Kievan Rus in the XI-XII centuries. Kievan Rus in the X-XI centuries Who ruled Russia in the 11th century

Public administration. In the XI century. at the head of Rus', as before, were the great princes of Kyiv, who were no longer the first among other princes, but full-fledged rulers of the country. It is no coincidence that they called the king and "autocratic". The Grand Duke planted and removed his governors in the cities, suppressed all cases of disobedience of the lands.

The assistants of the Grand Duke, his vassals were the boyars, members of the senior squad. There was also a younger squad nearby, where people were less noble, younger. But both of them were servants of the Grand Duke. They carried out his various instructions in military affairs, in governing the country, in court and reprisals, in the collection of tributes and taxes, in the field of diplomatic relations with other states. In the cities, the prince relied on the boyars-posadniks, in the army - on the governor, the thousand, who were also, as a rule, representatives of prominent boyar families.

The Grand Duke himself led the army, organized the defense of the country and directed all campaigns, often participating in them as the supreme commander, who walked ahead of his army. The Grand Duke directed the entire system of government of the country and the judiciary.

In whose interests did the prince act? First of all, he expressed the interests of the whole society as a whole, as he led the defense of the country from foreign invasions, maintained order within the country, punished criminal offenses, violence against the person, protected property rights, on which society was based and developed. Despite the emergence of rich and poor, separate social strata have not yet been clearly identified in society. The main part of society consisted of personally free people, and the princely power expressed their interests as a whole.

At the same time, princely power reflected the individual interests of the elite of society - the boyars, junior warriors, wealthy merchants, and the clergy. These people were closest to the prince and were most interested in his strong power to protect their privileges and income. But these people were at the same time the most dynamic part of society. Its development was carried out largely by their organizational efforts, their abilities.

In Rus' XI-XII centuries. there were still many vestiges of the old relationship. So, in the cities, when solving the most important issues, a veche gathered, where all free residents came. They played an important role in shaping the policy of the Grand Duke and his deputies in individual lands. Although the veche was in many ways run by the most influential, wealthy citizens, it retained its folk features. Judicial proceedings in rural areas were carried out without fail in the presence of representatives of peasant communities.

"Pskov Veche" (V. M. Vasnetsov)

There was still no clear order in the grand ducal power itself, in the way it was transferred from one sovereign to another. Power was transferred both by seniority, and by will, and by inheritance from father to son, and thanks to the calling of the prince by the inhabitants of this or that city - the center of the principality. Sometimes princely power was seized by force. All this testified to the transitional, unstable nature of the whole society.

The emergence of feudal land ownership. With the development of agriculture, which provides a significant part of the wealth, the land with the population working on it acquired more and more value. Whoever possessed such lands, who taxed the smerds in his favor with taxes - money, products, he increased his income, personal wealth, power, prosperity of his families, strengthened his power, his influence in society. It was the land that every decade became more and more wealth in Rus', as in other countries of that time. The most influential, capable, resolute and, of course, the most cruel and shameless part of society - princes, boyars, combatants, high churchmen - aspired to master this wealth.

After the abolition of polyudya in Rus', a regular collection of tribute from the population was introduced. People were free, but they already fell into a certain dependence on the state, on the Grand Duke. From the middle of the XI century. everywhere in Rus', but especially widely in the Middle Dnieper and around Novgorod, the lands were increasingly in private hands. The first here were, of course, the princes. Using force, influence, in some cases they openly appropriated the lands of the neighboring community, declared them their own possessions. In another case, they placed captives on previously uninhabited lands and turned them into their workers, built outbuildings, mansions in these lands, settled their stewards and organized their own economy.

The best arable lands, meadows, forests, lakes, fishing grounds, pastures passed into the hands of the prince. And free people, who previously only paid tribute to the prince and were no longer connected with him, gradually fell into dependence on him. Smerdov was involved in various works in the prince's household. Thus, their land dependence on the master arose.

In Rus', as in other European countries, a princely domain is being created, that is, a princely possession, a complex of lands inhabited by people directly dependent on the head of state. In the XI century. there were still few such possessions, but they marked the onset of a new order.

The emergence of their own land holdings, personal farms of princely boyars and combatants also dates back to this time. In the early period of the history of Rus', the grand dukes granted the local princes and boyars the right to collect tribute from certain lands. They kept part of this tribute for themselves as payment for their service to the Grand Duke. These people, as it were, were fed from the lands, and this order was called "feeding".

Later these "feeding" are replaced by the transfer by the prince to his vassals of populated lands on the basis of hereditary property. Such land holdings in Rus' were called patrimony or fatherland (from the word "father"). It was there that the economic complex of the boyar or combatant arose. However, the right of supreme power to these lands belonged to the Grand Duke. He could grant this land, but he could also take it away for crimes or negligent service and transfer it to another person.

