Elemental Composition of Living Matter and OM of Combustible Fossils

Combustible fossils contain in their composition the same elements as the substance of living organisms, so the elements - carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sulfur and phosphorus called or biogenic, or biophilic, or organogenic.

Hydrogen, carbon, oxygen and nitrogen account for over 99% both the mass and the number of atoms that make up all living organisms. In addition to them, in significant quantities in living organisms, another eye can be concentrated.

lo 20-22 chemical elements. 12 elements make up 99.29%, the rest 0.71%

Space abundance: H, He, C, N.

Up to 50% - C, up to 20% - O, up to 8% - H, 10-15% - N, 2-6% - P, 1% - S, 1% - K, ½% - Mg and Ca, 0 .2% - Fe, in trace amounts - Na, Mn, Cu, Zn.

The structure of the atom, isotopes, distribution of hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur and nitrogen in the earth's crust

HYDROGEN - the main element of the cosmos, the most common element of the universe . Chem e-t 1 group, atomic number 1, atomic mass 1.0079. In modern editions of the periodic table, H is also placed in group VII above F, since some properties of H are similar to the properties of halogens. Three H isotopes are known. Two stable ones are protium 1 H - P (99.985%), deuterium 2 H - D (0.015%), and one radioactive is tritium 3 H - T, T 1/2 = 12.262 years. One more is artificially obtained - the fourth extremely unstable isotope - 4 H. In the separation of P and D under natural conditions, evaporation plays the main role, however, the mass of the world's oceans is so large that the deuterium content in it changes slightly. In tropical countries, the content of deuterium in precipitation is higher than in the polar zone. In the free state, H is a colorless gas, odorless and tasteless, the lightest of all gases, 14.4 times lighter than air. H becomes liquid at -252.6°C, solid at -259.1°C. H is an excellent reducing agent. It burns in O with a non-luminous flame, forming water. In the earth's crust, H is much smaller than in stars and on the Sun. Its weight clarke in the earth's crust is 1%. In natural chemical compounds, H forms ionic, covalent And hydrogen bonds . Hydrogen bonds play an important role in biopolymers (carbohydrates, alcohols, proteins, nucleic acids), determine the properties and structure of kerogen geopolymers and GI molecules. Under certain conditions, the H atom is able to combine simultaneously with two other atoms. As a rule, it forms a strong covalent bond with one of them, and a weak one with the other, which is called hydrogen bond.

OXYGEN - The most common element of the earth's crust, it is 49.13% by weight. O has serial number 8, is in period 2, group VI, atomic mass 15.9994. Three stable isotopes of O are known - 16 O (99.759%), 17 O (0.0371%), 18 O (0.2039%). There are no long-lived radioactive isotopes of O. Artificial radioactive isotope 15 O (T 1/2 = 122 seconds). The isotope ratio 18 O/16 O is used for geological reconstructions, which in natural objects varies by 10% from 1/475 to 1/525. The polar ices have the lowest isotopic coefficient, the highest - CO 2 of the atmosphere. When comparing the isotopic composition, the value is used d 18 O, which is calculated by the formula: d 18 O‰= . Behind standard the average ratio of these isotopes in ocean water is taken. Variations in the isotopic composition of O in gp, water are determined by the temperature at which the process of formation of specific minerals proceeds. The lower T, the more intensive isotope fractionation will be. It is believed that the O isotope composition of the ocean has not changed over the past 500 million years. The main factor determining the isotopic shift (variations in the isotopic composition in nature) is the kinetic effect determined by the reaction temperature. O under normal conditions, the gas is invisible, tasteless, odorless. In reactions with the overwhelming majority of atoms, O acts as oxidizing agent. Only in the reaction with F is the oxidizing agent F. O exists in biallotropic modifications . First - molecular oxygen - O 2 The second modification is ozone - O 3, arr under the action of electrical discharges in air and pure O, in radioactive processes, by the action of ultraviolet rays on ordinary O. In nature About 3 formed constantly under the action of UV rays in the upper atmosphere. At an altitude of about 30-50 km there is an "ozone screen" that traps the bulk of UV rays, protecting the organisms of the biosphere from the harmful effects of these rays. At low concentrations, About 3 pleasant, refreshing smell, but if in the air more than 1% O 3 it is highly toxic .

