Ancient Rome was a powerful state that occupied large expanses. In order to control everything and keep the lands in subjection, it was necessary not only to act by force, but also to have an advanced financial system. With its introduction to the newly conquered lands, it was more difficult for the people to separate from the Romans. In this article, we will take a closer look at the coins that were in use in Ancient Rome.
Bronze coins of Rome
Ass
This coin first appeared during the period of the Republic, although, according to legend, it was minted by Servius Tullius. The weight of the ace was 11 grams, and the diameter was 28 mm. Interestingly, before the appearance of this coin, there were ingots of raw copper in use.
There was 2 types of this coin: imperial and naval. The naval ace was used only to pay salaries to sailors. These coins were minted under the supervision of the Prefects of the Navy.
On the obverse Janus was depicted, and on the reverse were written the name of the city where the coin was created, the denomination and the ship was depicted. The imperial ass contained on the obverse the image of the emperor, and on reverse were the monogram of the emperor and the colonnade. Various abbreviations were also often carved.
Today the price of this coin is about 300 US dollars.
Semis
Another bronze ancient Roman coin, which cost ½ ass. The weight of the monetary unit was 3.88 grams, and the diameter was 18 mm. The coin was established during the time of the Republic, and abolished under the emperor Hadrian.
On one side of the semis was a bust of Saturn, and on the other was a portrait of the emperor. During the time of the Republic, Saturn was depicted on both sides and the denomination designation was the Latin letter “S”.
To replenish your collection with such a coin, you need to pay price from 60 to 80 dollars.
Triens
This coin had a value of 1/3 ass or 4 ounces. Four dots on both sides indicated that it was given 4 ounces. This coin weighed 10.58 grams, and the size was 23-24 mm.
She had on the obverse the image of the emperor, but during the period of the Republic, Minerva was depicted there. On the reverse there is the prow of the galley, if we are talking about sea money, or a colonnade with the emperor's monogram. It was on the reverse that the face value of the coin was always written.
Today the market average triens value is 50-80 US dollars. Although, there are copies in good condition, the price of which comes up to $ 120.
Quadrance
Quadrance is one of the smallest bronze coins in Roman use. It cost ¼ asse.
Outwardly, it had the shape of an irregular circle. On the obverse it was written "SC", which denoted the denomination "Senatus Consulto", and there was also a circular inscription. Reverse contained two hands in the form of a handshake and a circular inscription in Latin.
It is worth noting that this coin disappeared from use in the II century. Throughout the history of its existence, not only bronze was used, but also copper and silver. Therefore, it is rather difficult to determine the average cost today. However, regardless of the metal, all coins had a weight of 3.3-3.5 grams, and a diameter of 17-19 mm. If we talk about bronze coins, then their approximate price 20-70 USD .
sextans
This coin was worth 1/6 ass, which is clear from the name. It weighed 2.85 grams and was about 15 mm in diameter. The denomination on the coin is depicted as 2 circles, which means 2 ounces. Sextans first appeared during the Republic, and disappeared with the collapse of the Roman Empire.
On the obverse various pictures were minted: animals, images of people, shells and much more. There is a dotted decorative border around the entire circle of the coin. Only in the 3rd century did an image of Mercury appear here.
On the reverse depicted the bow of the galley or the inscription "ROMA". There is a sextant in the modern market within 50 US dollars. There are copies that are sold for 10-12 dollars.
Ounce
An ounce is smallest common coin in the Roman Empire.
Outwardly she little different from sextant, only its size was 8 mm, and its weight was 1.5 grams. Quite a few ounces have survived to this day, but despite this, price their quite low in today's market. The average price per coin is 10-18 dollars.
Silver coins of Rome
Double denarius or Antoninian
It was most expensive silver coin in Ancient Rome. She weighed at various times from 11 to 15 grams, and the diameter was 27-30 mm.
There were various images on the coin. It could be animals or plants, or it could be deities. The reverse, as a rule, depicted the profile of the emperor or the emperor on horseback. A lot of double denarii in good condition have survived to this day. Therefore, their price low enough. On average, such a coin can be purchased for $50.
Denarius
Denarius - the most common coin in Ancient Rome. It was used in external and internal trade transactions. It was first minted in 268 AD. The symbol of the denarius is the designation "X, X". Such a symbol is explained by the fact that 1 denarius was equal to 10 asses.
Initially, the weight of this coin was 4.5 grams, but in the future it periodically changed downwards.
