation war.

In starting a war The imperialists of all countries participated, but the main culprit was the German bourgeoisie, which began the P. m. century. in “... the most convenient moment, from its point of view, for war, using its latest improvements in military technology and preventing new weapons already planned and predetermined by Russia and France” (Lenin V.I., Complete collection of works. , 5th ed., vol. 26, p. 16).

The reason for P. m.v. was the assassination of the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, Archduke Franz Ferdinand, on June 15 (28), 1914 in Sarajevo (Bosnia) by Serbian nationalists. The German imperialists decided to use the favorable moment to start a war. Under pressure from Germany, Austria-Hungary presented an ultimatum to Serbia on July 10 (23) and, despite the agreement of the Serbian government to fulfill almost all of its demands, broke off diplomatic relations with it on July 12 (25), and declared war on it on July 15 (28). The capital of Serbia, Belgrade, came under artillery fire. On July 16 (29), Russia began mobilization in the military districts bordering Austria-Hungary, and on July 17 (30) announced general mobilization. On July 18 (31), Germany demanded that Russia stop mobilization and, having received no response, declared war on it on July 19 (August 1). July 21 (August 3) Germany declared war on France and Belgium; On July 22 (August 4), Great Britain declared war on Germany, along with which its dominions - Canada, Australia, New Zealand, the Union of South Africa and the largest colony of India - entered the war. On August 10 (23), Japan declared war on Germany. Italy, formally remaining part of the Triple Alliance, declared its neutrality on July 20 (August 2), 1914.

Causes of the war . At the turn of the 19th-20th centuries. capitalism developed into imperialism. The world was almost completely divided between the largest powers. The uneven economic and political development of countries has increased. The states that entered the path of capitalist development later than others (the USA, Germany, Japan) quickly moved forward and pushed the old capitalist countries - Great Britain and France - out of world markets, persistently seeking the redistribution of colonies. The most acute contradictions arose between Germany and Great Britain, whose interests clashed in many areas of the globe, but especially in Africa, East Asia and the Middle East. The contradictions between Germany and France were deep. Their sources were the desire of the German capitalists to forever secure Alsace and Lorraine, taken from France as a result of the Franco-Prussian War of 1870-1871, and the determination of the French to return these areas. The interests of France and Germany also clashed in the colonial issue. From the end of the 19th century. Russian-German contradictions grew. The expansion of German imperialism in the Middle East and its attempts to establish control over Turkey affected the economic, political and military-strategic interests of Russia. Deep contradictions existed between Russia and Austria-Hungary in the Balkans. Their main reason was the expansion of the Habsburg monarchy, supported by Germany, into the neighboring South Slavic lands - Bosnia, Herzegovina and Serbia in order to establish dominance in the Balkans. Many controversial problems existed between Great Britain and France, Great Britain and Russia, Austria-Hungary and Italy, Turkey and Italy, but they all receded into the background before the main contradictions: between Germany and its rivals - Great Britain, France, Russia.

plans of the parties

The general staffs developed plans for the war long before it broke out. All strategic calculations were focused on the short duration and transience of the future war. German strategic plan provided for quick and decisive action against France and Russia. It was supposed to defeat France within 6-8 weeks, after which it would attack Russia with all its might and victoriously end the war. The bulk of the troops (4/5) were deployed on the western border of Germany and were intended to invade France. Austro-Hungarian Command planned military operations on two fronts: in Galicia - against Russia and in the Balkans - against Serbia and Montenegro. The possibility of forming a front against Italy, which was an unreliable member of the Triple Alliance and could go over to the side of the Entente, was not excluded. The General Staffs of Austria-Hungary and Germany maintained close contact with each other, coordinating their strategic plans. Russian General Staff developed two versions of the war plan, which were offensive in nature. Option “A” provided for the deployment of the main forces of the Russian army against Austria-Hungary, option “D” - against Germany if it would deliver the main blow on the Eastern Front. Option A, which was actually carried out, planned concentric offensives in Galicia and East Prussia.

In general, the human and material resources of the Entente and its allies were many times greater than those of Germany and Austria-Hungary.

Progress of military operations.

1914 –August.

Western Front. German invasion of Belgium and France. Attack on Paris. A threat looms over France. France turned to the Russian government. Russian troops entered the war and this saved France.

September.

Z.F. Battle of the Marne. German retreat. The front line in France has stabilized.

The Schlieffen plan - lightning war - "blitzkrieg" failed, and Germany had to fight in both the West and the East.

November.

Z.F. Stabilization.

1915 - April.

Z.F. German troops repelled the onslaught of Anglo-French troops in Champagne, Artois and Flanders. On the Ypres River, the Germans used chemical weapons for the first time - asphyxiating gases. This was a violation of the Hague Convention.

February

The German leadership began a submarine war against England. They sank all ships going to Great Britain, even from neutral countries. Until January 1916, more than 700 ships with their crews and passengers were destroyed. Great Britain developed effective means of combating submarines; Germany failed to bring England to its knees.

Entry of Italy (On the side of the Entente, May 23): battles along the river. Isonzo, no success. However, the Mediterranean Sea was closed to the Austro-German bloc.

Bulgaria's entry into a bloc with Germany and the Ottoman Empire. With the support of Bulgaria they occupied Serbia.

1916 - February.

Z.F. The beginning of the Battle of Verdun. Germ. the command concentrated 12 divisions and a huge amount of artillery. Franz. keyboard-com Joffre ordered to “stand to the death.” The Verdun meat grinder continued until the beginning of July without interruption and was weakened thanks to the breakthrough of Russian troops (Brusilovsky breakthrough).

July.

Z.F. The beginning of the Anglo-French offensive on the river. Somme. The fierce battle on the Somme turned into a “battle of attrition” and dragged on until the end of autumn. In September the British used tanks for the first time. but they did not achieve serious success.

November.

The end of the Battle of the Somme.

December.

Z.F. The end of the fighting at Verdun.

The final stage of the First World War 1917-1918.

The war required enormous effort from the warring countries. This led to an aggravation of internal contradictions. Russia was the first to fail. As a result of the collapse of the Russian Empire and Russia's withdrawal from the war, the Entente lost a major ally, and Germany, at the expense of Russia, concentrated its forces to achieve victories in the West.

