Culture of the Silver Age.

Silver Age. This was the name of the border of the XIX-XX centuries. - the time of spiritual innovation, a major leap forward in the development of Russian culture. It was during this period that new literary genres were born, the aesthetics of artistic creativity was enriched, a whole galaxy of outstanding educators, scientists, writers, poets, and artists became famous.

Many peoples inhabiting the Russian Empire had by this time received their own alphabet, they had their own literature, their own national intelligentsia.

The law passed by the State Duma guaranteed every inhabitant the receipt of primary education in their native language. Issue of newspapers and other periodicals for the first decade of the XX century. increased by more than 10 times.

Science developed at a rapid pace. Russia's lagging behind in industry did not prevent its scientists from making an enormous contribution to world science, called the "revolution in natural science." This applied to physics, mathematics, biology, chemistry, and many other branches of science. The names of P. N. Lebedev, V. I. Vernadsky, N. E. Zhukovsky, S. A. Chaplygin, K. E. Tsiolkovsky, Nobel laureate I. I. Mechnikov, I. P. Pavlov, S. P. Botkin, DI Mendeleev and many others became the pride of Russia.

The achievements of N. Ye. Zhukovsky and I. I. Sikorsky are significant in the field of aviation.

During these years, the works of outstanding philosophers I. A. Ilyin, N. A. Berdyaev, S. L. Frank, V. S. Soloviev, theorists of the revolutionary reorganization of Russia G. V. Plekhanov and V. I. Lenin were published.

Domestic history was replenished with the works of V.O. Klyuchevsky, P.N. Milyukov. A.E. Presnyakova, S.F. Platonova. The first works of the future Soviet historians E.V. Tarle and B.D. Grekov were published.

The world's literary treasury includes books by L.N. Tolstoy, A.P. Chekhov, V.G. Korolenko, I. A. Bunin, M. Gorky, A. I. Kuprin.

A new direction appeared in the poetry of this time - symbolism. Representatives of this trend opposed themselves to materialism, which, in their opinion, carries a impoverishment of the soul to man.

The search for an aesthetic ideal was characteristic of the works of the poets A.A. Akhmatova, N. S. Gumilyov, O. E. Mandelstam, who were distinguished by their deep penetration into the inner world of man.

Innovation in Russian painting manifested itself in the paintings of I.E. Repin, V.I.Surikov, K.A.Korovin, brothers A.M. and V.M. Vasnetsov, who called for the restoration of the original meaning of high painting, which, as they believed was weakened by artists of previous generations.

The traditions of I.E. Repin were continued by his student V.A.Serov - an artist constantly looking for new forms of artistic realization of reality, the author of many wonderful portraits, landscapes, still lifes, paintings on everyday and historical themes.

In general, Russian painting at the beginning of the century was replete with a large number of different groups and artistic associations with their own views and directions. They all contributed to the development of Russian art.

Russian music experienced a truly gigantic upsurge. The traditions of M.I. Glinka and P.I.Tchaikovsky were developed by A.K. Glazunov, A.N. Skryabin, S.V. Rachmaninov, I.F. Stravinsky. S. I. Taneev and A. S. Arensky continued their composing and teaching activities. V.V. Andreev carried out an enormous amount of work to preserve and promote the traditions of Russian folk musical creativity.

K. Stanislavsky and V. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko, V. E. Meyerhold, and E. B. Vakhtangov made a huge contribution to the development of domestic theatrical art.

At this time, a new form of art for that time was intensively developing - cinema. In 1911, the first domestic full-length film "Defense of Sevastopol" was released.

The architecture of the Silver Age developed in a direction that emphasized the functional purpose of buildings. These were mainly rich mansions and public buildings. They were distinguished by magnificent external decoration, stucco molding. Silhouettes of ships, tower cranes, airplanes were depicted on the facades of the houses. Urban construction was developing. Comprehensive development was carried out in large cities of Russia. In particular, a project is being developed for the construction of the New Petersburg district on the Golodai Island. In the construction business, reinforced concrete began to be used.

The most interesting phenomenon in the architecture and art of the "Silver Age" - Art Nouveau - continues to be both a field for research and a field for discussion.

In the history of architecture, it is difficult to find a period when the intensity of creative searches would be so hot and intense, and the results of searches - so diverse, ambiguous and contradictory. The natural result of these searches was the amazing diversity and exceptional diversity of modernity in its specific manifestations.

The "identification" of this style is further complicated by the fact that in many works of Art Nouveau, characteristic techniques and forms are combined, sometimes in the most bizarre way, with eclectic echoes and reminiscences of other historical styles. In addition, along with examples of "textbook modernity", both the world and St. Petersburg architecture of the "Silver Age" provide many examples in which there is no "modernity". All this turns the “architecture of the modern era” (as VS Goryunov and MP Tubli aptly called their book) into an extremely complex and variegated picture.

Hence - again and again doubts that arise: is it possible to define modernity by the concept of "style"?

The best assistant in formulating the concept of "architectural style" can be a textbook definition of architecture as "the unity of three principles - benefit, strength, beauty." Translated into modern scientific art history language, this "Vitruvian triad" sounds like a dialectical unity of three aspects of architecture, three groups of factors: functional ("benefit"); constructive, technical and technological ("strength"); ideological and artistic, spiritual and aesthetic ("beauty").

Now we can build a definition: "architectural style" is a stable community characteristic of a given time and a given region:
- planning and volumetric-spatial solutions;

Constructive, technical and technological methods (determining the strength and durability of buildings and structures).

Means of artistic expression that formulate a system of architectural and artistic images.

Now, armed with the aforementioned concept of "architectural style", we will try to identify the features of "Orthodox Art Nouveau" in the building, which is generally recognized as the first work of the "new style" in St. Petersburg. This work, undoubtedly, is the dacha of Mrs. E.K. Gauswald on Kamenny Island (modern address: corner of 2nd Berezovaya Alley, 32 and Side Alley, 14). The authors of the construction are architects V.I. Chagin and V.I.Shene (both graduates of the Imperial Academy of Arts). The building project was developed and approved in 1898.