Outwardly denarius it looked like this: the obverse depicted the emperor with a laurel wreath on his head, an inscription in Latin was located around the circle; the reverse contained images of Roman gods. It was on the reverse that the mark on the face value of the coin was located. Today, denarii are sold on the market for 120-150 dollars. If the copy is in excellent condition, then the price may exceed $ 200.
Double Victorian and Victory
These silver coins were worth 20 asses and 10 asses, respectively. They were more used in foreign trade. They appeared in 269 as a result of another financial reform.
On the obverse depicted Jupiter, and on reverse Victoria, from which the name of the coin came. The double victories weighed 6 grams, and the victories weighed 3 grams. However, they did not last long. These coins completely replaced the denarii, which were more popular with merchants, from circulation.
Today buy double victoriat you can for 100-120 US dollars, and the victoriat is about 100 dollars. The preservation of coins is generally quite good, as silver is a wear-resistant material.
Quinarius
Quinarius cost 5 asses and was not very popular with merchants. However, this coin was minted for almost 5 centuries. 1 quinary weighed about 1.5 grams, and the diameter was 15 mm.
The denomination of this coin was indicated on the reverse with the sign V or V. Also on reverse the goddess Victoria was depicted, and on the obverse portrait of the emperor. It is interesting that it was in these coins that the salaries of Roman legionnaires were paid.
To replenish your collection of quinaria, you need to pay price about 70 US dollars. Shipping costs are usually the responsibility of the buyer.
Sestertius
This coin cost only 2 asses and was made of silver for a long time, but after Emperor Augustus it was minted from brass.
The denomination was designated "IIS". On the obverse depicted an ancient Roman god, and on reverse the emperor was minted. There was a small decorative border on both sides, but due to technological features, it was not around the entire circle of the coin. Each such coin weighed approximately 11 grams and its diameter was 24-26 mm.
Today average price on the market for a sestertia is 180 dollars.
semi-victoriat
The semi-victoriat is smallest silver coin Ancient Rome.
On it, unlike the victoria, on the obverse depicted Apollo, on reverse there was a portrait of the emperor. This coin was worth ½ denarius and the letter “S” was used to designate the denomination. Today his price is approximately $140.
Roman gold coins
Golden denarius or aureus
On the obverse, as a rule, the image of the emperor was minted without any inscriptions, and on reverse was the goddess Victoria. Interestingly, the first such coins were made only from high-grade gold, but over the 500 years of their existence, the quality of the raw material has noticeably decreased, as well as the value of the coins themselves. This was connected with ongoing financial reforms and devaluations.
Today buy a gold denarius can be for 10-12 thousand US dollars. Although, there are copies that cost up to $ 18,000.
sesterces
The sestertia were very popular gold coins. They had denominations 60, 40 and 20. These banknotes were used to pay the salaries of the Roman commanders-in-chief, as well as to make foreign trade settlements. Most of these coins had a propaganda character.
They depicted emperors accepting the surrender of recalcitrant peoples or crushing a rebellion. On the other side, the profile of the emperor with a laurel wreath on his head was minted. On most of the coins, the overlords looked to the right.
All golden sisters are different high quality and detailed drawing of the pattern. 60 sisters weighed about 25 grams, 40 sisters weighed about 20 grams and 20 sisters weighed 19.5 grams. The diameter of the coins varied from 32 mm to 41 mm.
To buy such coins today, you need to pay quite a lot. average price on the market is about 10,000 dollars. However, samples of average quality can be sold for 7-8 thousand dollars.
golden quinary
Another gold ancient Roman coin. She was small and light, so she was used to pay the soldiers. This coin was easy to store and carry. Its size and weight were the same as those of silver quinaria, but the value was much higher. 2 golden quinaria were equal to one aureus.
To purchase such a coin today, you must pay price 5-7 thousand dollars.
In the era of transition from the direct exchange of goods to the introduction of money circulation, cattle was the main means of payment. The memory of this time is preserved in the Roman name for money "pecunia" (from "pecus" - cattle). In the future, they began to pay for goods with rectangular copper bars, weighing about one and a half kilograms, and those, in turn, gave way to real coins that appeared in Rome in the middle of the 5th century BC. The main monetary unit was copper ass - an ingot of copper, weighing 1 Roman pound, or 1 libra (322.8 g), which was 12 ounces of 26.9 g each. I must say that initially in different regions of Italy there were certain differences in the system of measures and weights. The so-called Oksky pound, or libre (approximately 273 g), corresponded in weight, as can be seen from its name, “libral ace”. Gradually, throughout Italy, the Roman libra became the main measure of weight, so the ass, which weighed 322.8 g, was denoted by the letter “L”. Time passed, and the Roman ass became lighter: its weight dropped to ¼ and even 1/6 of a pound. In the 1st century BC. the Romans began to say: "Ass you have, ass you stand!" (Petronius. "Satyricon"), meaning by ass an insignificant thing. Only from the 4th century BC. Rome began minting silver coins.
