The error in the Julian calendar has led to the fact that the actual time of the vernal equinox has ceased to coincide with the calendar. The moment of equality of day and night passed to ever earlier numbers: first on March 20, then on 19, 18, etc. As a result, by the second half of the XVI century. this discrepancy was 10 days: by julian calendar the equinox should have come on March 21, but in reality it was already March 11. This caused additional corrections and clarifications to the calendar.
Inaccuracy was discovered at the beginning of the XIV century. In 1324, the Byzantine scholar Nikifor Grigora drew the attention of Emperor Andronicus II to the fact that the spring equinox no longer falls on March 21, which means that Easter will gradually move to a later time. Therefore, he considered it necessary to correct the calendar and with it the calculation of the Passover. However, the emperor rejected the proposal to correct the calendar, believing that this would cause disagreement between the individual Orthodox Churches.
Other Byzantine scholars, Matvey Vlastar and Isaac Argir, also pointed out the inaccuracy of the calendar, but the Byzantine Church refused to carry out calendar reform. Moreover, in the “delay” of the calendar, the Church even saw some advantage, believing that such a discrepancy would only save Christian Easter from coinciding in time with Jewish Easter. And their simultaneous celebration was strictly forbidden by the Council Rules.
The need for reform of the Julian calendar was also understood by many representatives of the Western Church. In the XIV century. Papa Clement VI spoke in favor of correcting the calendar. The flaws of the calendar and the inaccuracy of the existing Easter were the subject of discussion at the Basel Cathedral (1437), where Nikolai Kuzansky, an outstanding philosopher and scientist of the Renaissance, made his project. In 1475, Pope Sixtus IV began preparations for the reform of the calendar and invited the eminent German astronomer and mathematician Regiomontan to Rome, but the unexpected death of the scientist forced the Pope to postpone the reform. In the XVI century. the issue of calendar reform was considered at the Lateran (1512-1517) and Trent (1545-1563) Councils. In 1514, the Lateran Cathedral invited the Polish astronomer Nikolai Copernicus, already known in Europe, to Rome to participate in the calendar commission. But Copernicus declined to participate in the commission and pointed out the prematureness of such a reform, since he believed that by that time the duration of the tropical year had not been determined accurately enough.
By the middle of the XVI century. the issue of calendar reform is becoming so urgent that it was deemed undesirable to postpone its decision. In 1582, Pope Gregory XIII created a special calendar commission, which was entrusted with the development of a draft amended calendar. As a result, the commission proposed for approval the project of the Italian mathematician and doctor Luigi Lilio, a professor of medicine at the University of Perugia.
On February 24, 1582, the Lilio project was officially approved by Pope Gregory XIII bull? Inter gra-issimas ". The count of days was moved 10 days ahead and the day after October 4, 1582 was prescribed not October 5, but October 15. This was immediately corrected the error that has accumulated since the time of the Council of Nicaea and the vernal equinox again fell on March 21. The reformed calendar was called gregorian, or "new style".
By the time of the calendar reform, the difference between the old and the new styles was 10 days. This amendment remained the same in the 17th century, since 1600 was a leap year both in the new style and in the old. But in the XVIII century. the amendment increased to 11 days, in the XIX century. - up to 12 days and, finally, in the twentieth century. - up to 13 days.
The reason for the change in the correction value depends on the fact that in the Julian calendar 1700 1800 and 1900 are leap years, i.e. in February they contain 29 days, and in Gregorian they are not leap and in February they have only 28 days. To translate the Julian date of any event that occurred after the reform of 1582 into new style You can use the following table:
The Gregorian calendar was not immediately widespread. In Catholic countries (France, Italy, Spain, Portugal, Poland, etc.), it was introduced in 1582, or somewhat later. In Protestant states for a long time they were guided by the saying that "it is better to disperse with the Sun than with the Pope." The Orthodox Church opposed the new style even longer.
In a number of countries, the introduction of the Gregorian calendar even became a cause of popular unrest. The largest rally in history was the "calendar riots" in Riga from 1584 to 1589. They were caused by the decree of the Polish king Stefan Batory on the introduction of a new calendar not only in Poland, but also in the Zadvina Duchy, which was under Polish-Lithuanian rule at that time.
In England, the introduction of the new calendar was accompanied by the postponement of the beginning of the new year from March 25 to January 1. Thus, the year 1751 in England consisted of only 282 days.
In the XIX century. attempts were made to introduce the Gregorian calendar in Russia, but each time they failed due to the opposition of the Russian Orthodox Church and the government. Calendar reform was carried out in Russia in 1918, after the establishment of Soviet power. But the Russian Orthodox Church has remained committed to the old style.
Since the early 20s of the twentieth century. the Gregorian calendar was adopted by most Orthodox Churches. However, noting the fixed holidays according to the Gregorian calendar, the Orthodox Churches continue to use the Julian calendar in calculating Easter, the principles of which began to slightly differ from the Gregorian Easter used by the Western Church after the calendar reform.
Currently, only four Orthodox Churches - the Russian, Georgian, Serbian and Jerusalem - continue to adhere to the Julian calendar.