The features of the “new style” - Art Nouveau were manifested in the Gauswald dacha in all three positions of the “Vitruvian triad”. Concern for convenience and comfort is reflected in the free, picturesque layout of the plan and volume. This new method of design, as it were, "from the inside" - "outside", determined by a distinct "primacy of function" (i.e., the criterion of utility), began to form in St. Petersburg architecture during the period of the crisis of classicism - in the 1830s (as illustrated in in particular, the projects of summer cottages for Pavlovsk, developed by the architect A.P. Bryullov). By the end of the 19th century, such methods of volumetric-spatial composition of buildings (especially summer cottages and cottages) became not only generally accepted, but also turned into a kind of "sign" of convenience and comfort. In this respect, Art Nouveau continued the rationalist traditions of the eclectic period architecture.

From the point of view of "strength" - in the sense of the use of materials and structures and their architectural and artistic understanding - Gauswald's dacha is also very characteristic. In particular, the part of the building where the walls are made of bricks is faced from the outside with light-colored ceramic tiles (then it was called "hog"). And the facades of the wooden parts of the building are solved differently - but at the same time in such a way that the specificity of wood is clearly revealed in them. However, in this aspect too, Art Nouveau continued and developed the principles of the concept of "rational architecture", formulated in the middle of the 19th century by A.K. Krasovsky: "technology or construction is the main source of architectural forms."

But if in the aspects of "benefit" and "strength" the Gauswald dacha can be viewed as a dialectical development of the rationalistic pre-sources of modernity, then in the aspect of "beauty" this building already belongs entirely to modernity.

The aesthetics of the "new style" was based on a decisive break with the traditions and artistic norms of the previous styles, which is why for many contemporaries of modernism the "new style" became synonymous with "decadence".

Perhaps, more accurately and sharper than others, these aspects of the ideological and artistic program of modernity were poetically formulated by one of the leaders of symbolism D.S. Merezhkovsky:

“Our hymns are our groans;

We are for a new beauty

We break all the laws

We cross all the lines. "

Thus, the Russian national culture of the late XIX - early XX centuries. developed on traditional folk soil. It was based on the ideas of independence, the search for goodness and justice.

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"Silver Age" of Russian musical culture

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The main trends in the development of national culture in the XX century. Architecture

Silver Age. This was the name of the border of the XIX-XX centuries. - the time of spiritual innovation, a major leap in the development of national culture. It was during this period that new literary genres were born, the aesthetics of artistic creativity was enriched ...

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Silhouette of the silver age

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In their romantic impulse, Art Nouveau architects often turned to their national past for inspiration and forms, drawing from there not so much concrete architectural forms and details, as was the case in Historicism, but trying to reproduce the spirit of folk or ancient architecture, creating vivid architectural images. Typical examples of this approach are the building of the Tretyakov Gallery, designed by the artist V. Vasnetsov, and the Pertsov apartment house, built by the project of the artist S. Malyutin.

Setting themselves the task of aesthetic harmonization of society, architects in their search touched, of course, not only individual construction, but also the construction of industrial buildings (Levinson F. Shekhtel's printing house in Moscow), railway stations, public and commercial institutions, and religious buildings.

Art Nouveau monuments are all quite easily recognizable. Its external stylistic features are so characteristic that even a layman can easily recognize them. This is, first of all, a living, dynamic mass, free, mobile space and an amazing whimsical, whimsical ornament, the main theme of which is the line.

A new stage in the development of Russian culture, conditionally, from the reform of 1861 to the October Revolution of 1917, is called the "Silver Age". For the first time this name was proposed by the philosopher N. Berdyaev, who saw in the highest cultural achievements of his contemporaries a reflection of the Russian glory of the previous "golden" epochs, but finally this phrase entered the literary circulation in the 60s of the last century.

The Silver Age occupies a very special place in Russian culture. This controversial time of spiritual searches and wanderings, significantly enriched all types of arts and philosophy and gave birth to a whole galaxy of outstanding creative personalities. On the threshold of the new century, the deep foundations of life began to change, giving rise to the collapse of the old picture of the world. The traditional regulators of existence - religion, morality, law - could not cope with their functions, and the modern age was born.

However, it is sometimes said that the "Silver Age" is a Westernizing phenomenon. Indeed, he chose Oscar Wilde's aestheticism, the individualistic spiritualism of Alfred de Vigny, the pessimism of Schopenhauer, the superman Nietzsche as his guiding lines. The "Silver Age" found its ancestors and allies in various European countries and in different centuries: Villon, Mallarmé, Rimbaud, Novalis, Shelley, Calderon, Ibsen, Maeterlinck, d'Annuzio, Gaultier, Baudelaire, Verharne.

In other words, at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries, there was a reassessment of values \u200b\u200bfrom the standpoint of Europeanism. But in the light of the new era, which was the complete opposite of the one that it replaced, national, literary and folklore treasures appeared in a different, brighter than ever, light. Truly, this was the most creative era in Russian history, a canvas of the greatness and impending troubles of holy Russia.

Slavophiles and Westernizers

The abolition of serfdom and the development of bourgeois relations in the countryside exacerbated the contradictions in the development of culture. They are found, first of all, in the discussion that has gripped Russian society and in the folding of two directions: "Westernizing" and "Slavophile". The stumbling block that did not allow the disputants to be reconciled was the question: along what path is Russian culture developing? According to the "Western", that is, the bourgeois, or it retains its "Slavic originality", that is, it preserves the feudal relations and the agrarian character of culture.

The reason for highlighting the directions was the "Philosophical Letters" by P. Ya. Chaadaev. He believed that all the troubles of Russia were derived from the qualities of the Russian people, for which, allegedly, are characteristic: mental and spiritual backwardness, underdevelopment of ideas about duty, justice, law, order, the absence of an original "idea". As the philosopher believed, "the history of Russia is a" negative lesson "to the world." A. Pushkin gave him a sharp rebuke, saying: "I would never want to change my Fatherland or have a history other than the history of our ancestors, the way God gave it to us, for nothing in the world."

Russian society was divided into "Slavophiles" and "Westernizers". V. G. Belinsky, A. I. Herzen, N. V. Stankevich, M. A. Bakunin and others belonged to the "Westernizers". The "Slavophils" were represented by A. S. Khomyakov, K. S. Aksakov, Yu. Samarin.