NITROGEN - concentrated in the biosphere: it prevails in the atmosphere (75.31% by weight, 78.7% by volume), and in the earth's crust it weight clark - 0.045%. Chemical element of group V, 2 periods atomic number 7, atomic mass 14.0067. Three N isotopes are known - two stable 14 N (99.635%) and 15 N (0.365%) and radioactive 13 N, T 1/2 = 10.08 min. General scatter of ratio values 15 N/ 14 N small . The oils are enriched in the 15 N isotope, while the accompanying natural gases are depleted in it. Oil shale is also enriched in heavy isotope N 2 colorless gas, tasteless and odorless. N unlike O does not support breathing, the mixture N with O is most acceptable for the breath of most of the inhabitants of our planet. N is chemically inactive. It is part of the GI of all organisms. The low chemical activity of nitrogen is determined by the structure of its molecule. Like most gases, except for inert ones, the molecule N consists of two atoms. In the formation of a bond between them, 3 valence electrons of the outer shell of each atom participate, forming triple covalent chemical bond , which gives the most stable of all known diatomic molecules. "Formal" valency from -3 to +5, "true" valence 3. Forming strong covalent bonds with O, H and C, it is part of the complex ions: -, -, +, which give easily soluble salts.

SULFUR - e-t ZK, in the mantle (ultrabasic rocks) it is 5 times less than in the lithosphere. Clark in ZK - 0,1%. Chemical element group VI, 3 periods, atomic number 16, atomic mass 32.06. Highly electronegative el-t, exhibits non-metallic properties. In hydrogen and oxygen compounds, it is in the composition of various ions. Arr acid and salt. Many sulfur-containing salts are sparingly soluble in water. S can have valences: (-2), (0), (+4), (+6), of which the first and last are the most characteristic. Both ionic and covalent bonds are characteristic. The main value for natural processes is the complex ion - 2 S - non-metal, chemically active element. Only with Au and Pt S does not interact. Of the inorganic compounds, in addition to sulfates, sulfides and H2SO4, oxides of SO 2 - a gas that strongly pollutes the atmosphere, and SO 3 (solid), as well as hydrogen sulfide, are common on Earth. Elementary S is characterized by three allotropic varieties : S rhombic (most stable), S monoclinic (cyclic molecule - eight-membered ring S 8) and plastic S 6 are linear chains of six atoms. 4 stable isotopes of S are known in nature: 32S (95.02%), 34S (4.21%), 33S (0.75%), 36S (0.02%). Artificial radioactive isotope 35 S c T 1/2 = 8.72 days. S is accepted as standard. troilite(FeS) from the Canyon Diablo meteorite (32 S/ 34 S= 22.22) Oxidation and reduction reactions can cause isotopic exchange, which is expressed in an isotopic shift. In nature, it is bacterial, but thermal is also possible. In nature, to date, there has been a clear division of the S of the earth's crust into 2 groups - biogenic sulfides and gases enriched in the light isotope 32 S, and sulfates, included in the salts of oceanic water of ancient evaporites, gypsum containing 34 S. The gases associated with oil deposits vary in isotopic composition and differ markedly from oils.

In the center of the planet Earth there is a core, it is separated from the surface by layers of crust, magma, and a rather thin layer of half gaseous, half liquid substance. This layer plays the role of a lubricant and allows the core of the planet to rotate almost independently of its main mass.
The top layer of the nucleus consists of a very dense shell. Perhaps this substance is close in its properties to metals, very strong and ductile, possibly has magnetic properties.
The surface of the planet's core - its solid shell - is very strongly heated to significant temperatures, upon contact with it, magma passes almost into a gaseous state.
Under the solid shell, the internal substance of the nucleus is in a state of compressed plasma, which mainly consists of elementary atoms (hydrogen) and nuclear fission products - protons, electrons, neutrons and other elementary particles that are formed as a result of nuclear fusion and nuclear decay reactions.