However, the United States, having turned into a creditor of the Entente countries, could not allow their defeat.

Italy Balkans Caucasus and Middle East Africa China and Oceania War at sea

Western Front of World War I
Liege Border Great Retreat Marne (1) Antwerp Running to the sea Flanders Neuve Chapelle Ypres Artois (2) Artois (3) Verdun Somme Arras Vimy Ridge Ena (2) Messina Passchendaele Cambrai Spring Offensive Marne (2) Hundred Day Offensive

Western Front- one of the fronts of the First World War.

This front covered the territory of Belgium, Luxembourg, Alsace, Lorraine, the Rhineland provinces of Germany, as well as northeastern France. The length of the front from the Scheldt River to the Swiss border was 480 km, in depth - 500 km, from the Rhine to Calais. The western part of the theater of military operations was a plain with an extensive road network, convenient for the operations of large military formations; the eastern part is predominantly mountainous (Ardennes, Argonne, Vosges) limited the freedom of maneuver of troops. A special feature of the Western Front was its industrial importance (coal mines, iron ore, developed manufacturing industry).

The German command took the French fortifications on the Franco-German border very seriously; back in 1905, Schlieffen wrote:

France should be considered as a great fortress. In the outer belt of fortifications, the Belfort - Verdun section is almost impregnable...

Belgian fortresses were also of great strategic importance: Liege, Namur, Antwerp.

With the beginning of mobilization, the parties began to transfer troops to deployment areas. The German command deployed 7 armies and 4 cavalry corps, up to 5,000 guns, against France; in total, the group of German troops numbered 1,600,000 people. The German command planned to deliver a crushing blow to France through Belgian territory. However, despite the fact that the main attention of the German command was focused on the invasion of Belgium, the Germans took all measures to prevent the French army, advancing in Alsace-Lorraine, from capturing this region.

German troops were opposed by French, Belgian and British troops. The French army was deployed in five armies and one cavalry corps, with 4,000 guns. The number of French troops was 1,300,000 people. In connection with the advance of the German army through Belgium to Paris, the French command had to abandon the “Plan No. 17” envisaged before the war, which involved the capture of Alsace and Lorraine. In this regard, the final locations of the French armies and their composition at the end of August differed significantly from those planned by mobilization “Plan No. 17”.

The Belgian army was deployed in six infantry and one cavalry divisions, with 312 guns. The number of Belgian troops was 117 thousand people.

British troops landed at French ports consisting of two infantry corps and one cavalry division. Only by August 20 did British troops numbering 87 thousand people, with 328 guns, concentrate in the Maubeuge, Le Cateau area. It is worth noting that the allied forces did not have a single command, which had the most negative impact on the actions of the Entente troops.

By the end of the deployment, the forces of the sides were approximately equal in number (1,600,000 German troops versus 1,562,000 Allied troops). However, the strategic initiative was on the side of the Germans. Their deployed troops represented an almost closed concentrated force. The Allied troops had an unfortunate location. The front line of the French troops curved from Verdun to the northwest along the French-Belgian border and ended at Irson. British troops were deployed in the Maubeuge area, the Belgian army had its own deployment area.

Balance of forces before the start of the war

Allied armies:

1914 Campaign: German invasion of Belgium and France

Map of the 1914 campaign

In August 1914, the implementation of the adjusted Schlieffen plan began, which envisaged a quick attack on France through Belgian territory, bypassing the French army from the north and encircling it near the border with Germany. On August 2, Luxembourg was occupied without resistance. On August 4, German generals Alexander von Kluck and Karl von Bülow launched an invasion of Belgium, which rejected the demand for German troops to pass through its territory.

The pre-war French "Plan No. 17" called for the capture of Alsace and Lorraine. On August 7, the 1st and 2nd Armies launched an offensive against Saarburg in Lorraine and Mulhouse in Alsace, but on August 14 the troops retreated due to the German advance through Belgium.

Border battle

After the capture of Belgium and Luxembourg, German troops (1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th armies) entered French territory in the second decade of August, where they met the French (3rd, 4th and 5th) and the British army.

In the Ardennes operation, the 3rd and 4th armies were defeated by the 5th and 4th German armies, in the Sambro-Meuse operation, the 5th French army was defeated by the 2nd and 3rd German armies, in the operation at Mons 1 -The German army drove back the British army. On August 20-22, the 1st and 2nd French armies, which launched an offensive in Lorraine on August 14, were defeated by the 6th and 7th German armies.

German troops continued their attack on Paris, winning victories at Le Cateau (August 26), Nelles and Prouillard (August -29), Saint-Quentin and Giza (August 29-30), and reached the Marne River by September 5. Meanwhile, the French formed the 6th and 9th armies, strengthening their troops in this direction, and the Germans in August transferred two corps to East Prussia against the strengthened and mobilized Russian army.

Battle of the Marne

"Running to the Sea"

A positional front was formed from the Swiss border to the Oise River, but in the west there remained free territory to the North Sea. On September 16, three operations of the Anglo-French and German troops began, called “Run to the Sea”: -September 28, an attempt by the 2nd French Army between the Oise and Somme rivers; September 29 - October 9 attempt by the French 10th Army on the Scarpe River; -15 October attempt by the British army on the River Lys. During the operations, both sides tried to bypass the enemy's flanks, but after stubborn battles they went on the defensive.

In February-March, the French organized an attack in Champagne, but advanced only 460 meters, losing 50 thousand people.

Air battles

Main article: Aviation in the First World War

Aircraft production grew at a high rate: if at the beginning of the war England and France had 186 aircraft, Germany and Austria-Hungary - 297, then by the end of the war the parties had, respectively, 5079 and 3352 aircraft (27 and 11 times more).

Further military actions

Ruins of Carenci after being taken by the French

Masking the machine gun position. 1915

The last Allied attack in the spring of 1915 was the Battle of Artois to capture the Vimy Ridge. The French 10th Army, after a six-day bombardment, launched an offensive on May 9 and advanced 5 km. However, the troops retreated after the Germans used artillery. By May 15, the offensive was stopped.