The Westernizers were characterized by a certain set of ideas, which they defended in disputes. This ideological complex included: denial of the identity of the culture of any nation; criticism of the cultural backwardness of Russia; admiration for the culture of the West, its idealization; recognition of the need to modernize, "modernize" Russian culture, as borrowing Western European values. Westerners considered the ideal of man to be a European - a business-like, pragmatic, emotionally restrained, rational being, distinguished by "healthy egoism." Religious orientation towards Catholicism and ecumenism (fusion of Catholicism with Orthodoxy), as well as cosmopolitanism was also characteristic of the "Westernizers". In terms of political sympathies, the "Westerners" were republicans, they were characterized by anti-monarchist sentiments.

In fact, the "Westernizers" were supporters of industrial culture - the development of industry, natural science, technology, but within the framework of capitalist, private property relations.

They were opposed by the "Slavophiles", distinguished by their complex of stereotypes. They were characterized by a critical attitude towards the culture of Europe; her rejection as inhuman, immoral, soulless; absolutization in it of features of decline, decadence, decomposition. On the other hand, they were distinguished by nationalism and patriotism, admiration for the culture of Russia, the absolutization of its uniqueness and originality, the glorification of the historical past. The "Slavophiles" associated their expectations with the peasant community, considering it as the keeper of all that is "sacred" in culture.

Orthodoxy was considered the spiritual core of culture, which was also viewed uncritically, its role in the spiritual life of Russia was exaggerated. Accordingly, anti-Catholicism and a negative attitude towards ecumenism were asserted. The Slavophils were distinguished by a monarchical orientation, admiration for the figure of the peasant - the owner, the "owner", and a negative attitude towards the workers as the "ulcer of society", the product of the decomposition of its culture.

Thus, the "Slavophiles", in fact, defended the ideals of agrarian culture and took protective, conservative positions.

The confrontation between "Westernizers" and "Slavophiles" reflected the growing contradiction between agrarian and industrial cultures, between two forms of property - feudal and bourgeois, between two classes - the nobility and the capitalists. But latently, contradictions were sharpened within capitalist relations - between the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. The revolutionary, proletarian trend in culture stands out as an independent one and, in fact, will determine the development of Russian culture in the twentieth century.

Education and enlightenment

In 1897 the All-Russian population census was carried out. According to the census, in Russia the average literacy rate was 21.1%: for men - 29.3%, for women - 13.1%, about 1% of the population had higher and secondary education. In secondary school, in relation to the entire literate population, only 4% studied. At the turn of the century, the education system still included three levels: elementary (parish schools, public schools), secondary (classical gymnasiums, real and commercial schools), and higher school (universities, institutes).

In 1905, the Ministry of Public Education submitted a draft law "On the introduction of universal elementary education in the Russian Empire" for consideration by the II State Duma, but this draft never received the force of law. But the growing need for specialists contributed to the development of higher, especially technical, education. In 1912, there were 16 higher technical educational institutions in Russia, in addition to private higher educational institutions. Persons of both sexes were admitted to the university, regardless of nationality and political views. Therefore, the number of students increased markedly - from 14 thousand in the mid-90s to 35.3 thousand in 1907. Higher education for women was further developed, and in 1911 the right of women to higher education was legally recognized.

Simultaneously with Sunday schools, new types of cultural and educational institutions for adults began to operate - work courses, educational workers' societies and people's houses - a kind of clubs with a library, an assembly hall, a tea shop and a retail store.

The development of periodicals and book publishing had a great influence on education. In the 1860s, 7 daily newspapers were published and about 300 printing houses operated. In the 1890s, there were 100 newspapers and about 1000 printing houses. And in 1913, 1263 newspapers and magazines were already published, and in the cities there were about 2 thousand bookstores.

In terms of the number of published books, Russia ranked third in the world after Germany and Japan. In 1913, 106.8 million books were published in Russian alone. The largest book publishers A.S.Suvorin in St. Petersburg and I.D. Sytin in Moscow contributed to the introduction of the people to literature, publishing books at affordable prices: "cheap library" Suvorin and "library for self-education" Sytin.

The enlightenment process was intense and successful, and the number of the reading public grew rapidly. This is evidenced by the fact that at the end of the XIX century. there were about 500 public libraries and about 3 thousand zemstvo folk reading rooms, and already in 1914 in Russia there were about 76 thousand different public libraries.

An equally important role in the development of culture was played by the "illusion" - cinema, which appeared in St. Petersburg just a year after its invention in France. By 1914. in Russia there were already 4,000 cinemas, in which not only foreign, but also domestic films were shown. The demand for them was so great that in the period from 1908 to 1917 more than two thousand new feature films were shot. In 1911-1913. V.A. Starevich created the world's first volumetric animations.

The science

The 19th century brings significant success in the development of Russian science: it claims to be equal with Western European, and sometimes even superior. One cannot fail to mention a number of works by Russian scientists that have led to world-class achievements. DI Mendeleev in 1869 discovered the periodic system of chemical elements. A.G. Stoletov in 1888-1889 establishes the laws of the photoelectric effect. In 1863, the work of IM Sechenov "Reflexes of the brain" was published. KA Timiryazev founds the Russian school of plant physiology. P. N. Yablochkov creates an electric arc light bulb, A. N. Lodygin - an incandescent light bulb.

AS Popov invents the radiotelegraph. AF Mozhaisky and N.E. Zhukovsky laid the foundations of aviation with their research in the field of aerodynamics, and K.E. Tsiolkovsky is known as the founder of cosmonautics. PN Lebedev is the founder of research in the field of ultrasound. II Mechnikov investigates the field of comparative pathology, microbiology and immunology. The foundations of the new sciences - biochemistry, biogeochemistry, radiogeology - were laid by V.I. Vernadsky. And this is not a complete list of people who have made an invaluable contribution to the development of science and technology. The significance of scientific foresight and a number of fundamental scientific problems posed to scientists at the beginning of the century becomes clear only now.