Zones of nuclear fusion and decay reactions.
Nuclear fusion and decay reactions take place in the core of the planet Earth, which causes a constant release of a large amount of heat and other types of energy (electromagnetic pulses, various radiations), and also maintains the internal substance of the core constantly in a plasma state.

Earth's core zone - nuclear decay reactions.
Nuclear decay reactions take place in the very center of the planet's core.
It happens as follows - heavy and super-heavy elements (which are formed in the nuclear fusion zone), since they have a greater mass than all steel elements, seem to sink in liquid plasma, and gradually sink into the very center of the planet's core, where they gain critical mass and enter into a nuclear decay reaction with the release of a large amount of energy and decay products of nuclei. In this zone, heavy elements work up to the state of elementary atoms - hydrogen atom, neutrons, protons, electrons and other elementary particles.
These elementary atoms and particles, due to the release of high energy at high speeds, scatter from the center of the nucleus to its periphery, where they enter into a nuclear fusion reaction.

Earth's core zone - nuclear fusion reactions.
Elementary hydrogen atoms and elementary particles, which are formed as a result of the nuclear decay reaction in the center of the Earth's core, reach the outer hard shell of the nucleus, where nuclear fusion reactions take place in the immediate vicinity of it, in the layer located under the hard shell.
Protons, electrons and elementary atoms, accelerated to high speeds by the reaction of nuclear decay in the center of the planet's core, meet with various atoms that are on the periphery. It should be noted that many elementary particles enter into nuclear fusion reactions on their way to the surface of the nucleus.
Gradually, more and more heavy elements are formed in the zone of nuclear fusion, almost the entire periodic table, some of them have the heaviest mass.
In this zone, there is a peculiar division of atoms of substances according to their weight due to the properties of the hydrogen plasma itself, compressed by enormous pressure, which has a huge density, due to the centrifugal force of the nucleus rotation, and due to the centripetal force of the earth's gravity.
As a result of the addition of all these forces, the heaviest metals sink in the plasma of the nucleus and fall into its center to further maintain the continuous process of nuclear fission in the center of the nucleus, while lighter elements tend to either leave the nucleus or settle on its inner part - the hard shell of the nucleus.
As a result, the atoms of the entire periodic table gradually enter the magma, which then enter into chemical reactions above the surface of the core, forming complex chemical elements.

The magnetic field of the planet's core.
The magnetic field of the nucleus is formed due to the reaction of nuclear decay in the center of the nucleus due to the fact that the elementary products of nuclear decay, flying out of the central zone of the nucleus, entrain plasma flows in the nucleus, forming powerful vortex flows that twist around the main magnetic field lines. Since these plasma flows contain elements with a certain charge, then a strong electric current arises, which creates its own electromagnetic field.
The main eddy current (plasma flow) is located in the core thermonuclear fusion zone, all the internal matter in this zone moves in the direction of the planet's rotation in a circle (along the equator of the planet's core), creating a powerful electromagnetic field.

Rotation of the planet's core.
The rotation of the core of the planet does not coincide with the plane of rotation of the planet itself, the axis of rotation of the core is between the axis of rotation of the planet and the axis connecting the magnetic pluses.

The angular velocity of rotation of the planet's core is greater than the angular velocity of the planet itself, and ahead of it.

The balance of nuclear decay and fusion processes in the core of the planet.
The processes of nuclear fusion and nuclear decay in the planet are in principle balanced. But according to our observations, this balance can be disturbed in one direction or another.
In the nuclear fusion zone of the planet's core, an excess of heavy metals can gradually accumulate, which then, falling into the center of the planet in larger quantities than usual, can cause an increase in the nuclear decay reaction, as a result of which much more energy is released than usual, which will affect seismic activity in earthquake-prone areas, as well as volcanic activity on the surface of the Earth.
According to our observations, from time to time there is a micro-rupture of the solid squirrel of the Earth's core, which leads to the ingress of the core plasma into the planet's magma, and this leads to a sharp increase in its temperature in this place. Above these places, a sharp increase in seismic activity and volcanic activity on the surface of the planet is possible.
Perhaps the periods of global warming and global cooling are connected with the balance of the processes of nuclear fusion and nuclear decay within the planet. Changes in geological epochs are also associated with these processes.