In turn, large landowners transferred part of their lands to their combatants in possession, so that they would have a livelihood, the opportunity to purchase military equipment.

In Western Europe, such plots of land transferred for service from one land owner to another were called feuds, and the whole system of such multi-stage land dependence was called the feudal system or feudal hierarchy, and the owners of land inhabited by peasants, or owners of cities inhabited by artisans and other residents were called feudal lords. From the second half of the XI century. such a system began to take shape in Rus'. Gradually, these islands of private estates became larger and larger, crowding the lands of free community members.

Feudal-dependent population. The feudal system was inseparable from the labor of the dependent population. It turned out that for the right to use arable land, meadows, forests, rivers and lakes, which now became urban, the peasants had to pay the owner payments in money and products, perform various kinds of duties and work. There were also state fees and duties. A new rigid system was introduced in Rus' at the behest of the top of society. This caused some damage to free people and free labor.

However, feudal economy also had a number of advantages. It was, as a rule, large, and it was possible to better organize soil cultivation, forest clearing, construction of outbuildings, and much more. Such an economy was more productive than the small peasant economy of an individual family. In addition, the feudal owner in the event of crop failures, droughts, hurricanes, fires helped "their" peasants, because if they went bankrupt, he went bankrupt too.

Thus, the master and peasant economy were connected by many threads with each other and with the state. Requisitions, work for the master, punishment in case of non-fulfillment of this work - this was one side of the matter. Support, mutual assistance, mutual assistance were the other side of these relations. Such was the contradiction of the new orders.

Over time, the owners of estates received from the Grand Dukes not only the right to own land, but also the right to judge the population of the estate. In essence, the inhabited lands fell under the complete influence of their masters - the vassals of the Grand Duke. And they then granted part of these lands and part of the rights to them to their vassals. A pyramid was built in society, at the base of which lay the labor of ordinary people - peasants and artisans.

The new order led to the fact that more and more people appeared who, for various reasons (crop failures, famine, military devastation) lost their economy and could only exist with the support of rich people. For a monetary debt, help with seeds, tools of labor, they had to work part of their time for the master. Such people were called ryadovichi, because they entered into an agreement (row) with the master and became dependent on him. There were also purchases. They took from the owner "kupu"- debt and could not leave the master without repaying this debt. There were also hirelings who were hired to work for pay, and forgivers who were forgiven for their debts and crimes.

There were more and more serfs - inferior people who were completely dependent on their masters, served them in the house, and performed rural work. An impoverished person could sell himself into slaves. The one who married a servant without stipulating his freedom in advance also turned into a serf. The children of serfs, as well as those who violated the contract, Ryadovichi and purchases, prisoners also became serfs.

Army. Gone are the days when the whole tribe rose up against the enemy. Now, with the creation of a single state, the Russian army has also become different. Its core was the senior and junior teams, commanded by the Grand Duke himself. In the XI century. the Kyiv prince had up to 500 - 800 warriors. These warriors moved either on horseback or in fast and light boats along rivers and seas. They were armed with swords, spears, sabers. Shields, armor and chain mail protected their bodies, and shishaks - pointed helmets - covered their heads. The cavalry squad fought next to their prince. Other princes and major boyars also came with their retinues, and each walked next to his master.

In the X-first half of the XI century. the grand dukes themselves led their squad into battle and sometimes risked their lives. During the battle, however, "youths"- the bodyguards stood like a wall near the prince, reflecting the blows directed at him. The Grand Duke fought under the Grand Duke's banner, which was carefully guarded.

As before, part of the Russian army was a regiment consisting of "voev", ordinary people - smerds and artisans. They were divided in the regiment into tens and hundreds, led by their tenths and sots. The entire regiment was commanded by a voivode - a thousand. "Howl" were armed more simply: bows and arrows, spears, heavy battle axes. Each had a combat knife hanging from his belt in case of close hand-to-hand fights. Each had a wooden shield covered with thick leather in his left hand.

The army went on a campaign under princely and other banners. The prince rode ahead, the cavalry squad prancing behind him, then the regiment moved. Next was the convoy, in which there were heavy weapons of the soldiers - armor, shields, as well as food supplies. Shortly before the battle, when reconnaissance, or, as it was called, "watchmen", reported that the enemy was close, the soldiers took apart their weapons, put on armor and chain mail and prepared for battle. But woe was to the soldiers if the enemy attacked suddenly: they did not have time to arm themselves.

In battle, the Russian army was divided into "chelo" - the center where the foot "howl" fought. Their task was to hold back the blow of the enemy cavalry. On the right and left "wings" - the flanks were located cavalry squads, which were supposed to surround the enemy.