The humanities were greatly influenced by the processes taking place in natural science. Humanitarians such as V.O. Klyuchevsky, S.F. Platonov, S.A. Vengerov and others have worked fruitfully in the field of economics, history, and literary criticism. Idealism is widespread in philosophy. Russian religious philosophy, with its search for ways to unite the material and the spiritual, the establishment of a "new" religious consciousness, was perhaps the most important area not only of science, ideological struggle, but of all culture.

The foundations of the religious and philosophical Renaissance, which marked the "Silver Age" of Russian culture, were laid by V. S. Soloviev. His system is the experience of the synthesis of religion, philosophy and science, "moreover, it is not the Christian doctrine that enriches him at the expense of philosophy, but on the contrary, he introduces Christian ideas into philosophy and enriches and fertilizes philosophical thought with them" (V.V. Zenkovsky). Possessing a brilliant literary talent, he made philosophical problems accessible to wide circles of Russian society, moreover, he brought Russian thought to the common humanity.

This period, marked by a whole constellation of brilliant thinkers - N. A. Berdyaev, S. N. Bulgakov, D. S. Merezhkovsky, G. P. Fedotov, P. A. Florensky and others - largely determined the direction of development of culture, philosophy, ethics, not only in Russia, but also in the West.

Spiritual quest

During the Silver Age, people are looking for new foundations for their spiritual and religious life. All kinds of mystical teachings are very common. The new mysticism eagerly sought its roots in the old, in the mysticism of the Alexander era. As well as a hundred years earlier, the teachings of Freemasonry, Skopstvo, Russian schism and other mystics became popular. Many creative people of that time took part in mystical rituals, although not all of them fully believed in their content. V. Bryusov, Andrey Bely, D. Merezhkovsky, Z. Gippius, N. Berdyaev and many others were fond of magical experiments.

Theurgy occupied a special place among the widespread mystical rituals at the beginning of the twentieth century. Theurgy was conceived “as a one-time mystical act, which must be prepared by the spiritual efforts of individuals, but when done, irreversibly changes human nature as such” (A. Etkind). The subject of the dream was the real transformation of each person and the whole society as a whole. In the narrow sense, the tasks of theurgy were understood almost as well as the tasks of therapy. We also find the idea of \u200b\u200bthe need to create a "new man" by such revolutionary leaders as Lunacharsky and Bukharin. A parody of theurgy is presented in the works of Bulgakov.

The Silver Age is a time of oppositions. The main opposition of this period is the opposition of nature and culture. Vladimir Soloviev, a philosopher who had a tremendous influence on the formation of the ideas of the "Silver Age", believed that the victory of culture over nature will lead to immortality, since "death is a clear victory of nonsense over meaning, chaos over space." In the end, theurgy was also to lead to victory over death.

In addition, the problems of death and love were closely related. "Love and death are becoming the main and almost the only forms of human existence, the main means of understanding him," Soloviev believed. The understanding of love and death brings together the Russian culture of the "Silver Age" and psychoanalysis. Freud recognizes the main internal forces affecting a person - libido and thanatos, respectively, sexuality and the desire for death.

Berdyaev, considering the problem of sex and creativity, believes that a new natural order must come, in which creativity will win - "the giving birth sex will be transformed into the creative sex."

Many people tried to escape from everyday life in search of a different reality. They chased emotions, all experiences were considered blessings, regardless of their sequence and expediency. The lives of creative people were saturated and filled with experiences. However, the result of this accumulation of experiences often turned out to be the deepest emptiness. Therefore, the fate of many people of the "Silver Age" is tragic. And yet this difficult time of spiritual wanderings gave birth to a wonderful and distinctive culture.

Literature

The realistic trend in Russian literature at the turn of the 20th century. continued by L. N. Tolstoy, A. P. Chekhov, who created his best works, the theme of which was the ideological quest of the intelligentsia and the "little" man with his daily concerns, and young writers I. A. Bunin and A. I. Kuprin.

In connection with the spread of neo-romanticism, new artistic qualities appeared in realism, reflecting reality. The best realistic works of A.M. Gorky reflected the broad picture of Russian life at the turn of the 20th century with its inherent peculiarity of economic development and ideological and social struggle.

At the end of the 19th century, when, in an atmosphere of political reaction and the crisis of populism, part of the intelligentsia was seized by moods of social and moral decline, decadence became widespread in artistic culture, a phenomenon in the culture of the 19th-20th centuries, marked by the rejection of civicism, immersion in the sphere of individual experiences. Many motives of this direction have become the property of a number of artistic movements of modernism that arose at the turn of the 20th century.

Russian literature of the early 20th century gave birth to remarkable poetry, and the most significant trend was symbolism. For the Symbolists, who believed in the existence of another world, the symbol was his sign, and represented the connection between the two worlds. One of the ideologists of symbolism, D. S. Merezhkovsky, whose novels are permeated with religious and mystical ideas, considered the predominance of realism to be the main reason for the decline of literature, and proclaimed "symbols", "mystical content" as the basis of new art. Along with the demands of "pure" art, the Symbolists professed individualism; they were characterized by the theme of "spontaneous genius", close in spirit to the Nietzschean "superman".

It is customary to distinguish between “senior” and “junior” Symbolists. “Elders”, V. Bryusov, K. Balmont, F. Sologub, D. Merezhkovsky, 3. Gippius, who came to literature in the 90s, a period of deep crisis of poetry, preached the cult of beauty and free self-expression of the poet. "Younger" Symbolists, A. Blok, A. Bely, Viach. Ivanov, S. Soloviev, brought to the fore the philosophical and theosophical quests.

The Symbolists offered the reader a colorful myth about the world created according to the laws of eternal Beauty. If we add to this exquisite imagery, musicality and lightness of the syllable, the steady popularity of the poetry of this direction becomes clear. The influence of Symbolism with its intense spiritual quest, captivating artistry of creative manner was experienced not only by the Acmeists and Futurists who replaced the Symbolists, but also by the realist writer A.P. Chekhov.