in our historical period.
According to our observations, there is now an increase in the activity of the planet's core, an increase in its temperature, and as a result, the heating of the magma that surrounds the core of the planet, as well as an increase in the global temperature of its atmosphere.
This indirectly confirms the acceleration of the drift of the magnetic poles, which indicates that the processes inside the nucleus have changed and moved into a different phase.
The decrease in the intensity of the Earth's magnetic field is associated with the accumulation in the planet's magma of substances that shield the Earth's magnetic field, which, of course, will also affect changes in the modes of nuclear reactions in the planet's core.

Considering our planet and all the processes on it, we usually operate in our research and forecasts with either physical or energy concepts, but in some cases, making a connection between the one and the other side will give a better understanding of the topics described.
In particular, in the context of the described future evolutionary processes on Earth, as well as the period of serious cataclysms throughout the planet, its core, processes in it and in the magma layer, as well as relationships with the surface, biosphere and atmosphere were considered. These processes were considered both at the level of physics and at the level of energy relationships.
The structure of the Earth's core turned out to be quite simple and logical from the point of view of physics, it is a generally closed system with two predominant thermonuclear processes in its different parts, which harmoniously complement each other.
First of all, it must be said that the nucleus is in continuous and very fast motion, this growth also supports the processes in it.
The very center of the core of our planet is an extremely heavy and compressed complex structure of particles, which, due to centrifugal force, the collision of these particles and constant compression, at a certain moment are divided into lighter and elementary individual elements. This is the process of thermonuclear decay - in the very middle of the planet's core.
The released particles are carried to the periphery, where the general rapid movement continues within the nucleus. In this part, the particles lag behind each other more in space, colliding at high speeds, they re-form heavier and more complex particles, which are pulled back into the middle of the nucleus by centrifugal force. This is the process of thermonuclear fusion - on the periphery of the Earth's core.
Huge speeds of movement of particles and the flow of the described processes give constant and colossal temperatures.
Here it is worth clarifying some points - firstly, the movement of particles occurs around the axis of rotation of the Earth and along its movement - in the same direction, this is a complementary rotation - of the planet itself with all its mass and particles in its core. Secondly, it should be noted that the speed of movement of particles in the core is simply enormous, it is many times higher than the speed of rotation of the planet itself around its axis.
To maintain this system on a permanent basis for an arbitrarily long time - much is not needed, it is enough that any cosmic bodies would fall on the Earth from time to time, constantly increasing the mass of our planet as a whole and the core in particular, while part of its mass leaves with thermal energy and gases through thinned parts of the atmosphere into outer space.
In general, the system is quite stable, the question arises - what processes can lead to serious geological, tectonic, seismological, climatic and other disasters on the surface?
Considering the physical component of these processes, the following picture is obtained - from time to time, some flows of dispersed particles participating in thermonuclear fusion “shoot” from the peripheral part of the core into magma at great speed, a huge layer of magma into which they fall, as it were, extinguishes these “shots” by themselves, by their density, viscosity, lower temperature - they do not rise to the surface of the planet, but those areas of magma where such emissions occur - heat up sharply, start to move, expand, put more pressure on the earth's crust, which leads to sharp movements of geological plates, faults in the earth's crust, temperature fluctuations, not to mention earthquakes and volcanic eruptions. It can also lead to the subsidence of continental plates into the oceans and the rise to the surface of new continents and islands.
The reasons for such insignificant emissions from the core into magma may be excessive temperatures and pressure in the general system of the core of the planet, but when it comes to evolutionary catastrophic events everywhere on the planet, about cleaning the living conscious Earth from human aggression and debris, we are talking about a conscious intentional act living conscious being.
From the point of view of energy and esotericism, the planet gives intentional impulses from the center-awareness-core to the body-magma-lower layer of the Guardians, that is, conditionally to the Titans, to carry out actions to clean up the territories to the surface. Here it is worth mentioning a certain layer between the core and the mantle, just at the level of physics it is a layer of cooling substance, on the one hand corresponding to the characteristics of the core, on the other - magma, which allows for energy-information flows in both directions. From the point of view of energy, this is something like a primary “nerve conducting field”, looks like a corona near the Sun during a total eclipse, is a connection of the planet’s consciousness with the first and deepest and largest layer of the Earth Guardians, who transmit the impulse further - to smaller and mobile zonal Guardians that implement these processes on the surface. True, during the period of the strongest cataclysms, the rise of new continents and the redrawing of the current continents, the partial participation of the Titans themselves is assumed.
Here it is also worth noting another important physical phenomenon associated with the structure of the core of our planet and the processes occurring in it. This is the formation of the Earth's magnetic field.
The magnetic field is formed as a result of the high speed of particles orbiting inside the Earth's core, and it can be said that the Earth's external magnetic field is a kind of hologram that clearly shows thermonuclear processes occurring inside the planet's core.
The farther from the center of the planet the magnetic field spreads, the more rarefied it is, inside the planet near the core it is orders of magnitude stronger, while inside the core itself it is a monolithic magnetic field.