In September, the Allies launched a major offensive (Third Battle of Artois): French troops in Champagne and British troops in Los. The French spent the summer preparing for a future offensive. On September 22, the bombing of targets began, the location of which was determined using aerial photography. The main offensive began on September 25 and developed successfully, despite the presence of wire obstacles and machine gun points. However, the Germans, anticipating this attack, strengthened their defense lines and were able to repel the attack, which lasted until November.

1916 Campaign: Bleeding the Troops

According to the plan of the Chief of the General Staff, Erich von Falkenhayn, Germany was to conduct the main military operations in 1916 with France, forcing it to capitulate.

Two strategies were adopted. The first provided for the unlimited use of the submarine fleet to cut off foreign supplies. The goal of the second strategy was to launch a targeted strike against enemy ground forces instead of a large-scale breakthrough of the front. To inflict maximum losses, it was planned to organize an attack on important strategic positions. The target of the main attack was the Verdun ledge, which was the support of the French front, located near the border with Germany and threatened German communications. The operation was planned with the expectation that the French, out of a sense of patriotism, would defend the city to the last soldier.

Battle of Verdun

To carry out the operation, Germany concentrated 6.5 divisions on a 15-kilometer section of the front against 2 French divisions. The operation began on February 21. During the offensive, the French lost almost all of their forts by February 25, but there was no breakthrough of the front. The Naroch operation of Russian troops on the Eastern Front eased the position of the French troops; the “sacred road” Bar-le-Duc - Verdun was organized to supply the troops.

Since March, the German troops transferred the main blow to the left bank of the river, but by May they had advanced only 6-7 km. A counterattack by French forces in May was unsuccessful.

The actions of Russian troops in the east and the Allied operation on the Somme River allowed French troops to launch an offensive in October, and by the end of December the situation had been largely restored. Both sides suffered huge losses in the Battle of Verdun (about 300 thousand people each), the German command’s plan to break through the French front was not realized.

Battle of the Somme

In the spring of 1916, heavy losses of French troops began to cause concern among the Allies, and therefore the original plan for the Somme operation was changed: British troops were to play the main role in the operation. The operation was supposed to help French and Russian troops.

Having analyzed the air battles over Verdun, the Allies in the battles on the Somme began to adhere to new tactics, the goal of which was complete air superiority over the enemy. The skies over the Somme were cleared of German air power, and the Allied success led to a reorganization of German air power, with both sides using large air force units instead of individual pilots.

British infantry advance near Zhenshi

The battle continued through July and August with some success for the British, despite the strengthening of the German defense line. By August, the British command had decided to move from front-breaking tactics to a series of operations carried out by small military units to straighten the front line in preparation for a massive bombardment.

"Unlimited Submarine Warfare"

Back in 1915, Germany began “unlimited submarine warfare,” but after the sinking of the Lusitania and Arabic ships, there was a danger of the United States entering the war, and submarine warfare began to be waged only against warships. In 1917, according to the plans of the German command, the ground forces were to go on the defensive, and at sea it was decided to start an “unlimited war” again (announced on February 1). Its goal was an economic blockade of Great Britain and, as a consequence, its exit from the war within six months, while US troops could play a significant role on the Western Front only after a year.

By mid-1917, the actions of German submarines caused serious economic damage to Great Britain, but the creation of an anti-submarine defense system reduced the losses of the merchant fleet, and the “unrestricted war” did not bring the desired result.

Nivelle's offensive

By April, the Allies had concentrated significant military resources to carry out the offensive operation: 110 divisions, over 11 thousand guns, 200 tanks, about 1 thousand aircraft. The total number of Allied troops on the Western Front was about 3.9 million against 2.5 million German troops.

Despite the German withdrawal beyond the Hindenburg Line, a large-scale Allied offensive began in April according to Nivelle’s plan. On April 9, British troops went on the offensive in the Arras area (see: Battle of Arras (1917)), on April 12 - near Saint-Quentin, on April 16 - French troops in the Reims area, the offensive continued until the end of April - beginning of May. After taking two lines of defense, the offensive was stopped, the Allied losses amounted to over 200 thousand people, of which 120 thousand were in French troops. The unsuccessful offensive undermined the morale of the French troops, in which mutinies began, involving 54 divisions, and 20 thousand people deserted. The soldiers heeded calls for patriotism and a sense of civic duty and returned to defensive positions, but they refused to go on the attack. In France itself, a wave of public indignation arose, and on May 15, Nivelle was replaced as commander-in-chief by Henri Pétain.

In the winter of 1916-1917, Germany's tactics for conducting air battles changed significantly, a training school was opened in Valenciennes, and new aircraft models entered the troops. The result was German superiority over the Allies in air combat, especially against the poorly trained British, who used outdated aircraft. During an air battle over Arras, the British fought in a month that would go down in history as “Bloody April.” "Bloody April"), lost 245 aircraft and 316 pilots, the Germans lost 66 aircraft and 114 pilots.

Further hostilities

However, as a result of the rapid attack, the infantry fell behind, and the tanks advanced far ahead, suffering serious losses. On November 30, the 2nd German Army launched a surprise counterattack, pushing the Allied forces back to their original lines. Despite repelling the attack, tanks proved their effectiveness in battle, and the battle itself marked the beginning of the widespread use of tanks and the development of anti-tank defense.

Although the Allies did not achieve a breakthrough at the front, the result of the 1917 campaign was the collapse of the German command’s plans to achieve victory through “unlimited submarine warfare” and its transition to strategic defense. The Allied troops took the offensive initiative.

1918 Campaign: Defeat of Germany

Map of the 1918 campaign

German offensive

The first German offensive began on March 21. Superiority in forces (62 divisions, 6824 guns and about 1000 aircraft against 32 divisions, about 3000 guns and about 500 aircraft from the British) allowed the German troops to advance 60 km in the first 8 days of fighting. In response, the Allies brought reserve troops into battle and by April 4 drove back the German troops, inflicting 230 thousand casualties on them.

On April 14, Ferdinand Foch was appointed Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces, which allowed for better coordination of the actions of the British and French armies.

German troops also carried out offensives in the area of the Lys River (April 9 - May 1), the Aisne River (May 27 - June 13), between Montdidier and Noyon (June -13). Each time, the initially successful development of attacks by German troops ended in failure: having advanced several tens of kilometers, they could not overcome the Allied defenses.