By 1910, “symbolism completed its development circle” (N. Gumilev), it was replaced by acmeism. The members of the group of acmeists were N. Gumilev, S. Gorodetsky, A. Akhmatova, O. Mandelstam, V. Narbut, M. Kuzmin. They declared the liberation of poetry from symbolist appeals to the “ideal”, the return to it of clarity, materiality and “joyful admiration for being” (N. Gumilev). Acmeism is characterized by a rejection of moral and spiritual searches, a tendency towards aestheticism. A. Blok, with his inherent heightened sense of citizenship, noted the main drawback of Acmeism: "... they do not have and do not want to have a shadow of an idea of \u200b\u200bRussian life and the life of the world in general."

However, not all of their postulates acmeists embodied in practice, this is evidenced by the psychologism of the first collections of A. Akhmatova, the lyricism of the early 0. Mandelstam. In essence, the Acmeists were not so much an organized movement with a common theoretical platform, but a group of talented and very different poets who were united by personal friendship.

At the same time, another modernist movement arose - futurism, which split into several groups: "Association of ego-futurists", "Mezzanine of poetry", "Centrifuge", "Gilea", whose members called themselves cubo-futurists, Bulyans, i.e. people from the future.

Of all the groups that at the beginning of the century proclaimed the thesis: "art is play", the futurists most consistently embodied it in their work. In contrast to the Symbolists with their idea of \u200b\u200b"life-building", i.e. transforming the world with art, the futurists emphasized the destruction of the old world. Common for the futurists was the denial of traditions in culture, a passion for form creation.

The demand of the Cubo-Futurists in 1912 "to throw Pushkin, Dostoevsky, Tolstoy from the Steamer of our time" received scandalous fame.

The groupings of acmeists and futurists, which arose in polemics with symbolism, in practice turned out to be very close to him both because their theories were based on an individualistic idea, and the desire to create vivid myths, and predominant attention to form.

There were bright individualities in the poetry of this time that cannot be attributed to a certain trend - M. Voloshin, M. Tsvetaeva. No other era has given such an abundance of declarations of its own exclusivity.

Peasant poets like N. Klyuev occupied a special place in the literature of the turn of the century. Without putting forward a clear aesthetic program, they embodied their ideas (the combination of religious and mystical motives with the problem of protecting the traditions of peasant culture) in their work. “Klyuev is popular because the iambic spirit of Boratynskiy coexists in him with the prophetic tune of an illiterate Olonets narrator” (Mandelstam). With peasant poets, especially with Klyuev, S. Yesenin was close at the beginning of his journey, combining the traditions of folklore and classical art in his work.

Theater and music

The most important event in the social and cultural life of Russia at the end of the XIX century. was the opening in Moscow of an art theater in 1898, founded by K. Stanislavsky and V. I. Nemirovich-Danchenko. In the staging of the plays by Chekhov and Gorky, new principles of acting, directing, and design of performances were formed. An outstanding theatrical experiment, enthusiastically received by the democratic public, was not accepted by conservative critics, as well as by representatives of symbolism. V. Bryusov, a supporter of the aesthetics of conventional symbolic theater, were closer to the experiments of V.E. Meyerhold - the founder of the metaphorical theater.

In 1904, the theater of V.F.Komissarzhevskaya appeared in St. Petersburg, the repertoire of which reflected the aspirations of the democratic intelligentsia. E. B. Vakhtangov's directorial work was marked by the search for new forms, his staging in 1911-12. are joyful, entertaining in nature. In 1915 Vakhtangov created the 3rd studio of the Moscow Art Theater, which later became the theater named after him (1926). One of the reformers of the Russian theater, the founder of the Moscow Chamber Theater, A. Ya. Tairov, strove to create a “synthetic theater” of a predominantly romantic and tragic repertoire, to form actors of virtuoso skill.

The development of the best traditions of musical theater is associated with the St. Petersburg Mariinsky and Moscow Bolshoi theaters, as well as with the private opera of S. I. Mamontov and S. I. Zimin in Moscow. The most prominent representatives of the Russian vocal school, world-class singers were F. I. Shalyapin, L. V. Sobinov, N. V. Nezhdanova. The ballet theater reformers were choreographer M. M. Fokin and ballerina A. P. Pavlova. Russian art has received worldwide recognition.

The outstanding composer N. A. Rimsky-Korsakov continued to work in his favorite genre of opera-fairy tales. The highest example of realistic drama was his opera The Tsar's Bride (1898). He, being a professor of composition at the St. Petersburg Conservatory, brought up a whole galaxy of talented students: A. K. Glazunov, A. K. Lyadov, N. Ya. Myaskovsky and others.

In the works of young composers at the turn of the 20th century. there was a departure from social issues, an increase in interest in philosophical and ethical problems. This was most fully expressed in the works of the brilliant pianist and conductor, the outstanding composer S. V. Rachmaninoff; in the emotionally tense music of A. N. Scriabin, with sharp features of modernism; in the works of I.F. Stravinsky, in which interest in folklore and the most modern musical forms were harmoniously combined.

Architecture

The era of industrial progress at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. made a real revolution in construction. New types of buildings such as banks, shops, factories, and train stations occupied an increasing place in the urban landscape. The emergence of new building materials (reinforced concrete, metal structures) and the improvement of construction equipment made it possible to use constructive and artistic techniques, the aesthetic interpretation of which led to the approval of the modern style!

In the works of F.O.Shekhtel, the main trends in the development and genres of Russian modernity were embodied to the greatest extent. The formation of the style in the work of the master went along two directions - national-romantic, in line with the neo-Russian style and rational. The features of Art Nouveau are most fully manifested in the architecture of the Nikitsky Gate mansion, where, abandoning the traditional schemes, the asymmetric principle of planning is applied. The sloping composition, the free development of volumes in space, the asymmetric ledges of bay windows, balconies and porches, the accentuated cornice - all this demonstrates the principle inherent in modernity of assimilating an architectural structure to an organic form.

The decoration of the mansion uses such typical Art Nouveau techniques as colored stained glass windows and a mosaic frieze with floral ornaments encircling the entire building. The whimsical twists of the ornament are repeated in the interweaving of the stained-glass windows, in the drawing of the balcony bars and the street fence. The same motif was used in interior decoration, for example, in the form of marble stair railings. Furniture and decorative details of the building's interiors form a single whole with the general idea of \u200b\u200bthe building - to turn the everyday environment into a kind of architectural performance, close to the atmosphere of symbolic plays.