Hydrogen (H) is a very light chemical element, with a content of 0.9% by mass in the Earth's crust and 11.19% in water.

Characterization of hydrogen

In terms of lightness, it is the first among gases. Under normal conditions, it is tasteless, colorless, and absolutely odorless. When it enters the thermosphere, it flies into space due to its low weight.

In the entire universe, it is the most numerous chemical element (75% of the total mass of substances). So much so that many stars in outer space are composed entirely of it. For example, the Sun. Its main component is hydrogen. And heat and light are the result of the release of energy during the fusion of the nuclei of the material. Also in space there are whole clouds of its molecules of various sizes, densities and temperatures.

Physical properties

High temperature and pressure significantly change its qualities, but under normal conditions it:

It has a high thermal conductivity when compared with other gases,

Non-toxic and poorly soluble in water

With a density of 0.0899 g / l at 0 ° C and 1 atm.,

Turns into a liquid at -252.8°C

Becomes solid at -259.1°C.,

The specific heat of combustion is 120.9.106 J/kg.

It requires high pressure and very low temperatures to become liquid or solid. When liquefied, it is fluid and light.

Chemical properties

Under pressure and cooling (-252.87 gr. C), hydrogen acquires a liquid state, which is lighter in weight than any analogue. In it, it takes up less space than in gaseous form.

He is a typical non-metal. In laboratories, it is obtained by reacting metals (such as zinc or iron) with dilute acids. Under normal conditions, it is inactive and reacts only with active non-metals. Hydrogen can separate oxygen from oxides, and reduce metals from compounds. It and its mixtures form hydrogen bonds with certain elements.

The gas is highly soluble in ethanol and in many metals, especially palladium. Silver does not dissolve it. Hydrogen can be oxidized during combustion in oxygen or air, and when interacting with halogens.

When combined with oxygen, water is formed. If the temperature is normal, then the reaction is slow, if above 550 ° C - with an explosion (turns into explosive gas).

Finding hydrogen in nature

Although there is a lot of hydrogen on our planet, it is not easy to find it in its pure form. Little can be found during volcanic eruptions, during oil extraction and in the place of decomposition of organic matter.

More than half of the total amount is in the composition with water. It is also included in the structure of oil, various clays, combustible gases, animals and plants (the presence in every living cell is 50% by the number of atoms).

Hydrogen cycle in nature

Every year, a huge amount (billions of tons) of plant remains decompose in water bodies and soil, and this decomposition splashes a huge mass of hydrogen into the atmosphere. It is also released during any fermentation caused by bacteria, combustion and, along with oxygen, participates in the water cycle.

Applications for hydrogen

The element is actively used by humanity in its activities, so we have learned how to get it on an industrial scale for:

Meteorology, chemical production;

production of margarine;

As fuel for rockets (liquid hydrogen);

Power industry for cooling electric generators;

Welding and cutting of metals.