Its appearance was associated with growing contacts between Rome and the Greek colonies in southern Italy, where precious metal money had long been in use. About 340 B.C. in Capua, they began to issue a silver coin for Rome according to the Greek model. These were didrachms - two-drachm coins weighing 7.58 g, later in 6.82 g. The formal organization of coinage in the Republic occurred in 289 BC. with the establishment of a special board of 3 people. Their first task was to issue asses and copper ingots still in circulation with the official seal ("signats") stamped on them. Silver coins - denarii and sestertia - began to be minted in Rome in 269 or 268 BC. At that time, the denarius weighed 4.48 g or 1/72 libra. In the era of the 2nd Punic War, the first gold coin became widespread - scruple, equal to 20 silver sesterces. In Rome, the workshop where money was minted was located near the Temple of Juno Moneta (“Warning”). Hence the word “coin” that entered European languages. The most valuable source on the history of coinage in Rome is Pliny the Elder's Natural History (book 33, 42-48). He says that before the forced departure of the troops of King Pyrrhus from Italy in 275 BC. the Roman people were happily unaware of precious metal money. There were no gold or silver coins, and only a copper ass weighing 1 pound was in circulation. For all calculations, money was measured by weight, so the warrior’s salary was called “stipend” (from “pendo” - I weigh).
And subsequently, the scales remained one of the attributes of the execution of a trade transaction. So, during mancipation - a formal procedure for transferring any property or slaves to the ownership of a new owner, the buyer, in the presence of witnesses, hit the scales with a piece of copper on the scales and then handed the seller along with the necessary amount of money. Servius Tullius, one of the ancient Roman kings, introduced, according to Pliny, the custom of marking pieces of copper with a special state sign. Modern researchers attribute the emergence of this custom already to the era of the Republic, to the 5th century BC. Images of cattle were minted on copper coins. Silver coins, according to Pliny, began to be issued only 5 years before the 1st Punic War. It was established that a denarius should weigh 10 pounds, a quinary 5, and a sestertius 2 and a half. The lack of funds for waging war with Carthage forced the Roman authorities to resort to damage to the coin, to put into circulation asses, the weight of which was 6 times less than before. This measure was successful and brought considerable benefits to the impoverished treasury. With the help of a stamp on copper coins, the head of the two-faced Janus was depicted on one side, and on the other, the bow of the ship, while on small coins - triens and quadrans - they were placed entirely. Bigi and quadriga were stamped on the silver coins, hence the names of the coins bigat and quadrigat. Finally, in 104 BC, Pliny adds, Rome was introduced to a new monetary unit, the victoriat, emblazoned with the image of the goddess Victoria. However, Pliny is mistaken: the Romans began to mint the Victorians as early as 268 BC, and 40 years later they opened a special mint on the island of Corcyra. There they issued these coins, equal in weight to ¾ denarius.
They were used mainly in trade relations with the Greek states, because they were equivalent to the Greek drachma and therefore facilitated mutual settlements. In the internal money market of the Roman state, victoriats did not gain popularity for a long time and were considered more like a foreign currency. Only at the turn of II-I centuries BC. The victoriat was equated to half a denarius and was supposed to enter into circulation on the domestic market from now on. Speaking about the minting of coins in the provinces, we note that some Greek cities within the empire retained the right to issue their own coin, and this was an important privilege for them, granted to them either by the emperor himself or by his governor in the province. This privilege meant recognition of the prominent political, economic and administrative role of the city and gave it greater independence in its internal affairs. In addition, allowing the city to have its own mint helped provide the province with the amount of change it needed. By the time of the fall of the Republic, the Roman monetary system had been largely shaken by the economic and political crisis. The main unit of money count was still the sestertius, which retained this role until the 3rd century inclusive. The most common denomination remained the silver denarius, which weighed 3 ⅔ scruples. Less common were its fractions: quinary, victoriat and sestertius (sestertius nummus). A gold coin was issued only occasionally, for example, Caesar issued in 46-44 BC. gold coins worth 20 million denarii for distribution to the army and citizens. Of the bronze denominations, Ass. Anthony minted sestertia, dupondii, asses and semises. In general, the Roman republican monetary system was based on silver and bronze denominations.