With the growth of rationalistic tendencies in a number of Shekhtel's buildings, the features of constructivism were outlined - a style that would take shape in the 1920s.

In Moscow, the new style expressed itself especially vividly, in particular, in the work of one of the founders of Russian Art Nouveau L. N. Kekushev. A. V. Shchusev, V. M. Vasnetsov and others worked in the neo-Russian style. In St. Petersburg, Art Nouveau was influenced by monumental classicism, as a result, another style appeared - neoclassicism.

In terms of the integrity of the approach and the ensemble solution of architecture, sculpture, painting, decorative arts, Art Nouveau is one of the most consistent styles.

Sculpture

Like architecture, sculpture at the turn of the century was freed from eclecticism. The renewal of the artistic-figurative system is associated with the influence of impressionism. The features of the new method are “looseness”, roughness of texture, dynamism of forms, permeated with air and light.

The very first consistent representative of this trend, P.P. Trubetskoy, abandons the impressionistic modeling of the surface, and reinforces the general impression of crushing brute force.

In its own way, the remarkable monument to Gogol in Moscow by the sculptor N. Andreev is also alien to the monumental pathos, subtly conveying the tragedy of the great writer, the "fatigue of the heart" so consonant with the era. Gogol is captured in a moment of concentration, deep thought, with a touch of melancholic gloom.

An original interpretation of impressionism is inherent in the work of A.S. Golubkina, who reworked the principle of depicting phenomena in motion into the idea of \u200b\u200bawakening the human spirit. The female images created by the sculptor are marked by a feeling of compassion for people who are tired but not broken by life's trials.

Painting

At the turn of the century, instead of the realistic method of directly reflecting reality in the forms of this reality, there was an assertion of the priority of artistic forms that reflect reality only indirectly. The polarization of artistic forces at the beginning of the 20th century, the polemics of multiple art groups intensified exhibition and publishing (in the field of art) activities.

In the 90s, genre painting lost its leading role. In search of new themes, artists turned to changes in the traditional way of life. They were equally attracted by the theme of the split of the peasant community, the prose of stupefying labor, and the revolutionary events of 1905. The blurring of boundaries between genres at the turn of the century in the historical theme led to the emergence of the genre of history. A.P. Ryabushkin was interested not in global historical events, but in the aesthetics of Russian life in the 17th century, the refined beauty of the ancient Russian pattern, emphasized decorativeness.

The artist's best canvases are marked with penetrating lyricism, a deep understanding of the originality of the way of life, characters and psychology of the people of pre-Petrine Russia. Ryabushkin's historical painting is a country of ideal, where the artist found rest from the "leaden abominations" of modern life. Therefore, the historical life on his canvases appears not as a dramatic, but an aesthetic side.

In the historical canvases of A. V. Vasnetsov we find the development of the landscape principle. The work of M.V. Nesterov was a variant of a retrospective landscape, through which the high spirituality of the heroes was conveyed.

I. I. Levitan, brilliantly mastering the effects of plein-air writing, continuing the lyrical direction in the landscape, approached impressionism and was the creator of the "concept landscape" or "landscape of mood", which is characterized by a rich spectrum of experiences: from joyful elation to philosophical reflections on the frailty of everything earthly ...

K.A.Korovin is the most prominent representative of Russian impressionism, the first among Russian artists who deliberately relied on the French impressionists, more and more deviated from the traditions of the Moscow school of painting with its psychologism and even drama, trying to convey this or that state of mind with the music of color. He created a series of landscapes that were not complicated by either external narrative or psychological motives.

In the 1910s, under the influence of theatrical practice, Korovin came to a bright, intense manner of painting, especially in his favorite still lifes. The artist, with all his art, asserted the intrinsic value of purely pictorial tasks, he made them appreciate the "charm of incompleteness", "sketchiness" of the pictorial manner. Korovin's canvases are a "feast for the eyes".

The central figure of art at the turn of the century is V.A.Serov. His mature works, with an impressionistic luminosity and dynamics of a free brushstroke, marked a turn from the critical realism of the Itinerants to “poetic realism” (D. V. Sarabyanov). The artist worked in different genres, but his talent as a portrait painter, endowed with a heightened sense of beauty and the ability to sober analysis, is especially significant. The search for the laws of the artistic transformation of reality, the desire for symbolic generalizations led to a change in the artistic language: from the impressionistic authenticity of the paintings of the 80-90s to the conventions of modernity in historical compositions.

One after another, two masters of pictorial symbolism entered Russian culture, who created a sublime world in their works - M. A. Vrubel and V. E. Borisov-Musatov. The central image of Vrubel's work is the Demon, who embodied the rebellious impulse that the artist himself experienced and felt in his best contemporaries.

The artist's art is characterized by a desire to formulate philosophical problems. His reflections on truth and beauty, on the high purpose of art are sharp and dramatic, in their characteristic symbolic form. Gravitating towards the symbolic and philosophical generalization of images, Vrubel developed his own pictorial language - a broad brushstroke of "crystalline" form and color, understood as colored light. Paints, sparkling like gems, enhance the feeling of a special spirituality inherent in the artist's works.

The art of the lyricist and dreamer Borisov-Musatov is a reality turned into a poetic symbol. Like Vrubel, Borisov-Musatov created in his canvases a beautiful and sublime world, built according to the laws of beauty and so different from the environment. The art of Borisov-Musatov is imbued with sad meditation and quiet grief with feelings that many people of that time experienced, "when society was thirsting for renewal, and very many did not know where to look for it."

His style developed from impressionistic light and air effects to the picturesque and decorative version of post-impressionism. In Russian artistic culture at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. Borisov-Musatov's work is one of the brightest and most ambitious phenomena.

The subject matter far from modernity, "dreamy retrospectivism" is the main association of St. Petersburg artists "World of Art". Rejecting academic salon art and the tendentiousness of the Itinerants, relying on the poetics of symbolism, the "world of art" were looking for an artistic image in the past.