On July 15, the last great offensive of German troops began on the Marne River (see: Battle of the Marne (1918)). The troops of the 1st and 3rd armies crossed the river, but were able to advance only 6 km. At the same time, troops of the 7th Army unsuccessfully attacked the 6th French Army at Reims. On July 17, the Allied forces stopped the advance of the German armies and on July 18 launched a counteroffensive, pushing the Germans back to their original positions by August 4.

Allied counter-offensive

Belgian machine gunner on the front line in 1918

-On August 13, the Allies, with the forces of the 4th British, 1st and 3rd French armies, carried out the Amiens operation, during which the Amiens salient, occupied by the 2nd and 18th German armies, was eliminated.

The operation began suddenly, without artillery preparation; With the support of artillery, Allied infantry and tanks advanced 11 km during the first day of the offensive. Ludendorff called August 8 “the black day of the German army.” Over the next five days of the operation, the front line was moved back another 8-9 km.

-September 15, American troops successfully carried out their first major operation - an attack on the Saint-Mihiel salient. In the summer of 1918, 300 thousand American soldiers arrived in Europe every month. By September, their number reached 1.2 million people, and by the end of the war - 2.1 million, which made it possible to eliminate Germany's advantage in manpower, which transferred additional formations from the east.

On September 26, having an advantage over German troops (202 divisions versus 187), the Allies launched a general offensive along the entire front from Verdun to the North Sea. Exhausted by the four-year war, German troops began to surrender. Ludendorff was replaced in October

First World War (1914 - 1918)

The Russian Empire collapsed. One of the goals of the war has been achieved.
Chamberlain

The First World War lasted from August 1, 1914 to November 11, 1918. 38 states with a population of 62% of the world took part in it. This war was quite controversial and extremely contradictory in modern history. I specifically quoted Chamberlain’s words in the epigraph in order to once again emphasize this inconsistency. A prominent politician in England (Russia's war ally) says that by overthrowing the autocracy in Russia one of the goals of the war has been achieved!

The Balkan countries played a major role in the beginning of the war. They were not independent. Their policies (both foreign and domestic) were greatly influenced by England. Germany had by that time lost its influence in this region, although it controlled Bulgaria for a long time.

Entente. Russian Empire, France, Great Britain. The allies were the USA, Italy, Romania, Canada, Australia, and New Zealand.
Triple Alliance. Germany, Austria-Hungary, Ottoman Empire. Later they were joined by the Bulgarian kingdom, and the coalition became known as the “Quadruple Alliance”.

The following large countries took part in the war: Austria-Hungary (July 27, 1914 - November 3, 1918), Germany (August 1, 1914 - November 11, 1918), Turkey (October 29, 1914 - October 30, 1918), Bulgaria (October 14, 1915 - 29 September 1918). Entente countries and allies: Russia (August 1, 1914 - March 3, 1918), France (August 3, 1914), Belgium (August 3, 1914), Great Britain (August 4, 1914), Italy (May 23, 1915), Romania (August 27, 1916) .

One more important point. Initially, Italy was a member of the Triple Alliance. But after the outbreak of World War I, the Italians declared neutrality.

Causes of the First World War

The main reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the desire of the leading powers, primarily England, France and Austria-Hungary, to redistribute the world. The fact is that the colonial system collapsed by the beginning of the 20th century. The leading European countries, which had prospered for years through the exploitation of their colonies, could no longer simply obtain resources by taking them away from Indians, Africans and South Americans. Now resources could only be won from each other. Therefore, contradictions grew:

Between England and Germany. England sought to prevent Germany from increasing its influence in the Balkans. Germany sought to strengthen itself in the Balkans and the Middle East, and also sought to deprive England of maritime dominance.
Between Germany and France. France dreamed of regaining the lands of Alsace and Lorraine, which it had lost in the war of 1870-71. France also sought to seize the German Saar coal basin.
Between Germany and Russia. Germany sought to take Poland, Ukraine and the Baltic states from Russia.
Between Russia and Austria-Hungary. Controversies arose due to the desire of both countries to influence the Balkans, as well as Russia's desire to subjugate the Bosporus and Dardanelles.

The reason for the start of the war

The reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the events in Sarajevo (Bosnia and Herzegovina). On June 28, 1914, Gavrilo Princip, a member of the Black Hand of the Young Bosnia movement, assassinated Archduke Franz Ferdinand. Ferdinand was the heir to the Austro-Hungarian throne, so the resonance of the murder was enormous. This was the pretext for Austria-Hungary to attack Serbia.

The behavior of England is very important here, since Austria-Hungary could not start a war on its own, because this practically guaranteed war throughout Europe. The British at the embassy level convinced Nicholas 2 that Russia should not leave Serbia without help in the event of aggression. But then the entire (I emphasize this) English press wrote that the Serbs were barbarians and Austria-Hungary should not leave the murder of the Archduke unpunished. That is, England did everything to ensure that Austria-Hungary, Germany and Russia did not shy away from war.

Important nuances of the casus belli

In all textbooks we are told that the main and only reason for the outbreak of the First World War was the assassination of the Austrian Archduke. At the same time, they forget to say that the next day, June 29, another significant murder took place. The French politician Jean Jaurès, who actively opposed the war and had great influence in France, was killed. A few weeks before the assassination of the Archduke, there was an attempt on the life of Rasputin, who, like Zhores, was an opponent of the war and had great influence on Nicholas 2. I would also like to note some facts from the fate of the main characters of those days:

Gavrilo Principin. Died in prison in 1918 from tuberculosis.
The Russian Ambassador to Serbia is Hartley. In 1914 he died at the Austrian embassy in Serbia, where he came for a reception.
Colonel Apis, leader of the Black Hand. Shot in 1917.
In 1917, Hartley’s correspondence with Sozonov (the next Russian ambassador to Serbia) disappeared.

This all indicates that in the events of the day there were a lot of black spots that have not yet been revealed. And this is very important to understand.

