35. The artistic originality of A. Platonov's prose
Andrei Platonov, in his understanding of the new era, managed to move from the acceptance of communist ideas to their rejection. Platonov believed in the revolutionary reorganization of the world, in this he did not differ from his contemporaries. I believed that at last it would be possible to defeat egoism, to create a society of "higher humanism". But already in his first works, Platonov showed himself to be an artist who can see the world ambiguously, understanding the complexity of the human soul. Longing for humanity in Platonov's stories is inseparable from attention to the individual. He followed the tradition of Gogol and Dostoevsky.
Platonov had a hard life: he was expelled from the party, persecuted, arrested his son, who later died of prison tuberculosis.
Peculiarities of his work: unusual heroes, an unexpected interrupted finale, the impossibility of presenting a work either on the basis of the logic of events, or on the basis of the logic of heroes; the density of the narrative, the universality of generalization at the level of 1 phrase in the text, the colossal freedom and element of the Russian language. One of the best representatives of Russian religious philosophy. Unusual philosophical richness: in the form of ordinary stories and novellas, Platonov denotes serious ontological and existential problems.
Platonov's stories 20-30s: Sandy teacher, At the dawn of a foggy youth, Fro and others. They have a bright confidence in the possibility of man's improvement of the world. All his heroes are young, honest people, active folk characters, who arose from the depths of Russian life. They are full of hot hopes. They are also ascetics, sometimes overcoming self-pity, they invest their lives and destiny in a common cause.
"Fro". Young woman Frosya in anticipation of personal happiness. enjoyment. She loves her husband devotedly. He tries to distract himself from his difficult experiences with work. Fyodor's husband leaves, she tells him that she will die if he stops loving her. "They wanted to be happy immediately, now, before their future hard work yields results for personal and universal happiness." “Frosya wanted her children to be born, she would raise them, they would grow up and finish the work of their father, the cause of communism and science.” so Platonov, as it were, balances the need for personal and universal happiness.
The story "In a Beautiful and Furious World" (41g) - the enthusiasm of Platonov and his heroes for powerful technology. The machinist Maltsev is an inspired and talented worker. He had no equal in his work, and he "missed his talent as from loneliness." This passion turned into feeling the soul of a locomotive. The old machinist loves his steam locomotive as a living being, feels it with all his soul. And this communion with the machine gives rise to a feeling of happiness. But Platonov builds the situation and the conflict in such a way that this machinist turns out to be deaf to a living person. The machine in his mind overshadowed the man. Only a misfortune - a lightning strike and blindness - returns him the ability to be sensitive to a person. Only after going through trials (loneliness, mistrust, prison, loss of his beloved job) he seems to be born again.
The story "Return" (46g) - comprehension of post-war life. War as a global attempt to destroy mercy, hopes for the power of goodness and humanity. Boy Petrusha. There is no war depiction. The main characters: Alexey Alekseevich Ivanov and his wife Lyubov Vasilievna. Plot - the father returns from the war. The frankness of his wife (stories about a hard life, about experiences, about loneliness, about Semyon Yevseich) touched his pride. He leaves home, from children to a new, as it seems to him, carefree life. Son Petrusha and daughter Nastya made a revolution in father's soul
The problem of life and death is one of the central ones. Awareness of the connection between the living and the dead, people and animals, humanity and nature. His plots are the truth of life, the truth about a person. He showed how difficult a person's path to himself is. Accuracy of psychological details, turns of thought and feeling. Platonov went through a fascination with technocratism and social utopianism and came to the idea of \u200b\u200bintegral knowledge. Platonov is a supporter of science, progress, but in combination with natural intuition and spirituality.
By the end of the 1920s. - 3 collections of prose. "Epiphanes Gateways", "The Secret Man", "The Origin of the Master". Satirical stories appear and freedom is limited. They were accused of ideological sins, they hung the label of a fist.
It was important for Platonov to publish, and he tried to reorganize.
In the 1930s. acts as a critic, reviewer, journalist. There are many stories about selfless people ("At the dawn of a foggy youth"), about personalities. New lyrical prose about love, about the world of childhood ("Potudan River", "June Thunderstorm"). Few are published. The only collection - 1937, "The Potudan River". I could only write criticism.
During the war years he was a correspondent, wrote essays and stories about the heroism of people. After the war - one of the best stories, "Ivanov's Family". The story has been severely criticized. Ermilov "Slanderous story of Platonov". After this article, Platonov is practically not published.
In the 1940-50s. acts as a storyteller ("The Magic Ring").
At this stage (during his lifetime) very little reached the reader.
The second stage - in 1958 (Platonov died in 1951) a small book of stories appears, which aroused great interest. Begins to be published quite often. The largest number of posthumous publications.
Platonic Boom - 1960s The second birth of a writer. It continues in the 1970s and 1980s. A 3-volume collection of works is published. Platonov again came to the reader deformed. "Pit", "Chevengur", "Juvenile Sea" have not yet been published. 1986 - third birth... The largest novels published.
Two stages - lifetime and 1970-80s.
The special emotionality of prose.
Think about the uniqueness of Plato's phrase. "Language according to Lobachevsky".
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Korotkova Anna Vasilievna. The people and the hero in the prose of A. Platonov: 01/10/01 Korotkova, Anna Vasilievna The people and the hero in the prose of A. Platonov ("The Secret Man", "Chevengur", "Pit", "Juvenile Sea"): Dis. ... Cand. philol. Sciences: 10.01.01 Birsk, 2006 209 p. RSL OD, 61: 06-10 / 1178
Introduction
Chapter I. Folk character in A. Platonov's prose .
1.1. People and hero. Problem analysis 10
1.2. Tradition and innovation in understanding the life of the people 47
Chapter II. Poetics of the image of a folk character .
2.1. Symbols and its varieties 98
2.2. Features of genre and style 145
Conclusion 184
Bibliography 190
Introduction to work
The dissertation research is devoted to the study of the problem that has always occupied A. Platonov and was the subject of his artistic searches. “All my people are poor and dear,” the writer reflected in his notebooks. - Why, the poorer, the kinder. After all, this has to end - to bring it back. Do you enjoy good if he is poor? " 1 The writer's works of the late 20s - 30s of the XX century are dedicated to the “poor” people, materially, but spiritually rich: “The Secret Man” (1928), “Chevengur” (1929), “The Foundation Pit” (1930), “Juvenile sea \u200b\u200b"(1932).
Published in 1928, the story "The Secret Man" became evidence of the birth in literature of a new author with a peculiar thinking, style and language. However, the artist's subsequent plans were not destined to come true during his lifetime. Chevengur, completed in 1929, was first published in full in France in 1972, and in Russia it was published only sixteen years later. Pit and Juvenile Sea, which continued the Chevengur theme, were first published in 1987. The works of this period are united by thematic commonality, the study of topical issues contemporary writer the world. A. Platonov revealed the character of ordinary, unremarkable people, their ability to perceive the world and react to what is happening in accordance with the situation when they had to choose between life and death. In general, the whole life of the writer's heroes was a kind of battle for survival in the conditions of hunger and devastation of the revolutionary period, civil war and the creation of new living conditions.
“The new world is born out of the new one. Every creature sheds its skin several times. Descends ichor, etc. - before gaining constancy ”, 2 - stated the writer. It is the time of the "descent of the ichor"
1 Platonov A.P. Wood plant. From notebooks. - M., 1990 .-- S. 33.
2 Ibid. - S. 98.
researched A. Platonov in the artistic world of his works. His people, creating the "new world", not only experienced the difficulties and discomfort of life, but at the same time looked completely unattractive, just like an animal changing skin. The agonizing efforts of the heroes to bring the "masses" to the realization of the need for change met with outright hostility and misunderstanding. However, people did not give up in front of the difficulties that arose and showed such character traits as perseverance, perseverance and dedication. At the same time, the writer's heroes acted on the basis of what life (as it seemed to them) the exhausted people deserved. As a result of the murder of the bourgeoisie, kulaks and podkulaks who exploited the poor, they became not only a pass to the new world, but also a guarantee of its creation. The writer did not solve the arising contradictions between the noble goal of the heroes and "dirty means", he showed this as an inevitable fact, as a consequence of the prevailing circumstances.
Revealing the aesthetic and philosophical aspects of the topic, it is impossible not to touch upon the interaction of A. Platonov's work with classical works XIX-XX centuries by such writers as N. Leskov, M. Saltykov-Shchedrin, L. Leonov, M. Bulgakov. Continuing to explore the traditional theme of “people and hero” in literature, A. Platonov interpreted it in a new way, giving originality: the writer expressed in the thinking, language and behavior of ordinary people a paradoxical understanding of how to build a new society and live in it. In addition, the author in his works studied the consciousness of the people and their heroes in relation to the natural, objective and material world, to the spiritual and physical essence of man.
Despite the almost century-old distance separating the time of A. Platonov's era and the present, the relevance of his works is not decreasing, but increasing. The reason for this lies in the problems devoted to "eternal" topics: people's search for the meaning of life and their purpose.
It is these questions that the writer's heroes tried to resolve, realizing the imperfection of the world around them.
The relevance of research due to insufficient study of the problem of "people and hero" in Russian literary criticism. Despite the impressive number of works containing significant observations on this issue, there are no integral studies devoted to the study of the essence of the theme "people and hero" in A. Platonov's prose. For a deeper understanding and disclosure of this issue, it seems necessary to trace the development of the national character in relation to the heroes who stood out from the "mass" not only because of their desire to help and take care of all those who suffer, but also because of their ability to comprehend the ongoing changes, seeing in them not only good, but also negative aspects and tendencies.