For such a frank rejection of modern reality, the "world of art" were criticized from all sides, accusing them of flight into the past - passéism, decadence, antidemocracy. However, the emergence of such an artistic movement was not accidental. The World of Art was a kind of response of the Russian creative intelligentsia to the general politicization of culture at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. and excessive publicity of the visual arts.

Nicholas Roerich's work is drawn to the pagan Slavic and Scandinavian antiquity. The basis of his painting has always been a landscape, often directly from nature. The features of Roerich's landscape are associated both with the assimilation of the experience of the Art Nouveau style - the use of elements of parallel perspective to combine in one composition various objects, understood as pictorially equivalent, and with a fascination with the culture of ancient India - the opposition of earth and sky, understood by the artist as a source of the spiritualistic principle.

B. M. Kustodiev, the most gifted author of ironic stylization of popular popular print, and Z. Ye. Serebryakova, who professed the aesthetics of neoclassicism, belonged to the second generation of the "world of art". The merit of the "World of Art" was the creation of highly artistic book graphics, prints, new criticism, extensive publishing and exhibition activities.

The Moscow participants in the exhibitions, opposing the Westernism of the World of Art with national themes, and the appeal to the plein air to graphic stylism, established the exhibition association The Union of Russian Artists. In the bowels of the "Union" developed the Russian version of impressionism and the original synthesis of the genre of genre with the architectural landscape.

The artists of the "Jack of Diamonds" association (1910-1916), having turned to the aesthetics of post-impressionism, fauvism and cubism, as well as to the techniques of Russian popular print and folk toys, solved the problems of revealing the materiality of nature, building forms with color. The original principle of their art was the affirmation of the object as opposed to the spatial dimension. In this regard, the image of inanimate nature - still life - came to the fore. The materialized, "still life" beginning was also introduced into the traditional psychological genre - the portrait.

RR Falk's “lyrical cubism” was distinguished by a kind of psychologism, subtle color-plastic harmony. School of mastery, passed in the school by such outstanding artists and teachers as V. A. Serov and K. A. Korovin, in combination with pictorial and plastic experiments of the leaders of the "Jack of Diamonds" I. I. Mashkov, M. F. Larionov, A. V. Lentulov identified the origins of the original artistic style of Falk, a vivid embodiment of which is the famous "Red Furniture".

Since the mid-10s, futurism has become an important component of the graphic style of the Jack of Diamonds, one of the techniques of which was the "montage" of objects or their parts taken from different points and at different times.

The primitivist tendency associated with the assimilation of the stylistics of children's drawings, signboards, popular prints and folk toys, manifested itself in the work of M. F. Larionov, one of the organizers of the Jack of Diamonds. The fantastically irrational canvases of MZ Chagall are close to both folk naive art and Western expressionism. The combination of fantastic flights and miraculous signs with the everyday details of provincial life on Chagall's canvases is akin to Gogol's subjects. The unique work of P.N. Filonov came into contact with the primitivist line.

The first experiments of Russian artists in abstract art belong to the 10s of the last century; V.V. Kandinsky and K.S. Malevich became the true theoreticians and practitioners. At the same time, the work of K.S.Petrov-Vodkin, who declared a successive connection with ancient Russian icon painting, testified to the vitality of the tradition. The extraordinary diversity and contradictory nature of artistic pursuits, numerous groups with their own program settings reflected the tense socio-political and complex spiritual atmosphere of their time.

Conclusion

The "Silver Age" became exactly that milestone that predicted the coming changes in the state and became a thing of the past with the arrival of the blood-red 1917, which unrecognizably changed human souls. And no matter how they wanted to assure us of the opposite today, it all ended after 1917, with the beginning of the civil war. There was no "Silver Age" after that. In the twenties, inertia (the flowering of Imagism) still continued, for such a broad and powerful wave, which was the Russian "Silver Age", could not move for some time before collapsing and crashing.

If most of the poets, writers, critics, philosophers, artists, directors, composers were alive, whose individual creativity and common labor created the "Silver Age", but the era itself is over. Each of its active participants realized that, although people remained, the characteristic atmosphere of an era in which talents grew like mushrooms after rain had disappeared. Remained a cold lunar landscape without atmosphere and creative individuals - each in a separately closed cell of his own creativity.

An attempt to "modernize" culture, associated with the reform of P. A. Stolypin, was unsuccessful. Its results were less than expected and generated new controversy. The buildup of tension in society occurred faster than the answers to emerging collisions were found. The contradictions between agrarian and industrial cultures intensified, which was also expressed in the contradictions of economic forms, interests and motives of people's creativity, in the political life of society.

Deep social transformations were required in order to provide space for the cultural creativity of the people, significant investments in the development of the spiritual sphere of society, its technical base, for which the government did not have enough funds. Patronage, private support and financing of significant social and cultural events did not help either. Nothing could radically transform the cultural image of the country. The country found itself in a period of unstable development and found no other way out except for a social revolution.

The painting of the "Silver Age" turned out to be bright, complex, contradictory, but immortal and inimitable. It was a creative space full of sunshine, light and life-giving, longing for beauty and self-affirmation. It reflected the existing reality. And although we call this time the "Silver" and not the "Golden Age", it may be that it was the most creative era in Russian history.

Sources of information:

• rustrana.ru - article "Culture of the Silver Age"
• shkola.lv - article "The Silver Age of Russian Culture"

At the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries, a modernist trend arose in the architecture of a number of European countries. The "crisis of science" at the beginning of the century, the rejection of mechanistic ideas about the world gave rise to the artists' attraction to nature, the desire to imbue its spirit, to reflect in art its changeable elements.

The architecture of the "modern" epoch was distinguished by asymmetry and mobility of forms, free flow of "continuous surface", overflow of internal spaces. Floral motifs and flowing lines predominated in the ornament. The desire to convey growth, development, movement was characteristic of all types of art in the Art Nouveau style - in architecture, painting, graphics, painting houses, casting gratings, on book covers. "Modern" was very heterogeneous and contradictory. On the one hand, he strove to assimilate and creatively rework the folk principles, to create the architecture not of an ostentatious nationality, as in the period of eclecticism, but genuine.