Monetary system of the early empire
The Monetary Reform of Augustus and the System of Monetary Circulation under the Julio-Claudian Dynasty
After coming to power, Octavian spends in 31-27 BC. monetary reform. Its main content is the introduction of the gold coin "Aurea" into the systematic circulation and changes in the circulation of the copper coin. As is known, 40 pieces of aurei were minted from libra and weighed 8.19 g. Until Augustus, it was beaten out only sporadically. The denarius remained unchanged and was knocked out in the amount of 84 pieces per pound, weighed 3.89 g, and was 3 3/7 scruples of pure silver. The following changes occur in the circulation of the copper coin. A more expensive type of copper alloy appears - aurichalk, from which sestertium weighing 27.3 g and dupondium weighing 13.36 g are minted. Three denominations are minted from bronze - ass weighing 10.92 g, semis - 4.59 g, quadrans - 2, 7 y.
The composition of denominations under Augustus:
Gold
Aureus = 2 golden quinaria = 25 denarii = 100 sesterces
Silver
Denarius = 2 silver quinaria = 50 sesterces
Aurihalk
Sestertius \u003d 2 dupondium \u003d 4 ass \u003d 16 quadrants
Bronze
1 ass = 4 quadrants
Monetary reform of Nero 64 years
There is a decrease in the weight of coins made of precious metals. Aureus was knocked out in the amount of 45 pieces from the libra and weighed 7.28 g, the weight of the denarius decreased to 3 scruples and amounted to 3.41 g. The ratio between gold and silver remained the same. The most detrimental consequences were not the decrease in the weight of the coins, but their deterioration. Under Nero, the denarius began to include a small amount of 15% ligature. Nero minted 2 types of quadrants: from copper 3.08 g and aurichalka 2.1 g.
Money circulation during the Civil War of 68-69
There are no special changes. The weight of coins of military coinage remained the same. Aurei weigh - 7.26 g (Galba), 7.24 g (Otho), 7.32 g (Vitellius). The weight of the sestertius decreased slightly, but Galba increased the size of the copper coins.
Flavian coinage
Under Flavius, there are no decisive changes. Semis, equal to half of the assa, are introduced into circulation. Some increase in the weight of coins occurs in the reign of Domitian in 82. The weight of the aureus rose from 7.25 to 7.58 g, the denarius from 3.18 to 3.32 g, the sestertium to 25.62, the assa to 11.05 g. Thus, his coins were the largest of the Flavians. The average weight of the Flavian coins was as follows.
The composition of the denominations under the Flavius:
Gold
Aurei - 7.41 g
Quinarius (half aureus) - 3.70 g
Silver
Denarius - 3.20 g
Quinarius (half a denarius) - 1.56 g
Kistofor - 10.18 g
Aurihalk
Sestertium - 25.51 g
Dupondium - 12.88 g
Bronze
Ass - 10.90 g
Semis - 3.27 g
Quadrance - 2.22 g.
Coinage under the first Antonines
The composition of the denominations under the first Antonines:
Gold
Aurei - 7.40 g
Quinarius (half aureus) - 3.60 g
Silver
Silver medallions (according to Mattingly):
7 denarii - 22.07 g
8 denarii - 25.36 g
12 denarii - 35.85 g
Denarius - 3.18 g
Quinarius (half a denarius) - 1.50 g
Kistofor - 10.06 g
Aurihalk
Sestertium - 25.76 g
Dupondium - 12.94 g
Bronze
Ass - 9.73 g
Semis - 3.70 g
Quadrance - 2.10 g.
Monetary relations under Antoninus Pius and the last Antonines
No major changes have taken place. Aurei were minted according to the reduced standard of Nero. Golden quinaria was issued irregularly, at long intervals. Denarius continued to lose weight and the quality of the metal. Silver quinarius in the reign of Antoninus Pius becomes a rarity, more often it was beaten out under Mark and Commodus. Large gold and silver medallions are becoming very rare. Semis completely disappears from circulation. Quadrance was issued only under Antoninus Pius, and then disappears after the semis. The minting of dupondium continues, the ray crown remains the external difference from the assa. Under Commodus, there is a decrease in the weight of coins. This contributed to the rise in prices at the end of his reign, despite all the measures he took. In the coinage of Commodus, denarii weighing only 2.83-2.85 g are often found. By the end of the 2nd century, the amount of ligature increases to 50%, which leads to a further fall in the denarius exchange rate, old denarii cost 2 times more than new ones. The weight and sample of the aureus practically did not change. But its coinage has decreased in comparison with the previous period.