England's role in starting the war

At the beginning of the 20th century, there were 2 great powers in continental Europe: Germany and Russia. They did not want to openly fight against each other, since their forces were approximately equal. Therefore, in the “July crisis” of 1914, both sides took a wait-and-see approach. British diplomacy came to the fore. She conveyed her position to Germany through the press and secret diplomacy - in the event of war, England would remain neutral or take Germany's side. Through open diplomacy, Nicholas 2 received the opposite idea that if war broke out, England would take the side of Russia.

It must be clearly understood that one open statement from England that it would not allow war in Europe would be enough for neither Germany nor Russia to even think about anything like that. Naturally, under such conditions, Austria-Hungary would not have dared to attack Serbia. But England, with all its diplomacy, pushed European countries towards war.

Russia before the war

Before the First World War, Russia carried out army reform. In 1907, a reform of the fleet was carried out, and in 1910, a reform of the ground forces. The country increased military spending many times over, and the total peacetime army size was now 2 million. In 1912, Russia adopted a new Field Service Charter. Today it is rightly called the most perfect Charter of its time, since it motivated soldiers and commanders to show personal initiative. Important point! The doctrine of the army of the Russian Empire was offensive.

Despite the fact that there were many positive changes, there were also very serious miscalculations. The main one is the underestimation of the role of artillery in war. As the course of events of the First World War showed, this was a terrible mistake, which clearly showed that at the beginning of the 20th century, Russian generals were seriously behind the times. They lived in the past, when the role of cavalry was important. As a result, 75% of all losses in the First World War were caused by artillery! This is a verdict on the imperial generals.

It is important to note that Russia never completed preparations for war (at the proper level), while Germany completed it in 1914.

The balance of forces and means before and after the war

Artillery

	Number of guns	Of these, heavy guns


Austria-Hungary
Germany

According to the data from the table, it is clear that Germany and Austria-Hungary were many times superior to Russia and France in heavy weapons. Therefore, the balance of power was in favor of the first two countries. Moreover, the Germans, as usual, created an excellent military industry before the war, which produced 250,000 shells daily. By comparison, Britain produced 10,000 shells per month! As they say, feel the difference...

Another example showing the importance of artillery is the battles on the Dunajec Gorlice line (May 1915). In 4 hours, the German army fired 700,000 shells. For comparison, during the entire Franco-Prussian War (1870-71), Germany fired just over 800,000 shells. That is, in 4 hours a little less than during the entire war. The Germans clearly understood that heavy artillery would play a decisive role in the war.

Weapons and military equipment

Production of weapons and equipment during the First World War (thousands of units).

	Strelkovoe	Artillery



Great Britain
TRIPLE ALLIANCE
Germany
Austria-Hungary

This table clearly shows the weakness of the Russian Empire in terms of equipping the army. In all main indicators, Russia is much inferior to Germany, but also inferior to France and Great Britain. Largely because of this, the war turned out to be so difficult for our country.

Number of people (infantry)

Number of fighting infantry (millions of people).

	At the beginning of the war	By the end of the war	Casualties



Great Britain
TRIPLE ALLIANCE
Germany
Austria-Hungary

The table shows that Great Britain made the smallest contribution to the war, both in terms of combatants and deaths. This is logical, since the British did not really participate in major battles. Another example from this table is instructive. All textbooks tell us that Austria-Hungary, due to large losses, could not fight on its own, and it always needed help from Germany. But notice Austria-Hungary and France in the table. The numbers are identical! Just as Germany had to fight for Austria-Hungary, so Russia had to fight for France (it is no coincidence that the Russian army saved Paris from capitulation three times during the First World War).

The table also shows that in fact the war was between Russia and Germany. Both countries lost 4.3 million killed, while Britain, France and Austria-Hungary together lost 3.5 million. The numbers are eloquent. But it turned out that the countries that fought the most and made the most effort in the war ended up with nothing. First, Russia signed the shameful Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, losing many lands. Then Germany signed the Treaty of Versailles, essentially losing its independence.

Progress of the war

Military events of 1914

July 28 Austria-Hungary declares war on Serbia. This entailed the involvement of the countries of the Triple Alliance, on the one hand, and the Entente, on the other hand, into the war.

Russia entered World War I on August 1, 1914. Nikolai Nikolaevich Romanov (Uncle of Nicholas 2) was appointed Supreme Commander-in-Chief.

In the first days of the war, St. Petersburg was renamed Petrograd. Since the war with Germany began, the capital could not have a name of German origin - “burg”.
Historical reference

German "Schlieffen Plan"

Germany found itself under the threat of war on two fronts: Eastern - with Russia, Western - with France. Then the German command developed the “Schlieffen Plan”, according to which Germany should defeat France in 40 days and then fight with Russia. Why 40 days? The Germans believed that this was exactly what Russia would need to mobilize. Therefore, when Russia mobilizes, France will already be out of the game.

On August 2, 1914, Germany captured Luxembourg, on August 4 they invaded Belgium (a neutral country at that time), and by August 20 Germany reached the borders of France. The implementation of the Schlieffen Plan began. Germany advanced deep into France, but on September 5 it was stopped at the Marne River, where a battle took place in which about 2 million people took part on both sides.

Northwestern Front of Russia in 1914

At the beginning of the war, Russia did something stupid that Germany could not calculate. Nicholas 2 decided to enter the war without fully mobilizing the army. On August 4, Russian troops, under the command of Rennenkampf, launched an offensive in East Prussia (modern Kaliningrad). Samsonov's army was equipped to help her. Initially, the troops acted successfully, and Germany was forced to retreat. As a result, part of the forces of the Western Front was transferred to the Eastern Front. The result - Germany repelled the Russian offensive in East Prussia (the troops acted disorganized and lacked resources), but as a result the Schlieffen plan failed, and France could not be captured. So, Russia saved Paris, albeit by defeating its 1st and 2nd armies. After this, trench warfare began.

Southwestern Front of Russia

On the southwestern front, in August-September, Russia launched an offensive operation against Galicia, which was occupied by troops of Austria-Hungary. The Galician operation was more successful than the offensive in East Prussia. In this battle, Austria-Hungary suffered a catastrophic defeat. 400 thousand people killed, 100 thousand captured. For comparison, the Russian army lost 150 thousand people killed. After this, Austria-Hungary actually withdrew from the war, since it lost the ability to conduct independent actions. Austria was saved from complete defeat only by the help of Germany, which was forced to transfer additional divisions to Galicia.