Research object the main Platonic works of the late 1920s - 1930s were identified: "The Secret Man", "Chevengur", "The Foundation Pit", "Juvenile Sea". Subject The study became the problem of "people and hero", a component of which are the self-consciousness of the people in social restructuring, the drama of the process, the ambiguity of the author's position in the context of a radical change in the traditional way of life.
Research methodology relies on historical-literary, comparative-typological methods. The theoretical and methodological basis of the study was the works of M. Bakhtin, B. Vysheslavtsev, V. Kanashkin, A. Losev, Yu. Lotman, V. Skobelev, V. Toporov, D. Shepping, L. Shubin; as well as works on the study of A. Platonov's work: K. Barshta, V. Vasiliev, V. Vyugin, A. Dyrdin, L. Karasev, N. Kornienko, N. Malygina, O. Meerson, N. Poltavtseva, T. Radbil, L. Fomenko, V. Chalmaev and others.
The purpose work is the study of the problem "people and hero" in the prose of A. Platonov. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks: 1) the study of folk character in the context of the designated problem; 2) identifying parallels in the aspect of the issue under study in creative
a. Platonov and the classics of the second half of XIX century, as well as the writer's contemporaries; 3) theoretical coverage of the concept of "image-symbol" and the identification of its role in revealing the theme "people and hero" in the artist's prose; 4) research of genre originality and peculiarities of poetics of A. Platonov's works of art in the late 1920s - 1930s; 5) comprehension of the role of Plato's philosophy in the artistic world of the writer; 6) generalization of the obtained results of the study of the artistic comprehension of the problem of "people and hero" within the framework of a single picture of the Platonic world.
Scientific novelty of research determined by new approaches to the analysis of the concept of man as a person and people as a "mass" in A. Platonov's prose. The emphasis is on the moral, spiritual search of the heroes. The problem of studying symbols in the poetics of works and their influence on the image of the people remains important. This issue has not yet been sufficiently studied in Platonic studies and requires a more thorough analysis.
Review of critical literature on the topic of the dissertation... In the reviewed work, only those literary studies are considered, where the topic "people and hero" in the work of A. Platonov is touched upon. One of them is V. Skobelev's research "On the national character in A. Platonov's prose of the 1920s" (1970). Subsequently, Platonic studies considered the philosophy of Platonic prose, in one form or another associated with the images of the people and the main characters, conveyed through the originality of the poetics of the writer. Many researchers were inclined to believe that A. Platonov's work goes back to myth, which is due to the presence in the text of mythological allusions and reminiscences, expressed not only in the subject lines of the works, but also in the presence of images-symbols. One of the first works in this area was N. Poltavtseva's Critique of Mythological Consciousness in the Works of Andrei Platonov (1977). In her next work, "Philosophical Prose of Andrei Platonov" (1981), a typology of heroes was proposed, apocalyptic
liptical motives and raised the problem of the relationship of the writer's works to the utopian genre.
In the works of N. Malygina "Features of the philosophical and aesthetic searches of A. Platonov" (1981), "Aesthetics of Andrei Platonov" (1985), "Images-symbols in the work of A. Platonov" (1993), questions about the role of images-symbols in conveying the meaning of the works. The interpretation of images-symbols expressed in names, surnames and geographical names was continued in the work of M. Zolotonosov "False Sun" ("Chevengur" and "Pit" in the context of Soviet culture of the 1920s) "(1991). The work of L. Karasev “Driving along the slope. On the works of A. Platonov "(2001), where the author examines images and secret signs in the writer's works, continued this theme.
In the philosophical aspect of Russian culture, A. Dyrdin explored the talent of the writer in his monograph “The Secret Thinker. The creative consciousness of Andrey Platonov in the light of Russian spirituality and culture ”(2000). From a mythological point of view, T. Radbil studied the poetics of A. Platonov in the monograph “The Mythology of the Language of A. Platonov” (1998). In the book of K. Barsht "The Poetics of A. Platonov's Prose" (2000), the symbolism of the cross-cutting concepts of A. Platonov's prose and their role in identifying the author's position are systematized. The study of poetics is devoted to the work of E. Proskurina "The Poetics of Mystery in the Prose of Andrei Platonov of the Late 1920s - 30s (Based on the Novel" The Pit ")" (2001). The genre originality of the works "Chevengur", "Pit", "Juvenile Sea" was studied by M. Zolotonosov, O. Nikolenko, E. Yablokov.
Over the past decade, quite a few Ph.D. papers have been written on the writer's work, for example, E. Sergeeva's dissertation “Popular artistic consciousness and its place in the poetics of A. Platonov (The concept of a hero and art world) "(1996); T. Radbil "Social and political vocabulary in the fiction of A. Platonov" (1997) and
others. However, in this case it is not possible to list the names of all researchers who studied A. Platonov, which is partially compensated for. bibliographic list at the end of the thesis. Scientific and practical significance the study consists in the possibility of its use in further research of A. Platonov's prose, in teaching the history of Russian literature of the 20th century at a university and an innovative school, while reading a special course.
Approbation materials of the thesis took place at scientific conferences of the regional, all-Russian and international level: the regional scientific-practical conference "Language and Literature in the Multicultural Space", BirSPI, Birsk, 2003; X All-Russian Scientific and Practical Conference "Problems of Analysis literary work in the system of philological education ”, USPU, Yekaterinburg, 2004; International conference "Russian literary criticism in the new millennium", Moscow State Pedagogical University named after M. Sholokhova, Moscow, 2004; X and XI Sheshukov readings, Moscow State Pedagogical University, 2005, 2006; All-Russian scientific-practical conference "Science and Education 2005", BSU, Neftekamsk. The main provisions of the work are reflected in 14 scientific publications.
Thesis structure. The dissertation consists of an introduction, two chapters, a conclusion and a bibliography.
InAdministered the relevance of the chosen topic is substantiated, the degree of its elaboration in the scientific literature is highlighted, the goals and tasks requiring resolution are indicated, the object and subject of research are determined, its theoretical and methodological base is characterized.
INChapter I "Popular character in the prose of A. Platonov" the analysis of the problem is carried out in the light of the moral, philosophical and ethical searches of the people and the heroes of the writer. The concept of people and nationalities in the works of A. Platonov is considered on the basis of encyclopedic and literary concepts, the concept of a "hero" is proposed. Reveals parallels in aspect
the problem under study in the works of A. Platonov and the classics of the second half of the 19th century, as well as the writer's contemporaries.
INChapter II "Poetics of the depiction of a folk character" the theoretical coverage of the concept "image-symbol" and the identification of its role in resolving the theme "people and hero" in A. Platonov's prose are given. In addition, the main issues of the genre originality of the writer's works and the origins of his philosophy in works of art are considered. The poetics of the writer is investigated from the point of view of symbolic, semantic and substantive principles.
INConclusion summarizes the main results on the study of the problem of "people and hero", on the development of classical traditions in the writer's work, on the consonance of the main problems of A. Platonov's works with the semantic orientation of the prose of his contemporaries, as well as with writers and philosophers of the second half of the 19th century. The influence of the symbolic principle in the images of nature, the character of the people and heroes is determined. The poetics of the artistic study of the problem “people and hero”, of a national character, is revealed. The prospects for further research of the topic are outlined. A bibliography containing 237 titles is attached to the dissertation.
The people and the hero. Problem analysis
Among the numerous literary riddles of A. Platonov is the problem of "people and hero" in plot, textual and contextual coverage. All the works of the writer at the end of the 20s - 30s of the XX century and the subsequent period are dedicated to the people who were at the center of all his works. People by A. Platonov are most often designated as "mass", "others", "small nationality". All who composed this concept, in essence, are led by "heroes" - those who stood out due to their character, perseverance, determination and desire to alleviate the living conditions of suffering people. "Heroes" who live not for themselves, but for others - typical representatives people in the writer's works. They have no external differences and material advantages. The only thing that sets them apart from the "masses" is the desire for spiritual self-improvement, expressed not only in the desire to know the world around them, but also in their plans for the future, which they built in accordance with the proletarian ideology and the people's idea of \u200b\u200bhappiness.
The concept of "people" in the writer's work absorbed not only well-known, encyclopedic and literary interpretations, but also acquired a new meaning. So, for example, the interpretation of the word "people" in the encyclopedic aspect includes several meanings: "People - 1) in the broad sense of the word - the entire population of a particular country. 2) In historical materialism - the people, the masses, the social community, which includes at various stages of history those strata and classes that, by their objective position, are capable of participating in solving the problems of the progressive development of society; the creator of history, the driving force behind fundamental social transformations. The people are the true subject of history, their activities create continuity in the progressive development of society. At all stages of social development, the basis of the people, its majority, are the working masses - the main productive force of society. In a class society, the people can include strata of the population with very different and even opposing interests. 3) The term used to designate various forms of ethnic communities (tribe, nationality, nation). " Based on the ambiguous interpretation of this word, it is possible to derive the definition of "people" by A. Platonov, which partially absorbs the proposed meanings and at the same time differs. Obviously, for the writer, the people are the population of Russia, which tried to comprehend the ongoing changes in society or simply adapt to them and live in accordance with the new changes. A. Platonov correlated the names "others" and "mass" with people who want to survive elementary in a situation of devastation and hunger. While the workers, the Red Army and the peasants were those who tried to understand and act consciously.