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Gregorian calendar - a system of calculating time, based on the cyclic revolution of the earth around the sun; the duration of the year is assumed to be 365.2425 days; contains 97 leap years for 400 years.
For the first time, the Gregorian calendar was introduced by Pope Gregory XIII in the Catholic countries on October 4, 1582 to replace the former Julian: the next day after Thursday, October 4, was Friday October 15.
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Gregorian calendar structure
In the Gregorian calendar, the length of the year is assumed to be 365.2425 days. The leap year is 365 days, the leap year is 366.
365,242 5 \u003d 365 + 0, 25 - 0, 01 + 0,002 5 \u003d 365 + 1 4 - 1 100 + 1 400. (\\ displaystyle 365 (,) 2425 \u003d 365 + 0 (,) 25-0 (,) 01 + 0 (,) 0025 \u003d 365 + (\\ frac (1) (4)) - (\\ frac (1) (100 )) + (\\ frac (1) (400)).)
From here follows the distribution of leap years:
- a year whose number is a multiple of 400 is a leap year;
- other years - a year, the number of which is a multiple of 100 - non-leap;
- other years - the year, the number of which is a multiple of 4 - a leap year.
Thus, the years 1600 and 2000 were leap years, and the years 1700, 1800 and 1900 were not leap years.
An error of one day compared to the year of the equinoxes in the Gregorian calendar will accumulate in about 10,000 years (in the Julian calendar - in about 128 years). A frequently occurring estimate, leading to a magnitude of the order of 3000 years, is obtained if you do not take into account that over time the number of days in a tropical year changes and, in addition, the ratio between the durations of the seasons changes.
In the Gregorian calendar, years are leap and non-leap years; a year can begin with any of the seven days of the week. Together, this gives 2 × 7 \u003d 14 calendar options.
Months
According to the Gregorian calendar, the year is divided into 12 months, lasting from 28 to 31 days:
| № | Month | Number of days |
|---|---|---|
| 1 | January | 31 |
| 2 | February | 28 (29 - in a leap year) |
| 3 | March | 31 |
| 4 | April | 30 |
| 5 | May | 31 |
| 6 | June | 30 |
| 7 | July | 31 |
| 8 | August | 31 |
| 9 | September | 30 |
| 10 | October | 31 |
| 11 | November | 30 |
| 12 | December | 31 |
The rule of remembering the number of days in a month
There is a simple rule for remembering the number of days in a month - “ knuckle rule».
If you put your fists together in front of you so that you can see the back of your palms, then you can determine whether a month is “long” (31 days) or “short” by the “knuckles” (finger joints) on the edge of the palm and the spaces between them. (30 days, except February). To do this, you need to start counting the months from January, counting knuckles and intervals. January will correspond to the first knuckle (long month - 31 days), February - the interval between the first and second knuckles (short month), March - knuckle, etc. The next two consecutive long months - July and August - fall on the adjacent knuckles of different hands (the gap between the fists is not considered).
There is also the mnemonic rule "Ap-yun-sen-no." The syllables of this word indicate the names of the months, consisting of 30 days. It is known that February, depending on the specific year, contains 28 or 29 days. Yet the rest of the months contain 31 days. The convenience of this mnemonic rule is that there is no need to “count” the knuckles.
Also, to remember the number of days in months, there is an English-language school saying: Thirty days have september, april, june and november. German equivalent: Dreißig Tage hat September, April, Juni und November.
The difference between the Julian and Gregorian calendars
At the time of the introduction of the Gregorian calendar, the difference between it and the Julian calendar was 10 days. However, this difference is gradually increasing due to the different number of leap years - in the Gregorian calendar, the final year of the century, if it is not divisible by 400, is not a leap year (see Leap year) - and today is 13 days.
History
Gregorian calendar prerequisites
The Gregorian calendar is much more accurate than the Julian calendar: it gives a much better approximation to the tropical year. The reason for the adoption of the new calendar was the gradual shift in relation to the Julian calendar of the vernal equinox, on which the date of Easter was determined, and the mismatch of Easter full moon with astronomical. Prior to Gregory XIII, Pope Paul III and Pius IV tried to implement the project, but they did not achieve success. The preparation of the reform at the direction of Gregory XIII was carried out by astronomers Christopher Clavius \u200b\u200band Aloysius Lilius. The results of their work were recorded in the papal bull, signed by the pontiff at Villa Mondragon and named on the first line Inter gravissimas ("Among the most important").
The transition to the Gregorian calendar entailed the following changes:
Over time, the Julian and Gregorian calendars diverge more and more at a rate of approximately one day per century, if the number of the previous century is not divided by 4.