Setting the task even wider, the masters of the "modern" epoch ensured that the objects of everyday use bore the imprint of folk traditions. In this respect, much has been done by the circle of artists who worked in Abramtsevo, the estate of the patron S. I. Mamontov. V.M. Vasnetsov, M.A.Vrubel, V.D. Polenov worked here. The business started in Abramtsevo was continued in Talashkino near Smolensk, the estate of Princess M.A.Tenisheva. Both in Abramtsevo and in Talashkino there were workshops that produced furniture and household utensils according to samples made by artists. Modern theorists contrasted living folk craft with faceless industrial production. But, on the other hand, the architecture of "modern" made extensive use of the achievements of modern construction technology. Careful study of the possibilities of materials such as reinforced concrete, glass, steel led to unexpected findings. Convex glass, curved window sashes, fluid forms of metal bars - all this came to architecture from "modern".

From the very beginning, two directions emerged in the domestic "modern" - the all-European and the national-Russian. The latter was, perhaps, predominant. At its origins is the church in Abramtsevo - an original and poetic creation of two artists who acted as architects - Vasnetsov and Polenov. Taking the ancient Novgorod-Pskov architecture as a model, with its picturesque asymmetry, they did not copy individual details, but embodied the very spirit of Russian architecture in its modern material.

The early "modern" was characterized by a "Dionysian" beginning, i.e. striving for spontaneity, immersion in the stream of formation, development. In the late "modern" (on the eve of the World War), a calm and clear "Apollonian" beginning began to prevail. Elements of classicism returned to architecture. The Museum of Fine Arts and the Borodinsky Bridge were built in Moscow by the project of the architect R. I. Klein. At the same time, the buildings of the Azov-Don and Russian commercial and industrial banks appeared in St. Petersburg. Petersburg banks were built in a monumental style, using granite cladding and "ragged" masonry surfaces. This, as it were, personified their conservatism, reliability, stability.

The century of "modern" was very short - from the end of the XIX century. before the outbreak of world war. But it was a very bright period in the history of architecture. At the beginning of the century, his appearance was met with a flurry of criticism. Some considered it "decadent" style, others - bourgeois. But "modern" has proved its vitality and democracy. It had national roots, relied on an advanced industrial base and absorbed the achievements of world architecture. "Modern" did not possess the severity of classicism. It split into many directions and schools, which formed the multicolored palette of the last flowering of architecture on the eve of the great upheavals of the 20th century.

Over a decade and a half, coinciding with the construction boom, "modern" has spread throughout Russia. It can still be found in any old city today. One has only to take a closer look at the rounded windows, exquisite stucco molding and curved balcony bars of any mansion, hotel or shop.

report on the spiritual life of the Silver Age sculpture and architecture and got the best answer

Answer from Kat Daaaa [expert]
The Silver Age occupies a very special place in Russian culture. This controversial time of spiritual searches and wanderings, significantly enriched all types of arts and philosophy and gave rise to a whole galaxy of outstanding creative personalities. On the threshold of the new century, the deep foundations of life began to change, giving rise to the collapse of the old picture of the world. The traditional regulators of existence - religion, morality, law - could not cope with their functions, and the modern age was born.
However, it is sometimes said that the "Silver Age" is a Westernizing phenomenon. Indeed, he chose Oscar Wilde's aestheticism, the individualistic spiritualism of Alfred de Vigny, the pessimism of Schopenhauer, the superman of Nietzsche as his guiding lines. The "Silver Age" found its ancestors and allies in various European countries and in different centuries: Villon, Mallarmé, Rimbaud, Novalis, Shelley, Calderon, Ibsen, Maeterlinck, d'Annuzio, Gaultier, Baudelaire, Verharne.
In other words, at the end of the 19th and the beginning of the 20th centuries, a reassessment of values \u200b\u200btook place from the standpoint of Europeanism. But in the light of the new era, which was the complete opposite of the one that replaced it, national, literary and folklore treasures appeared in a different, brighter than ever, light. Indeed, this was the most creative era in Russian history, a canvas of the greatness and impending troubles of holy Russia.
Architecture
The era of industrial progress at the turn of the XIX-XX centuries. made a real revolution in construction. New types of buildings such as banks, shops, factories, and train stations occupied an increasing place in the urban landscape. The emergence of new building materials (reinforced concrete, metal structures) and the improvement of construction equipment made it possible to use constructive and artistic techniques, the aesthetic interpretation of which led to the approval of the modern style!
In the works of F.O.Shekhtel, the main trends in the development and genres of Russian modernity were embodied to the greatest extent. The formation of the style in the work of the master went along two directions - national-romantic, in line with the neo-Russian style and rational. The features of Art Nouveau are most fully manifested in the architecture of the Nikitsky Gate mansion, where, abandoning the traditional schemes, the asymmetric principle of planning is applied. The sloping composition, the free development of volumes in space, the asymmetric ledges of bay windows, balconies and porches, the accentuated cornice - all this demonstrates the principle inherent in modernity of assimilating an architectural structure to an organic form.
The decoration of the mansion uses such typical Art Nouveau techniques as colored stained glass windows and a mosaic frieze with floral ornaments encircling the entire building. The whimsical twists of the ornament are repeated in the interweaving of the stained-glass windows, in the drawing of the balcony bars and the street fence. The same motif was used in interior decoration, for example, in the form of marble stair railings. Furniture and decorative details of the building's interiors form a single whole with the general idea of \u200b\u200bthe building - to turn the everyday environment into a kind of architectural performance, close to the atmosphere of symbolic plays.
With the growth of rationalistic tendencies in a number of Shekhtel's buildings, the features of constructivism were outlined - a style that would take shape in the 1920s.
In Moscow, the new style expressed itself especially vividly, in particular, in the work of one of the founders of Russian Art Nouveau L. N. Kekushev. A. V. Shchusev, V. M. Vasnetsov and others worked in the neo-Russian style. In St. Petersburg, Art Nouveau was influenced by monumental classicism, as a result, another style appeared - neoclassicism.
In terms of the integrity of the approach and the ensemble solution of architecture, sculpture, painting, decorative arts, Art Nouveau is one of the most consistent styles.