The main results of the military campaign of 1914

Germany failed to implement the Schlieffen plan for lightning war.
No one managed to gain a decisive advantage. The war turned into a positional one.

Map of military events of 1914-15

Military events of 1915

In 1915, Germany decided to shift the main blow to the eastern front, directing all its forces to the war with Russia, which was the weakest country of the Entente, according to the Germans. It was a strategic plan developed by the commander of the Eastern Front, General von Hindenburg. Russia managed to thwart this plan only at the cost of colossal losses, but at the same time, 1915 turned out to be simply terrible for the empire of Nicholas 2.

Situation on the northwestern front

From January to October, Germany waged an active offensive, as a result of which Russia lost Poland, western Ukraine, part of the Baltic states, and western Belarus. Russia went on the defensive. Russian losses were gigantic:

Killed and wounded - 850 thousand people
Captured - 900 thousand people

Russia did not capitulate, but the countries of the Triple Alliance were convinced that Russia would no longer be able to recover from the losses it had suffered.

Germany's successes on this sector of the front led to the fact that on October 14, 1915, Bulgaria entered the First World War (on the side of Germany and Austria-Hungary).

Situation on the southwestern front

The Germans, together with Austria-Hungary, organized the Gorlitsky breakthrough in the spring of 1915, forcing the entire southwestern front of Russia to retreat. Galicia, which was captured in 1914, was completely lost. Germany was able to achieve this advantage thanks to the terrible mistakes of the Russian command, as well as a significant technical advantage. German superiority in technology reached:

2.5 times in machine guns.
4.5 times in light artillery.
40 times in heavy artillery.

It was not possible to withdraw Russia from the war, but the losses on this section of the front were gigantic: 150 thousand killed, 700 thousand wounded, 900 thousand prisoners and 4 million refugees.

Situation on the Western Front

"Everything is calm on the Western Front." This phrase can describe how the war between Germany and France proceeded in 1915. There were sluggish military operations in which no one sought the initiative. Germany was implementing plans in eastern Europe, and England and France were calmly mobilizing their economy and army, preparing for further war. No one provided any assistance to Russia, although Nicholas 2 repeatedly turned to France, first of all, so that it would take active action on the Western Front. As usual, no one heard him... By the way, this sluggish war on Germany’s western front was perfectly described by Hemingway in the novel “A Farewell to Arms.”

The main result of 1915 was that Germany was unable to bring Russia out of the war, although all efforts were devoted to this. It became obvious that the First World War would drag on for a long time, since during the 1.5 years of the war no one was able to gain an advantage or strategic initiative.

Military events of 1916

"Verdun Meat Grinder"

In February 1916, Germany launched a general offensive against France with the goal of capturing Paris. For this purpose, a campaign was carried out on Verdun, which covered the approaches to the French capital. The battle lasted until the end of 1916. During this time, 2 million people died, for which the battle was called the “Verdun Meat Grinder”. France survived, but again thanks to the fact that Russia came to its rescue, which became more active on the southwestern front.

Events on the southwestern front in 1916

In May 1916, Russian troops went on the offensive, which lasted 2 months. This offensive went down in history under the name “Brusilovsky breakthrough”. This name is due to the fact that the Russian army was commanded by General Brusilov. The breakthrough of the defense in Bukovina (from Lutsk to Chernivtsi) happened on June 5. The Russian army managed not only to break through the defenses, but also to advance into its depths in some places up to 120 kilometers. The losses of the Germans and Austro-Hungarians were catastrophic. 1.5 million dead, wounded and prisoners. The offensive was stopped only by additional German divisions, which were hastily transferred here from Verdun (France) and from Italy.

This offensive of the Russian army was not without a fly in the ointment. As usual, the allies dropped her off. On August 27, 1916, Romania entered the First World War on the side of the Entente. Germany defeated her very quickly. As a result, Romania lost its army, and Russia received an additional 2 thousand kilometers of front.

Events on the Caucasian and Northwestern fronts

Positional battles continued on the Northwestern Front during the spring-autumn period. As for the Caucasian Front, the main events here lasted from the beginning of 1916 to April. During this time, 2 operations were carried out: Erzurmur and Trebizond. According to their results, Erzurum and Trebizond were conquered, respectively.

The result of 1916 in the First World War

The strategic initiative passed to the side of the Entente.
The French fortress of Verdun survived thanks to the offensive of the Russian army.
Romania entered the war on the side of the Entente.
Russia carried out a powerful offensive - the Brusilov breakthrough.

Military and political events 1917

The year 1917 in the First World War was marked by the fact that the war continued against the background of the revolutionary situation in Russia and Germany, as well as the deterioration of the economic situation of the countries. Let me give you the example of Russia. During the 3 years of the war, prices for basic products increased on average by 4-4.5 times. Naturally, this caused discontent among the people. Add to this heavy losses and a grueling war - it turns out to be excellent soil for revolutionaries. The situation is similar in Germany.

In 1917, the United States entered the First World War. The position of the Triple Alliance is deteriorating. Germany and its allies cannot effectively fight on 2 fronts, as a result of which it goes on the defensive.

The end of the war for Russia

In the spring of 1917, Germany launched another offensive on the Western Front. Despite the events in Russia, Western countries demanded that the Provisional Government implement the agreements signed by the Empire and send troops on the offensive. As a result, on June 16, the Russian army went on the offensive in the Lvov area. Again, we saved the allies from major battles, but we ourselves were completely exposed.

The Russian army, exhausted by the war and losses, did not want to fight. The issues of provisions, uniforms and supplies during the war years were never resolved. The army fought reluctantly, but moved forward. The Germans were forced to transfer troops here again, and Russia's Entente allies again isolated themselves, watching what would happen next. On July 6, Germany launched a counteroffensive. As a result, 150,000 Russian soldiers died. The army virtually ceased to exist. The front fell apart. Russia could no longer fight, and this catastrophe was inevitable.