The mass of hydrogen is used in the production of synthetic gasoline (to improve the quality of low quality fuel), ammonia, hydrogen chloride, alcohols, and other materials. Nuclear power actively uses its isotopes.

The preparation "hydrogen peroxide" is widely used in metallurgy, the electronics industry, pulp and paper production, bleaching of linen and cotton fabrics, for the manufacture of hair dyes and cosmetics, polymers and in medicine for treating wounds.

The "explosive" nature of this gas can become a deadly weapon - a hydrogen bomb. Its explosion is accompanied by the release of a huge amount of radioactive substances and is detrimental to all living things.

The contact of liquid hydrogen and the skin threatens severe and painful frostbite.

There are the following forms of finding chemical elements in the earth's crust : 1) independent mineral species; 2) impurities and mixtures - a) non-structural (scattering state), b) structural (isomorphic impurities and mixtures); 3) silicate melts; 4) aqueous solutions and gas mixtures; 5) biogenic form. The most studied are the first two forms.

Independent mineral species(minerals) represent the most important form of existence of chemical elements in the earth's crust. By prevalence, minerals are divided into five groups: very common, common, common ore, rare, very rare.

Non-structural impurities they do not have a crystallochemical bond with the crystal lattice of the host mineral and are in a state of scattering (according to A.E. Fersman - endocrypt scattering). This form of occurrence is typical for a group of radioactive elements, as well as for elements that do not form independent mineral species. The atmosphere and hydrosphere are especially favorable for scattering. The content of 1 atom in 1 cm 3 of a substance is conditionally taken as the lower limit of scattering.

Structural impurities usually called isomorphic. isomorphism called the property of atoms of one chemical element to replace atoms of another chemical element at the nodes of the crystal lattice with the formation of a homogeneous (homogeneous) mixed crystal of variable composition. The formation of an isomorphic mixture is determined primarily by the proximity of the crystal lattice parameters of the components being mixed. Components that have a similar structure, but do not form a homogeneous mixed crystal, are called isostructural (for example, halite NaCl and galena PbS).

Currently there are several types of isomorphism taking into account the following features: 1) the degree of isomorphic miscibility - perfect and imperfect; 2) the valency of the ions involved in the substitutions - isovalent and heterovalent; 3) the mechanism of entry of an atom into the crystal lattice - polar. For an isovalent isomorphism exists rule : if ions of larger or smaller radii participate in the substitution, then the ion of a smaller radius enters the crystal lattice first of all, in the second place - an ion of a larger radius. Heterovalent isomorphism obeys law of diagonal rows periodic system D.I. Mendeleev, established by A.E. Fersman.

The formation of isomorphic mixtures is due to several factors, among which internal and external are distinguished. Internal factors are determined by the features inherent in the atom (ion or molecule); these include the following: chemical indifference of atoms, sizes of atoms (ions), similarities in the type of chemical bond and crystal structures; preservation of electrostatic equilibrium during the formation of an isomorphic mixture. External factors of isomorphism include physical and chemical conditions of the environment - temperature, pressure, concentration of isomorphic components. At high temperatures, the isomorphic miscibility of the components increases. With a decrease in temperature, the mineral is freed from impurities. This is the phenomenon of A.E. Fersman was named autolysia (self-cleaning). As the pressure increases, atoms with smaller radii preferentially enter the crystal lattice of the host mineral. The joint role of temperature and pressure is illustrated by V.I. Vernadsky.

Isomorphic mixtures are stable while maintaining the physicochemical conditions of their formation. A change in these conditions leads to the fact that the mixtures decompose into constituent components. Under endogenous conditions, the main factors of decomposition are temperature and pressure. Under exogenous conditions, the reasons for the decomposition of isomorphic mixtures are more diverse: a change in the valency of chemical elements isomorphically replacing each other, accompanied by a change in ionic radii; change in the type of chemical bond; change in the pH of hypergene solutions.