The composition of the denominations at the last Antonina:
Gold
Aureus - 7.23 g
Quinarius (half aureus) - 3.61 g
Silver
Denarius - 3.08 g
Quinaria (half a denarius) - 1.66 g
Aurihalk
Sestertium - 25.03 g
Dupondium - 12.63 g
Bronze
Ass - 10.31 g
Quadrance - 3.16 g (only under Antoninus Pius).
Monetary circulation of the Roman Empire in the III - V centuries
Caracalla's reform and coinage at the beginning of the 3rd century
In 215, major changes took place in the monetary system. Caracalla changed the weight of the aureus, which was now knocked out in the amount of 50 pieces from the libra. Began to be produced double aurei. In addition, Caracalla began to produce a denarius of double size and greater weight, antoninian, which differed from the old ones in that the crown of the emperors on it was radiant, and the busts of the empresses were decorated with a crescent below. The question of the ratio of antoninian and denarius is still open. The reform of Caracalla was carried out in the interests of the army. However, Caracalla failed to equalize the rate of silver, as the deterioration of the coin continued, there was more than half of copper in it. The coinage of the Aurey decreased significantly. The coins of the first Severs and their opponents had the following weights.
The composition of the denominations at the North:
Gold
Double aurei (only with Caracalla) - 13.19 g
Aurei - 6.84 g
Quinarius (half aureus) - 3.41 g
Silver
Antoninian (only under Caracalla) - 5.16 g
Denarius - 3.11 g
Quinarius (half a denarius) - 1.41 g
Kistofor - 8.63 g
Aurihalk
Sestertium - 23.47 g
Dupondium - 10.79 g
Bronze
Ass - 11.95 g
It follows from the given data that the weight of ac exceeds the average statistical weight of dupondium. This is explained by large fluctuations in the weights of coins of these denominations: dupondium from 8.50 to 13.08 g, assa from 9.84 to 14.06 g, as well as the difference in the price of aurihalch and bronze.
The system of monetary circulation in the 20-60s of the III century
The emperors of this time are making attempts to stabilize the system of monetary circulation. Thus, Alexander Severus and Maximinus Thracian refused to issue Antoninians and again give preference to the denarius, which continues to lose its quality more and more. From copper coins, only three denominations are still issued: sestertius, dupondium and ass. Gordian III resumes the production of antoninians, which soon completely replace the denarius from circulation. By the middle of the 3rd century, the antoninian turns into a purely copper coin with a meager 2% silver content. It depreciated so much that such denominations were counted in bags. The circulation of the copper coin loses its meaning, and its minting ends in the provinces and Rome. Until the end of the 60s, large bronze coins were minted in the city, the denomination of which is very difficult to determine due to the instability of the weight of the units of the bronze coin. By the time of the reign of Gallienus, the Roman monetary system was completely undermined. The usurpers and the emperor beat a huge amount of coins. A deep crisis is coming. Some emperors tried to overcome it, for example, Postumus, who united the western provinces. At the mint in August Trevers, a silver coin of improved quality and large bronze were minted. Claudius II and others tried to start issuing a silver coin; Victorinus led its intensive minting. However, these attempts, which were successful in a certain part of the Empire, could not give tangible results on a national scale.
Reforms of Aurelian and Diocletian
The next attempt to stabilize the situation was made by Aurelian. He continues to mint an inferior antoninian, on which the denominations XX.I and KA are placed, the meaning of which has not been established. Aurelian is trying to improve the quality of the gold coin: by the time of his reign, the composition of the aureus was like this. Gold 1.33%, silver 15.94% and 82.73% copper. However, the crisis in the Empire continued to deepen. The monetary reform of Diocletian was carried out in close connection with the tax reform, and was aimed at raising the exchange rate of money. Diocletian returned to circulation the aureus, which was beaten out in the amount of 70, and then 60 pieces from the libra, and a silver coin, which was beaten out in the amount of 96 pieces from the libra. Another silver coin was the miliarencia introduced by Diocletian. In addition, bronze silver-plated coins were minted at the rate of 30 pieces from libra, weighing 9-13 grams. The reform of Diocletian was doomed to failure in advance due to the violation of the ratio between gold, silver and copper. In addition, bad silver coins and a lot of counterfeit coins continued to circulate.