People demanded Russia's withdrawal from the war. And this was one of their main demands from the Bolsheviks, who seized power in October 1917. Initially, at the 2nd Party Congress, the Bolsheviks signed the decree “On Peace,” essentially proclaiming Russia’s exit from the war, and on March 3, 1918, they signed the Brest-Litovsk Peace Treaty. The conditions of this world were as follows:

Russia makes peace with Germany, Austria-Hungary and Turkey.
Russia is losing Poland, Ukraine, Finland, part of Belarus and the Baltic states.
Russia cedes Batum, Kars and Ardagan to Turkey.

As a result of its participation in the First World War, Russia lost: about 1 million square meters of territory, approximately 1/4 of the population, 1/4 of arable land and 3/4 of the coal and metallurgical industries were lost.
Historical reference

Events in the war in 1918

Germany got rid of the Eastern Front and the need to wage war on two fronts. As a result, in the spring and summer of 1918, she attempted an offensive on the Western Front, but this offensive had no success. Moreover, as it progressed, it became obvious that Germany was getting the most out of itself, and that it needed a break in the war.

Autumn 1918

The decisive events in the First World War took place in the fall. The Entente countries, together with the United States, went on the offensive. The German army was completely driven out of France and Belgium. In October, Austria-Hungary, Turkey and Bulgaria concluded a truce with the Entente, and Germany was left to fight alone. Her situation was hopeless after the German allies in the Triple Alliance essentially capitulated. This resulted in the same thing that happened in Russia - a revolution. On November 9, 1918, Emperor Wilhelm II was overthrown.

End of the First World War

On November 11, 1918, the First World War of 1914-1918 ended. Germany signed a complete surrender. It happened near Paris, in the Compiègne forest, at the Retonde station. The surrender was accepted by the French Marshal Foch. The terms of the signed peace were as follows:

Germany admits complete defeat in the war.
The return of the province of Alsace and Lorraine to France to the borders of 1870, as well as the transfer of the Saar coal basin.
Germany lost all its colonial possessions, and was also obliged to transfer 1/8 of its territory to its geographical neighbors.
For 15 years, Entente troops were on the left bank of the Rhine.
By May 1, 1921, Germany had to pay members of the Entente (Russia was not entitled to anything) 20 billion marks in gold, goods, securities, etc.
Germany must pay reparations for 30 years, and the amount of these reparations is determined by the winners themselves and can be increased at any time during these 30 years.
Germany was prohibited from having an army of more than 100 thousand people, and the army had to be exclusively voluntary.

The terms of the “peace” were so humiliating for Germany that the country actually became a puppet. Therefore, many people of that time said that although the First World War ended, it did not end in peace, but in a truce for 30 years. That’s how it ultimately turned out...

Results of the First World War

The First World War was fought on the territory of 14 states. Countries with a total population of over 1 billion people took part in it (this is approximately 62% of the entire world population at that time). In total, 74 million people were mobilized by the participating countries, of whom 10 million died and another 20 million were injured.

As a result of the war, the political map of Europe changed significantly. Such independent states as Poland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, Finland, and Albania appeared. Austro-Hungary split into Austria, Hungary and Czechoslovakia. Romania, Greece, France, and Italy have increased their borders. There were 5 countries that lost and lost territory: Germany, Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria, Turkey and Russia.

Map of the First World War 1914-1918

Being one of the two main theaters of military operations of the First World War, the Western Front certainly ranks first in its military-political significance. It was here that the German command made a decisive bet on victory in August–September 1914, and its failure led to the final defeat of the Kaiser’s Germany, unable to withstand a protracted war of attrition against the combined potential of the Entente powers. Being of paramount importance for Germany, on the one hand, and Great Britain and France, on the other, the Western Front existed until the conclusion of the Compiegne Armistice in November 1918.
After declaring war on Russia on August 1, 1914, Germany presented an ultimatum to France, demanding that it maintain neutrality, but France declared that it would fulfill its allied obligations to Russia, and on August 3, Germany declared war on it under the pretext of the alleged bombing of German territory by French airplanes. Since the German plan for a lightning war (Schlieffen Plan) envisaged the invasion of the main forces of the German army into France through the territory of Belgium, the refusal of the Belgian government to let German troops through led to the latter violating the neutrality of Belgium, which served as the basis for the entry into the war of Great Britain, bound by military-political agreements with France and Russia.

1914 campaign

During the Battle of the Borders in August 1914, French troops and the British Expeditionary Force failed to hold back the advance of seven German armies pouring across the borders of Belgium and France. The German plan for waging a war on two fronts was to defeat the troops of their opponents in the West with a powerful blow in a short time, capture Paris and force France to capitulate, and then transfer the main forces of German troops to the Eastern Front and in cooperation with the Austro-Hungarian army inflict a decisive defeat on Russia. However, this plan was thwarted due to the active actions of Russian troops in East Prussia. Despite the fact that the Russian 2nd Army of General Samsonov ultimately suffered a heavy defeat at Tannenberg, the German command, having very limited forces against the Russians, was forced to prepare reserves for sending to the East - two army corps intended to strengthen the attack force to Paris. This played a decisive role in the German defeat at the Battle of the Marne.

Battle of the Marne.

On September 5, 1914, the French 6th Army under General Maunoury, concentrated east of Paris, launched a counterattack on the enemy’s unprotected right flank on the Marne River. The German command did not have free forces to parry the blow, and the commander of the right-flank German 1st Army, General von Kluck, transferred two corps and then two more divisions against the Maunoury army, exposing the junction with the neighboring 2nd Army. This allowed the French 5th th army and British troops launch a second counterattack into the opened gap. The German 2nd Army faced the threat of encirclement and was forced to retreat north, pulling the neighboring 1st and 3rd armies with it. By September 12, German troops rolled back 60 km, taking up defense along the lines of the Aisne and Wel rivers. Thus, the German plan to defeat France with one blow failed, which predetermined the outcome of the entire war unfavorable for Germany.
In the second half of September - October, both sides continued maneuvering actions, trying to outflank the enemy from the open northern flank (the so-called “Run to the Sea”), as a result of which the front line extended to the coast of the North Sea, and the war acquired a positional character.