The phenomenon of isomorphism is widely used to solve various geological problems, in particular paleothermometry. The decomposition of isomorphic mixtures often leads to the formation of easily soluble compounds, which, as a result of leaching, enter the composition of groundwater, which is the object of hydrogeochemical studies (1.140–159; 2.128–130; 3.96–102).

For geochemistry, it is important to find out the principle of the distribution of chemical elements in the earth's crust. Why are some of them often found in nature, others are much rarer, and still others are "museum rarities"?

A powerful tool for explaining many geochemical phenomena is the Periodic Law of D.I. Mendeleev. In particular, it can be used to investigate the distribution of chemical elements in the earth's crust.

For the first time, the relationship between the geochemical properties of elements and their position in the Periodic Table of Chemical Elements was shown by D.I. Mendeleev, V.I. Vernadsky and A.E. Fersman.

Rules (laws) of geochemistry

Mendeleev's rule

In 1869, while working on the periodic law, D.I. Mendeleev formulated the rule: Elements with low atomic weight are generally more common than elements with high atomic weight.» (See Appendix 1, Periodic Table of Chemical Elements). Later, with the disclosure of the structure of the atom, it was shown that for chemical elements with a small atomic mass, the number of protons is approximately equal to the number of neutrons in the nuclei of their atoms, that is, the ratio of these two quantities is equal to or close to unity: for oxygen = 1.0; for aluminum

For less common elements, neutrons predominate in the nuclei of atoms and the ratio of their number to the number of protons is significantly greater than one: for radium; for uranium = 1.59.

The "Mendeleev's rule" was further developed in the works of the Danish physicist Niels Bohr and the Russian chemist, academician of the USSR Academy of Sciences Viktor Ivanovich Spitsyn.

Viktor Ivanovich Spitsyn (1902-1988)

Oddo rule

In 1914, the Italian chemist Giuseppe Oddo formulated another rule: The atomic weights of the most common elements are expressed in multiples of four, or deviate little from such numbers.". Later, this rule received some interpretation in the light of new data on the structure of atoms: a nuclear structure consisting of two protons and two neutrons has a special strength.

Harkins' rule

In 1917, the American physical chemist William Draper Harkins (Harkins) drew attention to the fact that chemical elements with even atomic (ordinal) numbers are distributed in nature several times more than their neighboring elements with odd numbers. Calculations confirmed the observation: out of the first 28 elements of the periodic system, 14 even ones make up to 86%, and odd ones - only 13.6% of the mass of the earth's crust.

In this case, the explanation may be the fact that chemical elements with odd atomic numbers contain particles that are not bound into helions, and therefore are less stable.

There are many exceptions to Harkins' rule: for example, even noble gases are extremely rare, and odd aluminum Al overtakes even magnesium Mg in distribution. However, there are suggestions that this rule applies not so much to the earth's crust, but to the entire globe. Although there are no reliable data on the composition of the deep layers of the globe, some information suggests that the amount of magnesium in the whole globe is twice that of aluminum. The amount of helium He in outer space is many times greater than its terrestrial reserves. This is perhaps the most common chemical element in the universe.

Fersman's rule

A.E. Fersman clearly showed the dependence of the abundance of chemical elements in the earth's crust on their atomic (ordinal) number. This dependence becomes especially obvious if you build a graph in coordinates: atomic number - logarithm of the atomic clarke. The graph shows a clear trend: atomic clarks decrease with increasing atomic numbers of chemical elements.

Rice. . The prevalence of chemical elements in the earth's crust

Rice. 5. The prevalence of chemical elements in the universe

(log C are logarithms of atomic clarkes according to Fersman)

(data on the number of atoms refer to 10 6 silicon atoms)

Solid curve - even Z values,

dashed - odd Z values

However, there are some deviations from this rule: some chemical elements significantly exceed the expected abundance values ​​​​(oxygen O, silicon Si, calcium Ca, iron Fe, barium Ba), while others (lithium Li, beryllium Be, boron B) are much less common, than would be expected from Fersman's rule. Such chemical elements are called respectively redundant And scarce.

The formulation of the basic law of geochemistry is given on p.