Among them, the most united and purposeful were those who deliberately began to fight for the new government: "These armed people are ready to die twice, if only the enemy would die with them and he would not get life." It is these heroes that the writer called "... good people and the best people ..." ("The Secret Man", 55), assessing their determination and impartiality in the events taking place. But in the works that followed The Secret Man, the writer showed how a new state was being built, for which the “armed people” fought. And it was built in the same ways, without which no war can do: murder and violence. This was initiated by the actions of those who fought, forgetting about mercy "... towards themselves and their beloved relatives, with a strong hatred for a familiar enemy" ("The Secret Man", 55). However, now, after the end of the civil war, such methods looked unnatural and scary and, as the author showed, ineffective in improving people's lives. For example, the construction of communism and socialism in "Chevengur" and "Pit" with the ruthless murder of obedient "kulaks" and "bourgeois" did not save the Chevengurians from suffering. Therefore, A. Platonov no longer repeated the definition of "good people and the best people" in relation to those heroes who wanted to create "heaven on earth" by means of violence, killing enemies and telling dumb people how to live. In the writer's works, these are people who live passively, not taking active, conscious participation in the construction of a "new life." These are "others", "proletarians", "beggars", moving with the flow of life, obedient to circumstances. For example, the “others” were brought to Chevengur by Proshka Dvanov as a herd of animals obedient to their master. The "beggars" made no effort to even think about anything other than how to get food. These people - "... without an outstanding class appearance and without revolutionary dignity ..." 1 - constituted only a part of the people, which can only be called an "ethnic community" bound by the desire to survive. These are the “others”, “... living without any meaning, without pride and apart from the approaching world celebration ... they are poor ... and strangers to everyone ... "(" Chevengur ", 261). In another way, they can be designated as “... a large group of people, bound mainly by their place of residence; a simple crowd (for example, "on the street of my people") and residents of an entire state (for example, the "Indian people"). 2 Such people were connected only by the place of residence, for which they could fight, or, conversely, by a united mass to defend their land from capture by enemies ... Spiritual kinship could appear only later, in the process of habitation of territories. The designation of a people, first of all, as people living in the same territory, is close to one of the interpretations of V. Dahl: “People are people populating in a certain space; people in general; language, tribe; residents of the country speaking the same language; inhabitants of a state, a country under one administration; rabble, common people, lower, taxable estates; a lot of people, a crowd. "
The similarity of the interpretations presented is that in the concept of "people" the core was the definition of a "group of people", most often connected by the territory of residence. In addition, the interpretation of this term by V. Dal is close to the designation of this concept by A. Platonov. The compiler of the explanatory dictionary picked up synonyms with an impersonal meaning: "a lot of people, a crowd." Similar meanings are realized by the writer in describing "others" and "proletarians" as a people who are bound by their place of residence and the desire to survive: a huge and lost life. Some proletarians sat, others lay and hugged their relatives in order to warm up faster ”(“ Chevengur ”, 257). A nation that looks like "... the old bones ... of someone's huge and lost life" (Chevengur, 257), not only lacks joy in their existence, but also the belief that their desire to survive and indifference to everything else will be replaced by a conscious desire to live in a new way.
Tradition and innovation in the understanding of folk life
The heroes of A. Platonov in their character, peculiarities of thinking are similar to the heroes from the works of N. Leskov, who expressed the consciousness of the common people who believe in miracles and go against their fate. Although these artists are the creators of works belonging to different eras, written in "different" languages, their characters are similar in character traits. A. Platonov is a writer of the Soviet era, whose heroes denied God and actively built communism. N. Leskov is a classic who narrated about sincerely believing people, led by divine instructions. Despite this, the problems of the works of the two writers are consonant: the fate of the "little man" and his role in the history of Russia, emotional experiences and spiritual quests, as well as a constant desire to learn the meaning of one's life and "universal existence."
In their works, acute social and political conflicts of the era are investigated. For N. Leskov, this is the abolition of serfdom, the incipient revolutionary democratic movement, the tragedy of populism. A. Platonov - revolutionary transformations, civil war, building a new world. If the heroes of N. Leskov's works hoped in God, then many heroes of A. Platonov, from the point of view of Leskov's traditions, blasphemed. For example, in "The Secret Man" they painted the image of St. George the Victorious, in "Chevengur" they desecrated the temple and assumed the role of God, organizing the "second coming." The characters of the writers lived at different times, were carriers of the opposite ideology: for N. Leskov, they are followers of the divine Orthodox teaching, for A. Platonov, they are followers of proletarian ideology. But there are points of contact in the types of the main characters. In both authors, a prominent place is occupied by the images of a wanderer, a martyr and a sufferer, capable of perishing in his stubbornness, but not broken by someone else's will.
The heroes of A. Platonov in their character, peculiarities of thinking are similar to Leskov's, who expressed the consciousness of the common people who believe in miracles and go against their fate. Foma Pukhov from the work of A. Platonov "The Secret Man" is similar to the heroes of N. Leskov not only in the perception of the world, but also in the plot twists and turns bordering on the adventure plot of "The Enchanted Wanderer" and "The Sealed Angel". The adventures of the protagonists of these literary texts seem quite real for the life of the time frame of the stories. Both Ivan Flyagin and Mark Alexandrov wandered around the world: the first fled from fate, the second had a specific goal. And both came to where their travels began, to what they rejected as an unacceptable fact: Ivan - to his fate as a monastery novice, Mark - to the adoption of Orthodoxy. Both are physically strong, spiritually developed people. They are unpretentious, spontaneous and naive. The main thing in them is the spiritual world, which has created the image of an integral personality, not broken by circumstances. An integral part of the soul of Ivan and Mark is faith in God, in divine providence. The "Intimate Man" Foma Pukhov also wandered around the world, tempt fate, without losing optimism in any situation and keeping in his soul faith in the divine beginning of life. This makes him look like Ivan Flyagin, the hero of The Enchanted Wanderer. The similarity is found not only in the characters of the heroes, but also in certain plot and behavioral situations.
Both stories are united by motives of wandering around the world. Ivan fled from the prophecy of the monk he had killed, and Thomas, after the death of his wife - the only close person - went in search of the meaning of life and his place in it. On this path, everyone had to overcome dangerous situations. Ivan many times was on the verge of death (once the horses threw him into the abyss; it was difficult to swim across the Caucasian river under fire from the mountaineers). Foma miraculously survived the shelling of the locomotive by the Whites; escaped into a storm on the ship "Shan". But in all deadly situations, the heroes did not lose their sense of humor and courage. For example, Ivan's behavior on the crossing over the Koisu River: “I thought,“ Why should I wait for this chance to end my life? Bless, Lord, my hour! " - and went out, undressed, read "Father", hit the ground on all sides to the authorities and comrades and ... scattered from the shore .... dived into the water. ”1 Although several people had already died before his eyes, Ivan was not afraid to cross the cold river under fire from the mountaineers. The reason for this was the desire to die, which appeared in the hero as a result of the difficult trials that fell on his soul. But Ivan did not die, as he was saved by a miracle: an angel flew over him and covered him with his wings from bullets.
In a similar situation, Foma Pukhov also showed courage, which cannot be called reckless, because he talked about what was happening, but did not understand the real danger: “Walking on the sandy ballast of the railroad, he was talking into the air ... Shells gurgled in the air over Pukhov's head, and he looked at them. - What are we shooting at? - Pukhov thought. - We translate bullets out of fear! ... We lie down, shoot, our belly hurts, but we don't hit anyone: their armored car has long found a sight - and it crumbles us little by little. - What nonsense: death is not protection! - Pukhov finally found out and stopped shooting "(" The Secret Man ", 93-94). At first Thomas did not duck down from the bullets, because they did not cause fear in him. After the hero joined the workers and began to hide from the bullets, firing back from the whites. He stopped shooting not out of a desire to die or surrender (Thomas was not a coward and was not afraid of death), but because of the loss of meaning in what was happening.
Symbols and its varieties
An integral part of the disclosure of the theme of people and heroes in the work of A. Platonov was the images-symbols that fill the writer's works. In the surreal world of Plato's heroes, images-symbols created an atmosphere of mystery, understatement - a kind of author's subtext. Therefore, deciphering these concepts, one can not only offer several options for interpreting literary texts, but also consider the folk character in this regard.