If the Russian army went to storm the fortresses, then in the convoy there were special devices for breaking walls and gates: rams - huge logs upholstered in iron and suspended on chains or put on wheels, stone arrows, access ladders, vezhs - mobile towers that protected soldiers from arrows of the besieged. The Russian army was armed and equipped with the latest military art of that time and rarely lost battles.

Cities. By the second half of the XI century. in Rus' there were already about 42 large cities. What did the term mean at the time? "city"? First of all, this is the presence of a fortified citadel, or the Kremlin. The Kremlin, as a rule, was located in the center of the city and was an urban space surrounded by a high wall. These walls were built from huge wooden boxes stuffed with earth or clay. Thick logs with pointed ends were dug in from above. In front of the wall, a deep ditch filled with water broke out, with swing bridges that led to the gates of the city. Watchtowers and combat wooden towers were located on the wall. The gates of the cities were made of thick oak planks covered with iron.

Inside the Kremlin there were princely chambers, the chambers of the metropolitan or bishop, the courtyards of large boyars, warriors. In the center of the Kremlin, on the main city square, there was a local shrine - the main city cathedral. In Kyiv and Novgorod, these were the churches of St. Sophia, in Chernigov - the Church of the Savior. From the Kremlin, the prince exercised control, repaired the court and reprisal. Tributes, booty captured in the war, were brought here. Judicial and commercial duties were collected here. Outside the walls of the Kremlin, city life was also in full swing. There were craft settlements, merchant houses and shops, there were numerous churches. There was also a trade here. This part of the city was also often surrounded by an earthen rampart, which was the first line of city fortifications.

Art flourished in the cities, chronicles were created, libraries were opened, and remarkable architectural structures were built.

Trade. Over the centuries, Russian trade gained strength. In the XI-XII centuries. in Russian cities, the merchants made up a significant part of the population. There were also rich merchants - guests who traded abroad, merchants who traded in Rus', as well as small peddlers. Merchant associations were born, which had their charters, common monetary funds.

Courts of foreign merchants appeared at that time in Kyiv, Novgorod, Chernigov and other large cities. There were entire areas where merchants from Khazaria, Poland, the Scandinavian countries, and German lands lived. Large communities were merchants and usurers: Jews and Armenians. Jewish merchants, through their co-religionists in other countries, connected Rus' with very distant countries - such as England, Spain. There were many merchants in Russian cities from the Volga Bulgaria, the countries of the East - Persia, Khorezm. And Russian merchants were welcome guests in the markets of Byzantium, Poland, and Germany. In Constantinople, there was a Russian court, where merchants from Rus' constantly stopped.

Apollinary Vasnetsov. Novgorod bargaining

Coins from different countries jingled at the auction. Settlements were made in Russian silver hryvnias and kunas, in eastern dirhams, in Western European denarii, in Byzantine milarias. Both animal skins and cattle were used as money.

Church. With every decade the Christian religion exerted an ever deeper influence on the life of Russian society. This was facilitated by all kinds of support for Christianity by the Grand Dukes.
Already at the end of the X - in the XI century. in Rus', a harmonious system of organization of church religious life appeared. It was created in the image and likeness of the Byzantine church, headed by the patriarch. All those who received baptism from Byzantium were ecclesiastically subordinate to the Patriarch of Constantinople. Just like in the West, all who were baptized from Rome were subject to the pope. The head of the Christian Church in Rus' was the Metropolitan of Kiev and All Rus', and the Russian Church was considered part of the Orthodox world, one of the Orthodox metropolises.

In large cities, ecclesiastical authority over Russian lands was exercised by bishops. In Novgorod, as one of the largest cities, the center of a large region, religious life was directed by an archbishop (from the Greek word "archs" senior, chief). Priests of large temples-cathedrals, as well as local churches, were the organizers of religious life in cities and villages.

The princes supported the church not only organizationally, helped create new dioceses (church districts headed by bishops), build new churches, but also provided it with all kinds of material support. The transfer to the churches of a tenth of all the grand-ducal revenues was the first step on this path. Then the princes began to grant the metropolitan, bishops, large churches, as well as the boyars, lands inhabited by smerds, and transfer part of their rights to these lands and their population to church organizations. Thus, the system of domination of some people and the dependence of others began to take root in the church environment.

According to the rules of the Greek Church, only the patriarchs of Constantinople, after appropriate elections, could send metropolitans to other countries. However, Vladimir refused to accept the head of the church from Byzantium and put the priest Anastas from Chersonesus at the head of the Russian church, which spoke of the strength and independence of Rus'.

Only under Yaroslav the Wise, when relations with the Byzantine Empire were settled, did metropolitans appear in Rus'. These were the Greeks. They represented the interests of Byzantium, and this irritated both the Grand Duke and the bishops, among whom more and more came from Russian religious circles. When in the 40s. 11th century a war broke out between Russia and Byzantium, Yaroslav the Wise refused the services of the Greek metropolitan.