Monetary reform of Constantine the Great and the monetary system in the 4th - 5th centuries
Under Constantine I, the economic situation and the system of monetary circulation become more stable. A major role in this was played by the reform carried out in 309-324. In 309, Constantine introduces the golden solidus, first in the east, and in 324 throughout the Empire. Solid had 4 scruples of gold and was almost unalloyed. Its fineness gave the coin a high prestige not only within the country, but also abroad. Solid weighed 4.55 g and beat out in the amount of 72 pieces per pound. In addition to solid, its fractions were produced: semises (1/2), triens (1/3) and weighing 1.52 g. Solid becomes the basis of the counting and weight system. New silver denominations appear: a heavy miliarence weighing 5.54 g, minted in the amount of 60 pieces per pound; siliqua (1/144), half miliarencia. Nummia weighing 9-13 g, put into circulation under Diocletian, were minted in bronze. By 311 their weight dropped to 4-5 grams. Until the end of the imperial period, the monetary system created by Constantine did not change significantly. Subsequent emperors introduced some new denominations. Under Valentinian I, the issue of triens increased, Theodosius I minted even more of them. He also probably began to mint coins of 1.5 solidus. Majorina was introduced by magnentium. Included in circulation is a centenional - a copper coin with a small amount of silver weighing 2-3 grams. Honorius began to mint coins in denominations of half-siliqua. By the end of the 4th and the beginning of the 5th century, the composition of the denominations was determined as follows:
Gold
Solid - 4.55 g
1/2 solid - 2.30 g
1/3 solid - 1.50 g
Silver
Severe miliarencia - 5.54 g
Easy miliarencia - 4.54 g
Silikva - 2.28 g
1/2 siliqua - 1.15 g
Bronze
Nummii - 9-13 g
Majorin -?
Centenional - 2-3 g.
As a counting unit, the solidus was divided into 12 miliarences or 24 siliquas (288 nummi). Siliqua was 1/6 scruple and in Byzantine times was the basis of the account. The ratio between gold and silver was approximately 14:1. In this form, the monetary system existed until the Byzantine period.
This section is based on the books by M.G. Abramzon "Coins as a means of promoting the official policy of the Roman Empire" and L. Vinnichuk "People, manners and customs of Ancient Greece and Rome."
The Roman Empire is one of the most majestic countries of Antiquity, which received such a name in honor of its capital - the city of Rome, whose founder is considered to be Romulus.
The territory of the empire was striking in its size: it stretched from north to south from Great Britain to Ethiopia, from east to west from Iran to Portugal.
In terms of development, the ancient Romans were far ahead of their time. It was here that Roman law originated and spread, such architectural phenomena as the dome and arch also first appeared in Rome. Sewerage worked in the empire, there were excellent baths and saunas with hot water, water mills, by the way, were also invented here, not to mention the roads, which are in perfect condition and are still in operation.
Culture and life of the ancient Romans
The official language of the Roman Empire was Latin, the same language that still denotes most medical terms today. In those days, they knew how to treat many diseases, including fractures, problems with teeth (during excavations they found a skull with sealed teeth), and performed surgical operations.
In general, the standard of living in the Roman Empire was the highest in those days. She successfully resisted the barbarians, fought several wars with Carthage, eventually wiping out a formidable enemy from the face of the Earth, and also conducted powerful campaigns to seize neighboring territories.
We know a lot about the ancient rulers, science, culture and life of the Romans due to the fact that they kept detailed records of all the outstanding events in the life of the country, many of which have survived to this day.
Form of government and civil liberties
The Romans managed to create and maintain a republican form of government. Even slaves here had their rights and opportunities. The inhabitants of the country adhered to their own ideology, which later allowed to expand the territory of the country and make it a huge superpower of that time.
The patriarchy reigned in Rome. But, despite the fact that the head of the family was the eldest man and all other members of the family were under his authority, women had some rights and freedoms. So, a woman was engaged in economic affairs, had the right to move freely around the city or country, go to visit friends, attend public meetings.
Only men were involved in politics, but women from high society were allowed certain privileges. And yet, the fair sex did not have the right to own real estate, as well as sons until the death of their father. The head of the clan also dealt with financial matters of the family. He could also recognize the child as his own and support him or order him to be killed.
Education
In the Roman Empire, education was born, which can rightly be considered the forerunner of the modern education system. Girls and boys entered school at the age of seven. Education was divided into three stages: primary, secondary and higher. At the first two stages, general information was given in each subject, and in higher education, the emphasis was on the study of oratory.