A. Platonov is not the first and not the only writer who turned to such a technique for encrypting his thoughts. He was the successor of the classical traditions, where a significant role in the spiritual assimilation of Russian reality in the 19th century was played by such "... concepts, images, moral criteria or simply life phenomena such as" Oblomovism "," small man», « extra people"..." Russia is a troika "," dead Souls"," A ray of light in dark kingdom" .. etc. ... So, the meaning and content of such "concept-images" are not from the world of rational philosophical concepts ... On the contrary, being born initially, in form as an artistic image, they immediately ... enter life and thinking as socially-classifying and philosophical categories. ”1 Both in life and in thinking, such images became symbols, or images-symbols, expressing the essence, idea of \u200b\u200bthe work. “A symbol expresses an idea. But if the symbol has a visual-figurative form, then the question arises, how can you clearly express the idea? ... It would be more correct to speak not about the similarity of the external form of the symbol with the content of the representation it reveals, but about the property of the symbol to illustrate the figuratively presented principle of the idea in the most accessible form. Through the image in the symbol, that which cannot be directly given to a person finds its indirect expression. A symbol is a certain way of reflection, expressed in an image. ”1 Reflection is a reflection of the surrounding reality, therefore a symbol is expressed in an image that is applicable in this context. But there are images-symbols of an enduring, eternal character. For example, the sun is a symbol of life, warmth, light; wind is a symbol of change; anchor is a symbol of hope, stability. So, “... the symbol exists before the given text and regardless of it. It falls into the memory of the writer from the depths of the memory of culture and comes to life in a new text, like a grain that has fallen into new soil. Reminiscence, reference, quotation are organic parts of the new text, functional only in its synchrony. They go from the text into the depths of memory, and the symbol - from the depths of memory into the text. " Therefore, it became natural that the images-symbols in the context were overgrown with a new meaning, proceeding from the correspondence with the socio-cultural environment of the work. For example, A. Platonov has a foundation pit for the construction of a new house. Digging a hole under the foundation, the workers went down - to hell, and not up to heaven, where, according to popular belief, there is paradise. Thus, “instead of a“ tower ”that raises a person to heaven (the symbolism of the“ top ”), a huge pit is created -“ the bottom of hell ”(“ the symbolism of the bottom ”), instead of saving people, death awaits." N. Leskov's images of angels became symbols of the righteousness of the human path. N. Gogol immortalized in "Dead Souls" the images of the bird-three and the invariable off-road, which have become symbols of Russia. For L. Tolstoy, the oak became the symbol of life, which accurately reflected the state of A. Bolkonsky before and after rebirth in the soul. M. Saltykov-Shchedrin's characters from fairy tales, for example, "Horse", "Crucian-idealist", "Wise Piskar" have grown into images-symbols. F. Dostoevsky as a symbol of purity, purity, holiness brought out the image of a child who is undeservedly suffering. A. Platonov continued and developed this literary technique of the classics of the 19th century in conveying the meaning of works through images-symbols.
Here it is necessary to take into account (when studying the image-symbol as a theoretical concept) that the images-symbols in the work of A. Platonov are part of a certain allegory (like M. Saltykov-Shchedrin), secret writing (like M. Bulgakov). They not only reflected the surrounding reality in the perception of the heroes, but also warned against possible mistakes. For example, the death of the Chevengurians is a warning about the failure of the people's dream of heaven on earth (in Soviet reality, this is communism). Thus, the writer, in the form of a private tragedy, symbolically displayed the possible tragedy of the entire society. The image of one misfortune has become a symbol of the anticipated future. Other numerous images of A. Platonov have a similar symbolic character. That is why Platonists use a single term - "image-symbol": "... every symbol is an image (and every image is, at least to some extent, a symbol) ... Turning into a symbol, the image becomes transparent, the meaning" shines through " through it, being given precisely as a semantic depth, a semantic perspective that requires a difficult "entry" into oneself. " “As a matter of fact, this is no longer just a concept, it is an image-concept, where the figurative metaphorical structure creates additional capacities.” 2 The image-symbol, or “image-concept” is one of the central links in A. Platonov's understanding of the author's idea.
Features of the genre and style
The heroes of A. Platonov built their own worlds, in which all good things had to come either immediately (as in "Chevengur"), or after overcoming temporary difficulties (as in "The Pit" and "Juvenile Sea"). In reality, there was no society based on the laws of justice and order, where every person would be healthy and happy. Such a world was called "utopia": "UTOPIA (from the Greek. Oiz - no, no, and cold - a place, that is, a place that does not exist) literary - piece of artcontaining an imaginary picture of the future society. ”1 Utopia arose on the basis of man's dreams of a happy, comfortable life without death and suffering. “In utopia, as in myth, there are certainly motives for the transition from chaos to orderliness and other mythologemes, as, for example, in folk utopia, ie. the one included in urban literaturedating back to the Middle Ages. Therefore, we can talk about the similarities between myth and utopia, but, of course, incomplete. ST. Stakhorsky quite rightly proposes to call utopia an artificial myth ... At the same time, utopia is in the most complicated relationship with reality. It is a means of knowing the world and human relations from the opposite. " Based on the idea of \u200b\u200bthe ruling party about the ideal society for workers and peasants, A. Platonov created a version of such a world in his works, endowing it with the features of the reality of the late 1920s and 1930s. The writer used reliable facts of his time: the civil war, the organization of collective farms and state farms. Also featured was the directive adopted by Stalin on "... the elimination of ... the kulak as a class" (Pit, 186). It was this directive that the activist pondered at night.
In Chevengur, heroes built a new world based on the teachings of Karl Marx and Lenin. Mixing real facts with fictional ones (for example, geographical names: Chevengur, Novokhopersk), A. Platonov left the readers with the hope that everything that happened was just a not very successful transformation of reality, which can be avoided in modern reality. This is how the writer created a "place that does not exist" not only in literary texts, not only in the minds of readers, but also in the minds of researchers. However, in the study of A. Platonov's work, opinions about the genre of "Chevengur", "Pit", "Juvenile Sea" were divided.
It is known that “Utopia offers a ready-made model of a new world and man, starting from the real world; the hero leaves it to find heaven on earth ... She (utopia - A.K.) presupposes to see the imperfection of the real world, opposing it with a real model ”. Therefore, the worlds of the heroes of A. Platonov are close to the definition of utopia, but they are not an exact copy of the genre: the utopia of A. Platonov acquired features of a dystopia. Dystopia - "... this is a criticism of utopia, it argues with it and sometimes even a parody." However, for A. Platonov, this is not a parody of utopia, but of the reality of the early 20th century. Therefore, the works "Chevengur", "Pit", "Juvenile Sea" do not look like classical utopias or dystopias.
Thus, G. Gunther cannot classify "Chevengur" as one of the genres, since "in" Chevengur "there is no ambiguous didactic-semantic assessment, there is no parody element that exhausts the essence of dystopia. Most likely, the novel could be characterized as a metautopia, "... in which utopia or dystopia enter into an extremely fruitless dialogue with each other." The opinion of E. Yablokov partly coincides with the arguments of G. Gunther. E. Yablokov pointed to dystopian motives in the works of A. Platonov, based on the opposition of instinct and reason: “... the contradiction between the“ second reality ”and being“ as it is ”is most clearly manifested; here is the main source of dystopian motives in Plato's work. " E. Yablokov is not categorical in the definition of the Chevengur genre, but he finds in it features of dystopia, reflected in subsequent works.
M. Zolotonosov also researched the Chevengur genre and came to the conclusion that “...“ Chevengur ”is a parody of the proletarian anti-peasant utopia, that is, it has a double address of negation: on the one hand, they deny ... utopias about abundance; on the other hand, the very denial of utopias about abundance is parodied - the proletarian utopia of equality in poverty ... ”. The researcher also pointed to the presence of parodic images in the "Pit", for example, "... dialogue with Stalin ..." .4 The presence of parodic elements - "... this is another version of the literal implementation of social utopia .... The aspiration of the world to self-destruction shown by Platonov, the image of a man who is mortally attracted ", belongs to the world mystery and social tragedy." mystery and social tragedy.
Researcher S. Brel, studying the genre originality of "Chevengur" and "Pit", came to the conclusion that these works do not belong to utopia or dystopia. The reason is that "... a dystopia depicts events in a particular society taking place in the future," and the events of "Chevengur" "refer to the period since the beginning of the century (the childhood of Alexander Dvanov) ... Work on the story" The Foundation Pit "proceeded from December 1929 to April 1930, showing "an example of a rare synchronous connection of its author with real historical events." The researcher agreed with the definition of E. Yab-Lokov, accepting the designation of the genre "Chevengur" as "... a novel of education ..." .3
O. Nikolenko expressed similar thoughts while researching the Juvenile Sea genre. She suggested that “The Tale of the Juvenile Sea” can be quite logically called a kind of psychological utopia, since it describes not so much social transformations as changes in the human soul. ”4 Changes in the spiritual level of an adult are possible only in the process of upbringing: self-education or re-education, which was relevant during the formation of Soviet power (which happened, for example, with Umrishchev and the ox drover, who went over to the side of the collective farm).
About the work of Platonov.
A word about your favorite writer.
Having recently become acquainted with the "beautiful and furious world"Platonic prose, I realized that his work corresponds to the level of hopes and concerns, ups and downs of the twentieth century.
In his works, the most difficult problems of our life are posed.
The main thing for him is to preserve and preserve life on Earth. The writer engages in an open battle with everyone who would like to “reduce a person to the level of
"Animal", grind humanity in an imperialist war, demoralize and corrupt it, eliminate all the results historical culture ».
During his lifetime, criticism declared the harmful influence of his works on the reader. According to today's literary critics, Andrei Platonov is an outstanding writer.
Platonov wrote his works calmly, "quietly", not trying to shout down anyone around him. And as a true magician of the word,
"Rosary of golden wisdom" / Pushkin /, he listened not to the sound of phrases, but to a complex melody, to disturbing variations of thought.
Every day, even the hourly labor of comprehending the world so absorbed
Platonov, that he was ashamed of bright, flowery, but soulless words, not filled with meaning.
His pen does not rest on the ingenuous descriptions of his native Voronezh steppes, although he loves his homeland, the land of his youth, no less than Koltsov and Nikitin. But he speaks of this love with the utmost restraint, carefully.
Orphanhood and poverty of childhood did not kill the main thing in him - the soul of a child.
Platonov reminds each of us that Man is your first and, probably, the main name.