Dates of transition of countries to the Gregorian calendar
| The last day julian calendar |
First day Gregorian calendar |
States and Territories |
|---|---|---|
| October 4, 1582 | October 15, 1582 | Spain, Italy, Portugal, Commonwealth (federal state: Grand Duchy of Lithuania and the Kingdom of Poland) |
| December 9, 1582 | December 20, 1582 | France, Lorraine |
| December 21, 1582 | January 1, 1583 | Holland, Brabant, Flanders, Belgium |
| February 10, 1583 | February 21, 1583 | Bishopric of Liège |
| February 13, 1583 | February 24, 1583 | Augsburg |
| October 4, 1583 | October 15, 1583 | Trier |
| December 5, 1583 | December 16, 1583 | Bavaria, Salzburg, Regensburg |
| 1583 | Austria (part), Tyrol | |
| January 6, 1584 | January 17, 1584 | Austria |
| January 11, 1584 | January 22, 1584 | Switzerland (cantons of Lucerne, Uri, Schwyz, Zug, Freiburg, Solothurn) |
| January 12, 1584 | January 23, 1584 | Silesia |
| 1584 | Westphalia, Spanish Colonies in America | |
| October 21, 1587 | November 1, 1587 | Hungary |
| December 14, 1590 | December 25, 1590 | Transylvania |
| August 22, 1610 | September 2, 1610 | Prussia |
| February 28, 1655 | March 11, 1655 | Switzerland (canton of Valais) |
| February 18, 1700 | March 1, 1700 | Denmark (including Norway), Protestant German states |
| November 16, 1700 | November 28, 1700 | Iceland |
| December 31, 1700 | January 12, 1701 | Switzerland (Zurich, Berne, Basel, Geneva) |
| September 2, 1752 | September 14, 1752 | Great Britain and the colonies |
| February 17, 1753 | March 1, 1753 | Sweden (including Finland) |
| October 5, 1867 | October 18, 1867 | Alaska (day of transfer of territory from Russia to the USA) |
| January 1, 1873 | Japan | |
| November 20, 1911 | China | |
| December 1912 | Albania | |
| March 31, 1916 | April 14, 1916 | Bulgaria |
| February 15, 1917 | March 1, 1917 | Turkey (with retaining the account of years according to the Romanian calendar with a difference of −584 years) |
| January 31, 1918 | February 14, 1918 | RSFSR, Estonia |
| February 1, 1918 | February 15, 1918 | Latvia, Lithuania (actually since the beginning of the German occupation in 1915) |
| February 16, 1918 | March 1, 1918 | Ukraine (Ukrainian People's Republic) |
| April 17, 1918 | May 1, 1918 | Transcaucasian Democratic Federal Republic (Georgia, Azerbaijan, and Armenia) |
| January 18, 1919 | February 1, 1919 | Romania, Yugoslavia |
| March 9, 1924 | March 23, 1924 | Greece |
| January 1, 1926 | Turkey (transition from the account of years according to the Romanian calendar to the account of years according to the Gregorian calendar) | |
| September 17, 1928 | October 1, 1928 | Egypt |
| 1949 | China | |
Transition History
In 1582, Spain, Italy, Portugal, the Commonwealth (the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland), France, and Lorraine switched to the Gregorian calendar.
By the end of 1583 they were joined by Holland, Belgium, Brabant, Flanders, Liege, Augsburg, Trier, Bavaria, Salzburg, Regensburg, part of Austria and Tyrol. There were some oddities. For example, in Belgium and Holland, January 1, 1583 came immediately after December 21, 1582, and the entire population was left without Christmas that year.
In some cases, the transition to the Gregorian calendar was accompanied by serious unrest. For example, when the Polish king Stefan Batory introduced in Riga new calendar in 1584, local merchants rebelled, saying that a 10-day shift disrupted their delivery times and led to significant losses. The rebels defeated the Riga church and killed several municipal employees. It was possible to cope with the "calendar riots" only in the summer of 1589.
In some countries that switched to the Gregorian calendar, the Julian reckoning subsequently resumed as a result of their accession to other states. In connection with the simultaneous transition of countries to the Gregorian calendar, actual perception errors may occur: for example, it is known that Miguel de Cervantes and William Shakespeare died on April 23, 1616. In fact, these events occurred with a difference of 10 days, since in Catholic Spain the new style acted from the very introduction by his pope, and Great Britain switched to the new calendar only in 1752.
The introduction of the new calendar also had serious financial implications for tax and tax collectors. In 1753, the first full year according to the Gregorian calendar, bankers refused to pay taxes, waiting for the due 11 days after the usual end date of fees - March 25. As a result, the UK fiscal year began only on April 6th. This date has been preserved to this day, as a symbol of the great changes that occurred 250 years ago.
In Sweden, they decided to cancel leap days from 1700 to 1740. In 1700, the first leap day was canceled. Then the war began and they forgot about the translation. Thus, the country lived on its own Swedish calendar. In 1711, Charles XII recognized this as impractical and decided to return to the old style and add 2 days in February. Therefore, in Sweden it was February 30, 1712. Only in 1753 was a new style introduced. Moreover, after February 17, immediately followed on March 1 [ ] .
The transition to the Gregorian calendar in Alaska was unusual, since there it was combined with the transfer of the date line. Therefore, after Friday, October 5, 1867, the old style was followed by another Friday, October 18, 1867, according to the new style.
Until now, Ethiopia and Thailand have not switched to the Gregorian calendar.
Since 1923, most of the local Orthodox churches, with the exception of