Wealthy families preferred home education for their children, it was considered very prestigious to have a Greek teacher, who, as a rule, was a slave.
There were schools where girls and boys studied together. At the age of 17, young men had to undergo military training. For girls, education was also compulsory, but it was more practical in nature - knowledge and skills were supposed to help them fulfill the duties of a housewife and raising children.
It was very fashionable to receive higher education in Greece. Basically, rhetoric was taught in schools on the island of Rhodes, which was far from cheap, but gave great prospects.
The financial system in the early stages of the formation of Rome
At the dawn of the empire, the Italian economy was built on barter. Suppose a family specialized in production (baking bread), it grew grain, collected, ground and made flour, which it later used. Ready-made bread was exchanged by family members for the goods they needed.
Later, cattle began to play the role of money. With the rise of the country's economy, small ingots of copper and gold appeared, which became more convenient monetary substitutes. Over time, they were transformed into the first Roman coins. This is how weight money appeared.
First money - copper coins
In the 4th century BC e. on the territory of the state begin to mint the first Roman bronze coins, which were called "asses". There were two types of aces: imperial and marine, with which they paid salaries to sailors.
Greek coins - drachmas - are actively used. But Roman silver coins begin to be minted in 268 BC. e. These coins depicted gods, rulers and prominent figures of the state, various animals.
Empires, photos of samples of which are given below, are found everywhere in the former territory of the state.
The production of coins was carried out by the Senate and a special unit, the prototype of the mint. There are records that during the reign of Gaius Julius Caesar, the Roman gold coin was minted by the mint, and sometimes he produced coins, deliberately underestimating the purity of the metal, in other words, counterfeit money.
Gold coins were issued in various denominations: 60 asses (3.5 grams), 40 (2.2 grams) and 20 (1.2 grams) asses.
Variety of silver and copper coins
There were four types of silver coins:
- Denarius, worth 10 asses. Their weight was 4.5 grams.
- Victory, the cost of which was equal to 7.5 asses, and the weight was 3.4 grams.
- Quinarius. The equivalent in asses was 5 coins. Weight - 2.2 grams.
- Sestertius (2.5 ass - 1.1 grams).
The denarius was the most common currency made from silver. Such coins participated in both domestic and foreign trade. The double denarius was the most expensive Roman silver coin.
Roman copper coins, in addition to asses, had several more types, the main difference of which was their size and weight.
- ass - 36 grams;
- semis - 18 grams;
- triens - 12 grams;
- quadrans - 9 grams;
- sextant - 6 grams;
- ounce - 3 grams;
- semuntion - 1.5 grams.
The shortage of silver and the new gold coin - aurei
The minting of gold coins stopped after completion and resumed as much as 100 years later, during the reign of Sulla. The reason for the restoration of this monetary system was the lack of silver and an excess of gold in the state, as well as the need to finance the impending war against the Marians.
The new Roman gold coin became known as the aureus, which translates from Latin as "golden". The weight of the coin was 10.5 grams. The rarest ancient Roman coin of Pompey Magna, minted in connection with the shortage of silver, dates back to this time. After the Sertorian War, the aurei fell into disuse.
financial reform
A new monetary reform was carried out in 141. Its necessity was caused by the constant drop in the cost of aces. Now Roman coins had a new symbol instead of the image "X" - an asterisk or a crossed out tens.
Silver coins such as sestertius and quinarius also disappear a few years after the reform.
Copper money remained almost unchanged until the beginning of the 1st century, after which they gradually disappear from the arena. At that time, the Roman Empire already had an impressive size, so the financial needs of the power were filled by local coinage: tetradrachms of Macedonia, cystophores of Asia Minor, bronze and other provinces of Rome. There was a credit, bill of exchange system, as well as promissory notes.
Bronze was a fairly cheap material, and in order to give the coins a purchasing value, a special abbreviation was printed on them - SC, which stood for Senatus Consulto. Almost all bronze coins issued before the 3rd century had this sign on the reverse side.
On the coins of the later times of Aurelian and Postumus, this sign is absent, but on all the others it is, and with almost no variation in spelling. Also, during the prosperity of the Empire, several rare coins made of precious metals were issued, with the abbreviations EX, SC. Historians believe that these Roman coins were minted from senatorial bars of a higher standard.