Platonov's voice, slightly muffled, tediously sad, already in the early stories conquers with endless modesty, restraint, some kind of sad meekness: “He was once a gentle, sad child, loving his mother and family wattle, and the field, and the sky above all them ... At night the soul grew in the boy, and deep sleepy forces languished in him, which someday would explode and create the world again. The soul blossomed in him, as in any child, the dark, irrepressible passionate forces of the world entered into him and turned into a man. This is a miracle that every mother admires every day in her child. Mother will save the world because she makes it "human" / Story
"Yamskaya Sloboda" /.
How unusual for the twenties, among harsh, abrupt phrases,
"Barking" intonations and rude gestures is Platonov's word!
Probably after A.P. Chekhov was not in the Russian prose of an artist endowed with bashfulness in front of a falsely pretentious, loud word.
A. Platonov is always a wise interlocutor who addresses an individual. He is not all in the distance, but at the "human heart".
I would like to take the epigraph of the words of F.I. Tyutchev:
Damage, exhaustion and everything
That gentle smile of fading
That in a rational being we call
The divine bashfulness of suffering.
This is a person who did not know the ecstasy of theatricality, the bright light of the word. He is convinced that there is no other people's suffering and pain and therefore always remembers the fate of many honest Makarov.
In one thousand nine hundred and twenty-nine A. Platonov wrote a story
"Doubtful Makar", which was subjected to biased biased criticism in the early thirties. After Stalin's angry response to this story, Platonov disappeared from the readers' sight, having gone to the bottom of obscurity, poverty and ailments, sharing the fate of those people about whom he wrote in Chevengur.
During the first thaw, it became possible to publish some of Andrei Platonov's stories, but not "The Pit", "Chevengur", "Venil Sea". These works, published in the West, returned to their homeland illegally and in typescripted walked around the country. And only in recent years, when the idea that universal human values \u200b\u200bare higher than class interests ceased to be seditious, Platonov's real return to the reader began.
What caused this attitude towards the writer?
"Doubting Makar" the author showed a man from the lowest strata of society.
The man Makar goes to the city to look for the truth. The city amazes him with senseless luxury, but he finds the proletariat only in a flophouse.
"And he sees in a dream a terrible dead idol -" scientific person", Who stands at a great height and sees everything ... but does not see Makar, but
Makar breaks the idol. "
The idea of \u200b\u200bthis story is that statehood is hostile to the people.
Makar is a dreamer pretending to be an eccentric, intelligent and discerning. He passionately dreams of machine and industrial Russia. Makar, having arrived in the capital, bypassing the office and construction sites, talking in an overnight house with the proletariat, was the first of Plato's heroes to doubt the humanistic values \u200b\u200bof the revolution, since demagogy reigned around, “writing bitches”, masters of praise and postscripts sat in the “offices”. And Makar Ganushkin, an intelligent and perceptive person, felt that in such conditions lack of initiative, passivity, “senseless fear of government paper, resolution” develops in people.
And our hero began to doubt the correctness of the revolutionary cause. His reflections and "doubts" were mistaken for ambiguity and anarchism. In them, it seems to me, Andrei Platonov expressed his thoughts ahead of his time, resolved issues of combating corruption, formalism, bureaucracy, like-mindedness and lack of voice.
Naturally, at that tense time when the kulaks as a class were being liquidated, Stalin regarded A. Platonov's work from a political point of view as “an ideologically ambiguous and harmful story,” therefore he decided to deal with the writer in his own way.
After reading the story, I was once again convinced that Platonov, like his Makar, does not doubt plans for industrialization. This is historically necessary. For ten years to go the path that other countries have traveled for centuries - it is truly wonderful! It cannot be otherwise.
The writer only warns about the danger of formalism, the troubles of bureaucratic stagnation, heartlessness, and meetings. Nobody wanted to understand this position of the writer ahead of all.
One involuntarily recalls V. Rasputin's story "Fire" and V.
Astafieva "Sad Detective", in which, as well as in the works
Platonov, writers' alarm sounds about the moral health of the people, about disappearing mercy, sympathy, friendship between people.
I can say with confidence that Plato's Makar acts as our contemporary in the fight against the elements of corruption, worship, ceremonial praise.
The works of Andrei Platonov help to develop in each of us nobility, courage and active humanism in the modern struggle for peace.
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MOSCOW ORDER OF LENIN, ORDER OF OCTOBER. STANDING AND ORDER OF LABOR RED ZSHSH STATE UNIVERSITY them. M.V. LOMONOSOV
PHILOLOGY FACULTY
ROSSIUS ANDREYA ALEXANDROVICH as a manuscript
DATON: TRADITION "AND INNOVATION (On the issue of genre features of" critical "dialogues)
Slvschmlmost 10.02.14. "Classical Philology"
Moohwa - 1990
The work was performed at the Department of Classical Philology of the Fyad Getae Faculty of the Moscow State University
them. M.V. Lomonosov
Academic Supervisor: Doctor of Philology
professor I.M. Nakhov Official opponents: Doctor of Philosophy
professor V.V. Sokolov xddovdt flgologichvok "shdps Yu.A. Shnchalyan
Lead scientific institutions: hafedra kdaosagchvskaya phalodogya
Leningrad State
university
The defense will take place "^\u003e ^^ ¿1990 at the meeting of the specialized Council D-053.05.53 on classical fluency at the Moscow State University named after I. V. Lomanov. Address: 117234, Moscow, Leninskie Gory, Moscow State University, 1-8 code of humanitarian faculties, philological faculty.
The thesis can be found in the library of the Philologist "" of the Chechen Faculty of Moscow State University.
Scientific Secretary /?
specialized Sauvegy (l-L O / L- ■ NN SlavyatpgaskiyYa
The refereed work is an attempt to find evidence that in the works of the ancient Greek philosopher Plato of Athens (428/427 - 348 BC) at the stage of the so-called "critical" dialogues, radical genre changes occur, the "critical" group (this term is most used and the Anglo-American analytical school) includes the dialogues "Parmanvd", "Teetetus", "Sophist" and "Politician". In modern Platonic studies, it is considered tzerdo established that these dialogues mark a fundamental turning point in the philosophy of Plato: in the book, it is subjected to sharp criticism and undergoes an essential toapfyakashv: the doctrine of ideas, key to all Platonic metaphysics. 1 * Ontological, gnoseological and logical problems of critical dialogues are intensively studied from various points of view, as evidenced by a large number of publications. published annually scientific papers. At the same time, the artistic form * /. And these works, their genre originality remain largely ignored; as a rule, researchers limit themselves to stating the obvious, facts - that the manner of presentation in critical dialogues begins to gravitate towards dogmatism; that the dispute between equal partners actually turns into a monologue of one of the mix, while the role of the others is reduced to the formal maintenance of the dialectical processV that Socrates, who had always been in the lead in the dialogue, now either turns out to be a very young to inexperienced person (Parmenides) or gives way " Elean countries-HiKy "(" Sophist "," Politician ") 1. Such a lack of interest in the genre side of the issue is all the more strange since the fundamental indissolubility of the artistic and philosophical principles
for example, Guthrie W.K.C. A History of Greek philcn-oph ^. -V.5. - Cambridge, U70. - p. 52-33.
in the works of Plato - generally recognized I am undeniable! the fact that, therefore, the disclosure and awareness of the genre features of critical dialogues is a necessary prerequisite for a historically and philosophically adequate understanding of them. These soobradangyakzh determine the relevance of the chosen tesh.
Shshton's works make up the Kruväigai prose corpus of the 1st century BC. BC." use more than 50 lats at a low cost; Naturally, I also think I am a writing skill of the philosopher Evolshoyakreval. Poets, speaking of trajsh. and innovation in Plato, two aspects should be distinguished: innovation in relation to the previous literary tradition and innovation in relation to the earlier stages of one's own creativity. Thus, the object of the proposed research was, along with the directly analyzed four works4-n, and dialogues of the previous period, Daidia, the necessary material for comparison, as well as "surviving fragments of dialogical works. Representatives of various Socratic schools.
The purpose of the work is to reveal, using the example of the dialogues taken for the study, which determined the regularities of the genre developed creativity of Plato, and to reveal its interaction with the changing philosophical problems of dialogues, eh?
The research assumes the solution of the following yavds;
Justify the allocation of critical dialogues into a compact group in terms of their genre-specificity;
Analyze the evidence of the handwritten tradition, which gives grounds for such a selection;
Find an explanation for the changes in Plato's dramatic technique during the critical period;
Demonstrate with specific examples of interchange
The study made it possible to thicken the czsto crpt.: - the intellectual dialogues in the works of Plato, more fully otfpacossTs daos ^ new connections and the production of the courses for providing spacials according to Plato in viseek study guides in factories. In the zgom zvlachgugs-sya daina rsbohz, In it is also given the burden of gnterzrotshad laïcs syornnh questions, the crisis of tsoret ideas in "Paraonzdo *, dae version of the teachings of Drohagor in Tog-tete" to the problems of aztoprzdakaget ideas? the proposed solutions can be used as a basis for further research.
The theoretical significance of the work lies in the fact that the concept is put forward in it: which made it possible to reconcile and reconcile between such contradictory dominant trends in Platonic studies as astorko-phalological, analytical and esoteric (Tubgagop) erqjsî. This creates the preconditions for uniting, in a horse stack, the efforts of representatives of all directions,
Agoobaazya work. Material and ice-covered dokyaadavadsho w sbauzdalio * behind Mshta Voesoyuzka copyright-readable kogfe-reitsyak "Bsotkshsa dzvkei istorii" of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR (Moscow, 1987), at the Second Platonovskoe Sulshoziums (Perudka, IS39), at the meetings of the ostrogens I received papyrus finds at the Council for the Historian of Sherry Culture of the Academy of Sciences of the USSR, at the Sekaka-przh of the Center of the Psychological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences of Ukraine Aktknootk vrya Goroardsvs *: University (Washington) I at the Faculty of Philology of Moscow State University of Yam. M.V. Lomonosov.
publications :.