1915 Campaign

Since the end of 1914, the warring parties dug into the ground, building dugouts, trenches, and machine-gun points, securely covered with wire barriers and minefields. Attempts to break through such a defense each time resulted in huge losses for the attacking side with insignificant results. In the changed conditions of military operations, along with the strengthening of the role of artillery, especially heavy artillery, new means of warfare began to develop, including chemical weapons, airplanes, tanks, specially trained assault detachments of infantrymen and combat engineer units. At the same time, the importance of cavalry, which turned out to be extremely vulnerable to fire from automatic weapons, aviation weapons (bombs, airplane arrows) and toxic substances, was reduced to nothing. In the spring of 1915, the main German efforts were transferred to the Eastern Front, and the Anglo-French troops tried to take advantage of this situation to go on the offensive. However, the operation undertaken in May–June in Artois was not successful. In two weeks of fighting, the Allies lost 130 thousand people, having advanced only 3-4 km on the French sector of the front and 1 km on the British.

Conferences at the Chantilly Castle (Château de Chantilly).

The failures of the Anglo-French troops in operations on the Western Front and the retreat of the Russian armies in Galicia and Poland seriously worried the military-political leadership of the Entente powers.

In mid-1915, the French government invited the Allies to carry out a general development of future operations and introduced a project for convening a conference, where the headquarters of the French army was located. Over the course of a year and a half, four inter-allied conferences were held. The first conference (July 1915) discussed the Allied plan for the second half of 1915. The second conference (December 1915) discussed the general plan for the 1916 campaign and recommendations to the Entente governments on economic and political issues. The Third Conference (March 1916) reviewed and approved the plan for the 1916 campaign. The Fourth Conference (November 1916) decided to prepare coordinated operations for the spring of 1917. The conferences also repeatedly discussed the issue of a centralized body for coordinating the actions of the Allied armies, but military-political contradictions between their participants did not allow it to be created. The Supreme Military Council of the Entente was formed only in November 1917.

1916 Campaign

Despite the major successes achieved on the Eastern Front in 1915, the Austro-German troops failed to crush Russia and bring it out of the war, and the German command decided to try their luck again in the West.

Battle of Verdun.

The fortified area of Verdun was chosen as the main point of application of forces, against which the Germans brought together unprecedented artillery forces in history (1225 guns, of which 703 were heavy, 110 guns per 1 km of front). It was assumed that in the battle for Verdun, which is the key to Paris, the French would be forced to exhaust their resources of manpower, weapons and ammunition. However, during the fierce fighting that lasted from February to December 1916, the German army was able to achieve only very limited successes at the cost of huge losses. This was facilitated, in particular, by the fact that during the year the German command had to repeatedly withdraw troops from the front in order to support its ally Austria-Hungary, which found itself in a difficult situation as a result of the offensive of Russian troops (Brusilovsky breakthrough), undertaken in accordance with the decisions adopted at meetings of representatives of the general staffs of the Allied powers in Chantilly.

Battle of the Somme.

In July–November 1916, the joint Allied command launched an offensive operation on the Somme River, which went down in history as one of the largest battles of the First World War. Despite many days of artillery preparation, the offensive developed slowly and at the cost of heavy losses. The total losses of the parties in killed and wounded amounted to more than 1 million people. Tanks were used for the first time in history to break through enemy defenses during this battle. As a result of the operation, the Allies broke through the German front by only 10 km in a 35 km area. in depth. To prevent a breakthrough from developing, the Germans had to urgently create a new line of defense. Losses at Verdun and the Somme seriously affected the morale and combat effectiveness of the German troops. The strategic initiative passed to the allies for a long time.

1917 campaign

The 1917 campaign was marked by renewed attempts by the Allies to break through the front. This was preceded by the withdrawal of German troops to the rear defensive line (Hindenburg Line), prepared in the winter of 1916-17. By shortening the front line, the German command thereby freed up part of its forces.

The April offensive of the British and French near Arras, which went down in history as the “Nivelle massacre” (named after the French commander-in-chief Robert Nivelle), did not achieve its goals, and the losses incurred during it caused protest sentiments and unrest in the French army due to the reluctance of soldiers to go to the battle. The actions of British troops during several operations undertaken in July–November in Flanders (the Battle of Passchendaele) were equally unsuccessful. Their results remained far from desired, but the experience gained made it possible to improve the Allied offensive tactics, which were successfully used in the operations of 1918.

Battle of Cambrai.

At the end of November - beginning of December 1917, British troops launched a large-scale operation against the new German defense line in the area of the city of Cambrai, relying on the massive use of tanks (476 units) and new assault tactics of infantry units. On the first day of the offensive, they managed to achieve tangible successes, breaking through the German front in an area of 12 km by 6-8 km in depth with fairly small losses. However, the delay in introducing Canadian cavalry into the breach allowed the Germans to recover from the initial shock and close the gap. Over the next days, German troops were able to completely stop the enemy's advance, and then launched a counteroffensive and pushed the British back to their original positions.
During the 1917 campaign, both sides exhausted their forces almost to the limit. Only the influence of external factors could decide the outcome of the struggle in favor of one of them. For Germany, this was Russia’s exit from the war as a result of the Bolshevik revolution and the possibility of using additional forces transferred from the East on the Western Front; for Great Britain and France - the US entry into the war on the side of the Entente and the arrival of numerous and fresh American troops in Europe. In such a situation, Germany could only count on achieving a decisive victory before sufficiently large American contingents appeared at the front.

1918 Campaign

In March 1918, after the conclusion of the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk between Germany and Soviet Russia, German troops launched a series of offensive operations in the West, which went down in history under the general name “Battle of the Kaiser.” The Germans managed to significantly push back their opponents and again, as in 1914, reached the approaches to Paris. However, Germany's material resources and the morale of the army and population were completely strained. In July, during the second battle of the Marne, the German offensive was stopped, and in August, having broken through the German front near Amiens, the Anglo-French troops went on the offensive, supported by American troops who arrived in France. The German command was forced to abandon all territories occupied during the offensive and withdraw troops to rear positions. Failures at the front and an extremely difficult situation in the rear led to a revolution in Germany in early November, the monarchy fell, and the provisional government that came to power signed a truce with the Entente powers on November 11 in Compiegne, admitting defeat in the war and pledging to evacuate all territories. still occupied by German troops at that time.

S.I. Drobyazko,
Candidate of Historical Sciences