Image of rulers on money and decoding of inscriptions
The rulers corresponding to that time were depicted on the money of different eras. Roman emperors stood out quite clearly on the coins, with inscriptions and abbreviations usually going around their heads.
For example, a coin from the time of Domitian shows the profile of the ruler, and around you can make out the following inscription: IMP CAES DOMIT AVG GERM PM TRP XII
IMP XXII COS XVI CENS P PP.
Let's analyze this inscription in more detail.
- The abbreviation IMP means "Emperor" - the commander-in-chief of the Roman army. The title was updated after each victorious war.
- The number after the title of Emperor means how many times this title was awarded to this person. If there is no number, then he received the title only once.
- CAES means Caesar. An imperial title dating back to the time of Julius Caesar, in whose name this designation can be seen.
- AVG - August. Another imperial title. For a large period of time, the rulers bore both titles: Caesar and Augustus, as a more modern definition. Later, the title Caesar came to refer to a junior member of the imperial family.
- PM - Pontific Maximus, or Supreme Pontiff. If there were several rulers at the same time, then this title passed to the eldest of the emperors, all the rest were listed simply as pontiffs. With the adoption of Christianity, this designation was no longer used. And over time, the title began to belong to the Pope.
- TRP - translates as people's tribune, which was a very honorable position in republican Rome. The number next to the abbreviation means how many times the ruler performed the duties of the above position.
- COS - Consul - the highest position in Rome during the Republic. During the empire, it was often performed by members of the ruling family, but only the Emperor could become Consul more than once. The number next to it shows how many times Caesar acted as Consul. In the case of Domitian, we see the number 16.
- PP - Father of the Fatherland. The title was given to emperors a few years after their reign. Domitian received it in the 12th year of his tenure. In the case of the mint made a mistake. In the first year of the reign of the emperor, a batch of coins was issued with the title of Father of the Fatherland assigned to him, in the next decade this title is absent on the coins.
- GERM - German. It served as a reminder and glorification of a particular emperor as a conqueror and winner of the tribes.
- CENS P - position of censor. As a rule, the emperor performed it for life.
There are a number of other interesting abbreviations, as, for example, on the coins of the times of Constantine I, II and Licinius II.
On these coins, in addition to the designations already known to us, the following abbreviations appear.
- MAX - Maximus, that is, the Greatest. The title was given to Constantine I, better known as Constantine the Great.
- SM, P - Sacra coin, or petsunia (money), sometimes included in the stamp of the collegium for minting coins.
- VOT - Here is an oath. Each emperor took an oath in which he promised to serve his people. Usually it was repeated after a certain time.
- PERP - Perpetus - eternal. The definition was used in conjunction with other titles.
- DN - Dominus Noster, can be translated as "our lord". The ceremony of coming to power of the new Caesar began with these words.
- DV - Divus, which means "divine". This title was awarded to the deceased deified ruler.
- PT - Pater, father. This inscription appeared on coins with Constantine the Great, which were issued by his sons.
- VNMR - Venerabilis memoria, or eternal memory. Inscription on coins dedicated to Constantine the Great.
Images of gods on coins of different eras
In addition to the Caesars, Roman coins bore images of their gods. Such coins were widely used in Greece, which was already part of the Roman Empire.
The following deities were mainly depicted:
- Asclepius, who is the patron saint of medicine.
- Apollo is the god of music and the arts.
- Liber Bacchus is the god of winemaking and entertainment. The coin was issued during
- Demeter is the goddess of agriculture.
- Celeste is an African goddess whose cult was especially popular in Rome during the reign of the Severes.
- Artemis is a hunting goddess. The coin was issued during the time of Julius Domna.
- Hercules is a demigod, the son of Zeus and a mortal woman. It was a symbol of strength and steadfastness. Depicted on the coins of the period of Septimius Severus.
- Isis is an Egyptian goddess who was very popular in the Empire in the late 3rd century CE. e. It can be seen on the denarii of the time of Julius Domnus.
- Janus often appeared on Republican denarii, but was extremely rare in the Empire.
- Juno is the wife of the supreme god Zeus. The coin was minted during the time of Julius Meuse.
- Zeus is the sister of the North.
- Ares, Mars - the bloody god of war. It was popular during the time of Septimius Severus.
- to sweep. Found on the denarii of Emperor Claudius.
Coins can be purchased at auctions starting at $50 each, or from collectors for a bargain price. They are a frequent exhibit among admirers of antiquity.
Roman coins, photos of which are published in online auctions, can be viewed in detail before buying. But rare finds that can be seen in museums in Europe become public.