The structure of dyassergadpsch. The dissertation consists of xs vbedzgpsh, two chapters to the beginning. To rzyogo prlagaztsya sgpsokh csnooso-wagao l: lt; 5raturg.
S ^ a ^ iii "lJjüSSSi" Cccysjso "íBonaEas in maturation ^ g / asi htatoao-VODOSHI KZOGKy, KZRODKO BZai4SEOKYAGNaPTs2Kh yaodhoz SL" SH1GE NO-vZhodkkAM in LZMKHEZ. " nogs-go obosvozangl a & áopa. to hell sktu-gl & kovtk, oarshygaaka arzzheta, yoll, gada * k shtza vso & ddo-vaikya, give kj atgyay an analysis of the created syatuedns to te% nstow S. e-rubber factors, which drive to se goakzkkozzgsh.
Bo 5 which OKy ST<Ш;«ТЛ<.ОЬ - йбО БС»Э уС.^ЛПЯ на£тк OdfcSÜECnií» to przrziigao npoTinwpS "ciw of the hypoglossal corps of the internal lago. tswra a nns ?. at eeg pootlgda approach, ved "8yeg5 prvdetshi- "ílfitsns Vci rita. / vrsn ScMete rancha g. - He rile" tteorg Ristr, a Bn1 “? s 1¡ "f"! whose teller E. Zeller (for the first time - 1844) did not populate in the csosi system of the philosopher Plato a place for such a significant przzzzhdz-nia as "Zakhona", 2 beat zineedek to consider it<яг&зльЕЭ» Ответом на тцатныа поиск строгой системы в шитозоввяоз аэ?ау~ се стал крайний скептицизм Лд.Грота (1865), чей ая&гш з bcesi-ном c42i"Q свелся к скрупулезному резгмировагото дгалогоз - которое, однако, воЕсе по тоадестзекао объяснению ех г.^"бзгнногз емкела. Сзсп Еэалой".отгорк-х^ь обялруззлз а поштпа педагогая фллологоэ. работ«вЕЗС в русле харазтараого дла Ecxopzorps-Js so-редины XIX з. гиперкритичесяого кадргялзтья (иапрну-ар, "¡.кот. 1817), уотракктл протпьорвч!х корпуса посредствен ьтотеза (т.е. празаакяй нвподиккостн) отдельна " ¡.©удойна" диалогов: уже сам набор исключенных еж про?.5&здеил$, оягатывяшгй почта боб наследие Платона, свидетельствует о бзссаил! кх г.:зто.ца. The most durable and popular nz traditionalvis approaches to the study of Platock was the geketkssyuga, zrzi bgrammatically approach. His supporter (K.F. Ger / lian, 1839; F. ZugeyEl, 1855-I3S0; U, Fock-Wapamowats-Iallandorf, 1919) came from the common assumption that the payment was due to a debt! The period of her passagai was subjected to serious problems: there are no contradictions in the corpus, "aase the difficulties of half-growth otrvgsht rzzk" from etrla £ gyusofoko & öEorpaSat Platov;<5а то ни бвдо свстеку, по крайшй керэ уровне диалогов, бессьагалегно. Такой катод легко ведет к крайностям: в самоа дел®, Платок генетических штэрпрэтаторов -вечно менялийся фнлоссф, "ein werdendern, обреченны! на бесконечный поиск. Для фнлософни ках таловой здесь не остается места. Теи ко менее, существуют веские аргументы в пользу того, что пржоЛргтк&з от слсхо.чгтнчностя в философском шш- m * l is a specific feature of modern times, completely atypical for antiquity *; therefore, the genetic approach, at least, does not provide an explanation for Plato's defining character on the all-inclusive csto-r :: -? European f ^ tosoT "AI. Evil big bias and narrowness characterize the evolshiao-III ".st direction (R. Robinson, 1953), which explained the contradictions of the Platonic corpus" immaturity "of the logic of Greek thinkers, as well as political (the school of St. George's followers) and psychoanalytic (G. Kelsen, 1933 ) reductionism. The result of the complex path of traditional Platonic studies became, for example, only the difficulties described by Yeshe, on a position that has been mixed in the science of Platsna since the middle "And in. At present, it is possible to distinguish three main schools of I. The heir to traditional approaches is now the history ^ o - (- the llogic school (prefaced by G. Cherkens, 1935 and later), the salt of which, however, often boils down to criticism of other "näravle-H;: îi, than to the construction of convincing models of Plato's creativity The analytical school (G. Zlastos, C. Kahn, etc.), which has abandoned claims to reconstruct Plato's philosophy in its entirety and is limited by a refined logical analysis of individual dialogues of the groups, takes a relatively neutral position. The school of history and philology is sharply opposed by the esoteric interpretation put forward by in the works of Tübningensklh scientists K. Gaizer (1959, G963) and G.I. Kremer (1959, 1964) and supported by the authority of the philosopher G.-G. Gadaker. The Aleptas of the Twbyangen school (TI) reject what they call the "paradigm Schleiermacher "(i.e. 1 fehler G .. E "g s g, t mythologisierte Platon // Zeitschrift für: iiii 1 o.". Ophi * ch "Forschung. - Bd. 19. - 1965. - S. 393-420. idea of \u200b\u200bthe self-sufficiency of dialogues for understanding Plateau-¡ii). to build their interpretation primarily on an indirect tradition, i.e. on the testimonies of Aristotle and on the records of other students of Plato, who did not come down to us, but left their mark on the writings of many later authors. Aristotle in Physics does indeed mention Plato's "written teachings" & hooray<ра. ■Sóyiitiis (Thxs. jC"rí ь 14); его изложение фвдософта Платона з I, ХШ и XIУ книгах "Метафизики" достаточно резко отличается от того, что на:,! известно из диалогов (например, учение об "одном" а "неопределенной двоице", об идеях-числах). Comparing this information with Plato's repeatedly stated negative attitude to written speech as a means of conveying the true meaning (gmg. 274 b - 2? S e; cr. Vii 341 b), gsote ^ kzd: ds-lavt the conclusion that ec possessed very g.:? a stark philosophical system, built around a central scientist about "principles" (protvlogkya), as<эад«1гав&дйл от «& пу&эоишкп а вквшвкиа« виде, ограничиваясь устный изложением воввремя диспутов в Акаде- There are many aesosos for criticism at the Protklnky TSh. First of all. On which United Nations should a direct tradition (dialogues) prefer a written one, but an indirect one? Secondly, why shouldn't the theory of the primitives, ascendance, go to the early Pythagoreans and the well-known neo-Platonism, be betrayed to writing? To z "so objections mohko add ese one thing: till it is difficult to apply to the dialogues of the later period, Kotoi-ae are esoteric in themselves (the epda also includes the works studied in this work) and contain elements of prstologig (especially" Filey "). the achievements of the esoteric interpretation are evident and can be considered reliably established today. All of the above brings us to the following conclusion. In modern Platonic studies, there has been a consensus of opinion, which is still unconsciously understood, regarding the fact that the "early Socratic period" of Plato in its usual sense is a historiographic book; on this basis, the whole concept of the Platonic corpus must be revised. It is necessary to pay attention to one more circumstance, which is usually forgotten by both supporters and opponents of TS: did Plato have a complete philosophical system from the very beginning and only hinted at it in dialogues, or did the dialogues adequately and fully reflect? the development of his thought - in any case, as a writer Plato could not avoid genre ebolgy What position will the works studied here occupy in this emerging new picture of the work of Plato and the Academy, which makes us see in them some kind of inner unity? The first chapter, "The Place of Critical Dialogues in the Work of Plato," is devoted to answering these questions, in which the evidence provided by the Platonic corpus itself is consistently accentuated. its chronology, history of the text and history of the genre. First of all, Shawl, apparently, deliberately tried to give an indication of the relationship between the individual works of the critical group. In "Geotete" (183 th) and "Sophiste" (217 c) Socrates mentions his long conversation with Parmenides; the same personnel® take part in "Sophista" as in "Teatete", and the final of the latter directly echoes the very first phrase of the first; The "politician" also begins with spicy references to the text of "Sophist" etc. The only analogue of such a deliberate emphasis on the unity of several works is in the Platonic corpus "- the group" State "," Timaeus "," Critias "(" Krtstiy "continues the conversation started in "Tlmey", and the meeting depicted in "Tiye". occurs the next day after the conversation described in "The State"). Other parallels can be found in Mekda in two groups. If a. relying on the explicit stylistic, genre and philosopher "the heterogeneity of the 1st book of the" State "is scanty for the rest of the part * of this dialogue, to consider it separately, a clear scheme of the movement of argumentation in the group is highlighted: 1st book (a theoretical dialogue, statement of the problem of justice) - consistent solving the problem on various models (the main part of the "State" is a utopian model; "Timaeus" - macro- and Kikrokosyugmskaya; "Krktiya" (and Thermocrat?) - historical and mythological). Similarly, in the second group: "Parmenides" ( aporetic dialogue, apophatic formulation of problems of knowledge) - a consistent solution to the problem at various levels ("Teztet" - the level of sensory perception; "Sophist" and "Politician" - an intermediate level and methodological searches; "Philosopher" - comprehension of the highest truth (?)). Separately taken dialogues "Sophist" and "Podtok", as well as "Timaeus" and "Kryatii", are parts of an unverified tremor: just as "Krktkvm" should have followed "Terlokra t "(cri. mz d), after "Politics" the planned "Philosopher" (Sph. 217 c, 253 c; Vol. 2b1 c). The leading figure in these dialogues is no longer Socrates, but representatives of Western thought - the Pythagorean Timaeus Lockersky and the Elean guest from Sophist, who, in fact, are deprived of vivid individual traits as characters. The very principle of dialogism is interpreted in these works in an input manner: although the narrative in the dialogues of the critical group is interspersed with the remarks of the participants, it nevertheless rather resembles the monologism of "Tkyeya" than the "conversation of different people", which is more typical of Plato *, Such a sophisticated organization of the material and an abundance of deliberate! condominiums, obviously, cannot be explained as something unplanned and accidental. The chronological data do not contradict this conclusion.Taking into account the absence of any external historical evidence of critical dialogues (with the exception of the controversial, albeit possible, polemic with Aristotle, which was reflected in them), in their dating, one has to rely primarily on castimetry. The starting point of stylometric investigations is the message of Aristotle, who, in the II book of Politics (126A b mentions that the "State" was written earlier, check "Laws"; this fact is confirmed by the unanimous conviction of more creepy authors that " Laws "are the last" work of Plato. Consequently, works stylistically close to "Laws" should be attributed. To the later period. Regarding "Sophist" to "Politics", these stklometrics leave no doubt: both dialogues were written at about the same time , as "Laws" and "Guineas." In the case of "Parmenido" in "Theetetus" the question is complicated by possible reworkings of both dialogues. * "Parmevdd" obviously consists of two heterogeneous parts; the existence of a different, than known to us, introduction to " Teetetu ", attested by an anonymous paliruss step commentary. Nevertheless, the dating offered by scholars of even distant directions, on the whole, almost coincide. So, H. Teslef, on the basis of historical-philo logical reasons, gives the following sequence: immediately before the second Sicilian trip of Plato (367-366) - "Teetetus"; shortly before the third trip (361-360) - "Parmenides"; about 355 - "Sofnst" to "Politician". A similar picture is drawn by the last computer study of the Platonic style, carried out by J. Ledger1;<зк:36Э - "Парменид" я "Теэтот" ("Пармвняд" - несколько ранее); ок.349 - "Софист" и "Политик". Такш образов, . в обоих случаях констатируется "значительный разрыв во вреизгз -от 10 до 20 лет - мазду раннкми и поздзлмн произведениями группы; тот факт, что Платон уже в конце кизни счол нуаяш связать их в единое (хотя и фиктивное) целое, говорят о его вааерешст в "Софисте" и "Политике" дать, наконец, отзэт на вопросы, поставленные в "Паркениде" и "Теэтете". Во второй главе предлагав-, мой работы предпринимается попытка обнаругзть и протетерпрзтн-ровать один из этих ответов. In the manuscripts of Platov's dialogues that have come down to us, they are grouped according to tetralogies, combining works that are close to tewatzchvoh, but not chronologically. According to Diogenes Laertius (or, nr? 6\u003e “the publisher of the corpus, the Platonist Tracyl Dum. In 36 AD), arranged them in this order, believed that Plato, for the publication of his collection of works, was guided by the tetralogical performances of the Attic tragedy - which, of course, is hardly plausible ... Nevertheless, this grouping, as well as the earlier trilogy organization of the corpus, which distinguished the edition of the philologist Aristophanes of Vazayatgy fx ni, retains traces of the original structure, thoughtful by Plato I developed at the Academy. This is one of the following. In the manuscripts, each dialogue is preceded by three headings: the first corresponds to the main action; to the person of the dialogue, or (less often) to be defined? *? the subject in it, the second - its content, the third - the method used in it. The first title undoubtedly belongs to Plato himself, as evidenced by the fact that in the Politics the Sophist is quoted twice * T ^ dger 6.R. ne-o.nm "na plato. L Computer Analysis of Plato "s Sfcjrl" "- cxffírrt" "Lnglpdn prese" 19 "" V ?. - p.22 ^ -225. the second title is often attributed to Trasyal, based on the words of Diogenes Laertkä (di III 57); btkxTc ma xp ^ -ccu. ta * "¿i am tríale and interpreting xp ^ v as" bbodng "," dreduszaz? " From the point of view of the semantics of the used verb, thawing is impossible, and the correct translation of the phrase will sound like this: "He uses £ already exist] double names." In all likelihood, the second about the headings arose and were used in the Academy, in the internal communication of its members. It is no coincidence that Aristotle refers in "Politics" (1262-ti) to Plato's "Steam" as ¿puTVKow kójai - "ynigi about love". Taking into account what has been said, it is impossible not to draw attention to the fact that "Theetetus", "Sophist" and "Politician" are included in the second tetralogy, then vresh! how "Parmenides" discovers the third. Plato's will can be discerned in the atom so that "Parmecid" and "Teztet" should be read together with a unique (tsust to unfinished) trilogy, the dialogues of which he gave in the title not the names of specific persons, & general concepts. Already with a cursory glance at the Platonic corpus, it becomes noticeable that all dialogues are divided into two types - narrative, conveying the story of a conversation about the place of conversation, and dramatic. ... be an open exchange replica. The first type includes many of the most artistically sservoshe-dialogues - "Charmid", "Evtidem", "Lisad", "Phaedo", "Protagoras", Per ", to the second - most of the sympathetic Plato, including later ones. did not attach much importance and did not consider its possible consequences for the chronology of the corpus.Only H. Teslef in 1382 put forward the assumption of the primacy of the narrative form in relation to the dramatic one, but changing our views on the entire history of Plato's work. The tradition of narrative dialogue is deeply rooted in the history of Greek literature. Homer already renders the speeches of his heroes in this way. This method is also characteristic of the early Ionian prose, including Herodotus, from whom other Greek historians borrowed it, starting with Fukadides. Alexamen of Theossky, who, according to the (not entirely reliable) testimony of Aristotle with G. 72 t; oyae), was the initiator of the genre of Socratic dialogue, in any case came from Ionia, it is reasonable for the poets to assume that his dialogues were "told". The dialogues that were encountered in the protreptic speeches of the sophists ("Double Speeches"; testimonies about the writings of the rotator) were also included in the narrative form. About the existence at the beginning of the 1st century. BC. dramatic dialogue "south we have scanty-ozzdv-kiyamk. Direct dialogue was used in judicial eloquence Srsdnv-shis from the practice of written interrogation) and. in the "refutation of the p9 of the wofkst" (1x * mx1) Considering Platov's attitude to judicial orators and paid teachers of wisdom, it is difficult to suppose that they could have a noticeable influence on him. However, like poetic dramas, mimens were intended exclusively for staging on stage, so the likelihood of their direct genetic connection with the productions of the Socratic schools is minimized; study: Socrates simply had nowhere to stage such a performance. it seems that, apart from Plato, the Socrates clearly gave preference to narrative dialogue, an impressive example of which is the work of XenaFont.Isokrag, who was at the head of the most influential noah in Athens, along with the Academy, schools and closely following the activities of his rival throughout his life, in his speech-treatises widely uses the narrated dialogue of Plosg. XV rchg. ^ N, \\ "mm goo" Oh, but ne does not give a single sample of the dramatic form. All this leads us to the conclusion that Plato had nowhere to borrow the dramatic type of dialogue, and he was born in the bowels of the Academy. All Plato's works are written in a dramatic forel, which, on the basis of stylometry data, can be reliably attributed to the later period. The only exception is "Parmenides", the first part of which (up to 137 s), devoted to criticism of the theory of ideas, is supported by a narrative manner, and the second is a direct conversation between Parmenades and Aristotle. It is natural to assume here the revision of the early version and the subsequent joining of the new part. Obviously, in the "big" dialogues, Ford's dramatic testifies to their belonging to a more or less late group. At the same time, most of the "early Socratic" works are just dramatic dialogues ("Lachetes", "Menexenus", "Alcibiades I", "Theagus", "Hippias the Lesser", "Euthyphron", etc.). To answer the question arising here, one should turn to the problem of the genesis of dramatic dialogue. It is likely that during Socrates' life, his disciples took notes of his conversations. Of course, these notes literally reproduced questions and answers, without pretending to be literary processing. However, these notes could not give birth to a new dialogical genre, since in the absence of regular support and discussions, nothing pushed them to a further evoyaad. Of such kind notes, most likely, formed the basis of Xenophon's Socratic works. Only with the creation of the Academy, the situation radically changes. The academic practice of dialectical disputes was a powerful incentive for the written confirmation of the discussed problems and their subsequent recitation, the dialogues that were born in this way can hardly be attributed to the sole authorship of Plato, rather they should be considered the fruit of the collective creativity of the Academy. They were not originally intended but for distribution beyond its borders: even having received them in hand, the uninitiated reader would not be able to understand them, since the ancient papyri lacked the designations of the characters in the margins (in a similar way, the reading of poetic tragedies and comedies was the lot of those few who prepared them for staging). Only gradually does the dramatic dialogue begin to make its way to publication. This explains the declarative rejection of the narrative forela at the beginning of Theetetus (143 sec.), And not the reworking of the early dialogue_ into_dramatic, as it was supposed. This is how we find the basis for explaining the multilayer and sophistication of the "Socratic" dialogues discovered by the latest research - these are school multifunctional texts, each of which has come a long way of evolution in the pedagogical sch.-gctics of the Academy. The decisive stage in this development is the exit of the dramatic diaal: - from the walls of the school - falls on the works of the critical literature. Is it an accident that it is here that we are faced with an ¡a-dkkalyshm turn in Plato's philosophical thought? An attempt to answer this question using several specific examples is presented in the second chapter of the dissertation "Genre features of critical dielogs", The Parmenides dialogue begins with the oenon's arguments in support of Parmenides' thesis that all is one. Zeno acts by contradictory argumentation: if He existed a lot, would the same things possess opposite ?, “properties, for example, similarity and dissimilarity, which is impossible (V / -!. \\ he appears only in the introductory phrases, and the evil guest becomes the main * really. Finally, in the "Polntkp" s the role of the listener and the learner, having found out a certain "quaddai Socrates" - throughout all the vadamosti, a historical person, enraptured by Pdatons in the XI Letters (358 a). However, the seamstress, given the tradyatsEOwn the role of Socrates in the entire Platonic corpus, the fact of co-presenting such a hero cannot be considered anything but a source. In this case, we can recall the old theories, which equated the Athenian use of the Laws with Plato himself. It is not excluded that the face is hidden under the guise of an Elean guest to Tszsm YaokrsAogo "Socrates se is deliberately pushed aside, Eoa & ozvo, that all these changes testify to the authority of the old Plato" Academy. ■ Changes in the train of thought-a more private order The payment of the krat-cichesky period can also be connected with a certain parso-we think. In the dialogue "Teztet", p & rscatrivating the problems of knowledge a krktkyuschb "aofioywœatsnâeRse creative, Socrates susssraef dgo prokoraraschne will develop the teachings of Protagoras. In a short vayaezz & nd zzimosiao for the ^ yanreya tel. I, (162 & "o) Chd ^ ztE-but Boovrnimable object ooderiite -in sebz all svsZotaa, miz n? Rnkpest £ kn" s ïcî4 "gyazdz and vrotezopezhyisha. 2. (I5S a - 157 o) The compilation itself contains no evidence, otsuschenn® rzadzuat yaka prp koktedtz o perazpayentsa. Which of the 8th theory cuts off the views of the historical Protagsr? The first of them is aasaadetelloteov & on for Protagoras pag-ovnoEvaa * and points like Sakot Eshirakoi (Pyrrh. s chvashta "tmgat upejmn- you are in her favor with Aristotle. In the IX shshge "Iatafaakkk" (104? * S) Aristotle, criticizing the views of the Yygarsk school, says that the Megarians, like Protagoras, are approved. that there is no tact here®shv & "which would not be realized, therefore, ait ^ -xW ciC-s *" Iotov uh oriaSctvo ^ TOv. Tatra understands the verb Stnnv socially, and oígCtitSv as a court of matter, therefore, his aotoeo-bathtub of this phrase is mine to express taya: "all the things that are perceived will not be perceived to be meaningful, with" from him and in the bossraai * crawling at the moment ". However, it would be right to use it as an ordinary linking verb, and “¿cCt¡t6v as an adjunct with a pre-dacative load. Then we get the answer: "no ozsh praddzt is not the Sudetenland — sensually perceived," go, uh, accurate, " on the coincidence of the raalzBZdgz cat-eshry! from the moment of sensory perception, and not from the absence of patzntsk !, the head of those. Consequently, passing tzoraya blgshe to Ezgorkzsky Protagoras. Why then did Socrates get a half-doobyalszl srzkzse- [zzt Protagoras where and who are those who do not know? Otgag, ^ DRYZTOYA, followed by JtORJTS IN ANOTHER DDILOG in the late EZRZZEZ -. "Phaedre". Socrates, speaking in a speech in love with love, psshz-tnwaet naitz daimoncon, r this makes him animate ^ i to recall the famous pokdyashguv pesn, "vadino®" "" of the poet Steoa-khor, This unexpected turn of thought dazt Socrates is a reason to turn to the story of the three entrances of the fighting basukal a. & Sh9 - ■ l about the theme of the immortality of the soul (245 o). Something similar is carried out in "Teetetv". sspjajj theory, Socrates, like me in "Phaedrus", suddenly becomes confused with the genus "raskazaeg", which he attributed to Protagoras ayushkem lresz & I are unworthy of his views, and begins to expound the second sspjajj in the form of a kind of "secret teaching". The essence of this new scientist is the introduction of the category of becoming; in the same way as in "Phaedra", Smfat, complicating the course of his chaos, refers to the authority of the poets (152e). So how, all this "palzkodal" in "Tweet kuaya in order to move to a new stage of consideration of the probdek of knowledge. So the development of a philosophical approach to dialogues to support the artistic method) ®. Conclusion. Critical dialogues ashiszkush are a true front-line in all of Plato's work: in them the second thing vygolayetsya outward, that was hitherto hidden behind the walls of the Academy - its school practice, lively disputes, and doubts even in the very fundamental principles of its philosophy. It is difficult to say that the balo definitions here have entailed the radical iziekokvya & anra a new formulation of the philosophical problems of gtsgedelnoe sstrz? SZ, if on the contrary. In any case, I was ready to be born that he didn’t want to be born, because he wasn’t ready to be born. Isocrates' controversy with the Academy of Plato // VEOTSHE "Shaft! Stories. - 1987, - „42. - S.93-102. A new fragment of Protagoras: the possibilities of intercourse //./ Tenth author-reader conference "Vvstnyuea DrovpoYa, ^ Kstorsh" AS USSR: Abstracts. report - Y., IS87. * P.73-75. Section "Philosophy * // Methodology for the methodology of yagtch" kzh * lv-pgchny culture: cultures of "clasic Greece in zarubeyaENG research, - P .: SHSH AN SSSR, IS88. - P.741." The necessity of independent? Rld "no" la consideration of the objects of plato "a polttaica ia tba Phaedrug // II S7" po-aiua Platonicuo: TBE. DOCL. - Peruaia, 1989. - P. 350. lang. mmsh- "i yatt wbiwimi imaginary" piscaiag OtpzchvGEN * on ret.G VTS RPO An incorrigible idealist and romantic, Platonov believed in the “creativeness of life for good”, in “peace and light” stored in the human soul, in the “dawn of human progress” on the horizon of history. A realist writer, Platonov saw the reasons forcing people to “save their nature”, “turn off consciousness”, go “from the inside out”, without leaving a single “personal feeling” in their souls, “lose the feeling of themselves”. Platonov's heroes had no knowledge and no past, so faith replaced everything. Since the thirties, Platonov has been calling us with his special, honest and bitter, talented voice, reminding us that a person's path, no matter what social and political structure he lives, is always difficult, full of gains and losses. For Platonov, it is important that man is not destroyed. Creativity of M. Bulgakov. In the novel "The Master and Margarita" Bulgakov touches upon many problems of everyday life and being, reminds people of them. The so-called “Yershalaim” chapters occupy an important place in the novel. This is a loose interpretation of the Gospel of Matthew. These chapters cover many religious and moral issues. Bulgakov paints the image of Yeshua - a righteous man who believes that “all people are good”, that in every person there is a spark of God, a striving for light and truth. But at the same time, he does not forget about human vices: cowardice, pride, indifference. In other words, Bulgakov shows the eternal struggle between good and evil, purity and vice. The significance of this novel in the novel is that the writer expands the time frame of the action and thereby shows once again that this struggle is eternal, time has no power over it, and this problem is always relevant. Bulgakov also says that the forces of good and evil are inextricably linked, none of them can exist without the other. The novel also reflects the theme of love, and Bulgakov writes about "real", "true, eternal love." "Follow me, my reader, and only me, and I will show you such love!" - the author tells us. In the face of Margarita, he shows that no, even the most powerful forces can resist real love. Margarita's love paves the way for happiness and eternal peace with her beloved. Mikhail Afanasyevich Bulgakov is a mystical writer, as he called himself. Somehow very sensitively he was able to hear his time and understand the future, therefore in all his works Bulgakov warns readers about the coming time of Satan. Literature and Revolution. The fate of Russian literature after 1917 The first turbulent years after 1917, when in accordance with the new social forces unleashed by the overthrow of the autocracy, numerous opposing literary groups emerged, were the only revolutionary period in the development of art in the Soviet Union. The struggle mainly developed between those who adhered to the great literary tradition of 19th century realism and the heralds of the new proletarian culture. Innovation was especially welcomed in poetry, the primordial herald of the revolution. The futuristic poetry of V.V. Mayakovsky (1893-1930) and his followers, inspired by the "social order", i.e. everyday class struggle, represented a complete break with tradition. Some writers adapted the old expressive means to new themes. So, for example, the peasant poet S.A. Yesenin (1895-1925) sang the new life that was expected in the village under Soviet rule in the traditional lyrical style. The Communist Party began to formally regulate literature with the beginning of the first five-year plan (1928-1932); it was strongly promoted by the Russian Association of Proletarian Writers (RAPP). The result was an incredible amount of production prose, poetry and drama that almost never rose above the level of monotonous propaganda or reporting. This invasion was anticipated by the novels of FV Gladkov, whose most popular work Cement (1925) described the heroic work of restoring a dilapidated plant. During this period, Sholokhov completed the great novel Quiet Don (1928–1940), which was recognized as a classic work of Soviet literature and was awarded the Nobel Prize.