In 1051, the Metropolitan of All Rus' at a meeting of bishops and with the support Yaroslav the Wise a Russian was chosen. It was Hilarion, a modest and exceptionally educated priest of the princely church in the village of Berestovo, the Grand Duke's summer residence not far from Kyiv. He often went to the banks of the Dnieper, where a dense forest grew. There, in Mount Hilarion, he dug a small cave (pechera), where he spent time in solitude, prayers, meditation and fasting.

According to historians, in 1049, in the church of St. Sophia on Easter, with a huge gathering of people, in the presence of the Grand Duke and the entire princely family, Hilarion delivered a speech on the significance of the Christian religion in the history of Rus'. This speech was imbued with concern for the happiness of his native country, a sense of patriotism .

Speaking of Rus' and the Russian princes, Hilarion said that “they ruled not in a thin and unknown land, but in Russian, which is known and heard by all four corners of the earth”. Hereafter, this speech, titled "The Word of Law and Grace", where by Law he understood the Bible, and by Grace - the Gospel, or the testaments of Jesus Christ, Hilarion put it on parchment, and it became the favorite reading of the Russian people.

Hilarion did not hold a high church post for long. He again returned to his village temple and to his cave, where he still prayed for many years. The representative of Byzantium again became the metropolitan, since the sons of Yaroslav the Wise no longer wanted to be at enmity with the leaders of the entire Orthodox Church.

Monasteries. Hilarion's cave became the beginning of monasteries in Rus', where the monks lived. The monks renounced worldly life with its temptations and passions, took a vow of celibacy, renunciation of family and property. In many monasteries, there was a charter that provided for common labor, common property, which was in charge of the cellar, a common dinner in a special refectory room or ward. There was also a common treasury, which was in the hands of the treasurer. Such a monastery was led by an abbot chosen by the monks, in women's monasteries - by an abbess. But the household was considered a secondary matter for true hermit monks. The main thing was prayer, communication with God.

After Hilarion left his cave, the monk Anthony settled in it. He lived there for 40 years. The rumor about the righteousness of Anthony spread widely throughout Rus', and people came to Anthony's cave for blessings and advice. Then other hermits settled here, who also began to dig caves in the Dnieper mountain. So in the second half of the XI century. Here, the first Kiev-Pechersky Monastery in Rus' arose. Anthony became his first hegumen. He was replaced by Theodosius, who came to the banks of the Dnieper among the first followers of Anthony. Both of them were subsequently declared Russian saints.

Icon with a view of the Kiev-Perersky Lavra. XI century.

The Pechersk Monastery continued to grow. Monks moved from caves to cells, churches appeared. The monastery started a large economy, began to engage in trade and even usury. He now owned the surrounding lands, donated by the great princes. Gradually worldly life forcefully made its way through the walls of the monastery. And yet, the main part of the monks continued to live an ascetic life, which attracted people who sought to cast off worldly sins from their souls and went for the remission of these sins in the church and to the monks. In this sense, Christianity, church organizations played a huge role in spreading the concepts of kindness, high morality, tolerance, forgiveness, philanthropy in Rus', and this also contributed to the spread of Christianity - after all, people have always been drawn to the good.

Over time, new monasteries appeared in Kyiv, Novgorod and other cities, which became powerful centers of Christianity. In monasteries and at some large churches, the first libraries were created, schools were opened, chronicle writing began. The monastic brothers, as a rule, ran their household in an exemplary and industrious manner, and in this sense, many monasteries eventually became the best households in Rus'.

public upheaval. As the state grew stronger, and the equality of people was replaced by their division into rich and poor, dissatisfaction with the new order matured more and more in society. Freedom has always been dear to people, even if the state, princely power protected them from foreign enemies and internal unrest (murders, fights, robberies, theft).

The convinced pagans, especially the Magi, were also dissatisfied with the new orders. It seemed to many that with the advent of Christianity and the overthrow of the old gods, all life collapses. And the Magi fueled these sentiments, because with the strengthening of Christianity, they were deprived of their influence, privileges, and income. Finally, all those who found themselves in an oppressed, dependent position rose up against the new order - ryadovichi, zakupy, serfs.

The first major upheavals and disagreements in society happened when Kyiv crushed other tribes under itself. In the X century. more than once the Drevlyans, Vyatichi, Radimichi rebelled. These were typical tribal uprisings. They pulled Rus' back into the past. Later, tribal enmity in a single state subsided, but other contradictions appeared - religious ones.

In 1024, an uprising broke out in Suzdal, led by the Magi. This time it was not about disobedience to Kyiv. The pagans rose up against the Christians, and the poor against the rich. These two lines are intertwined. At that time, a famine occurred in the north-east of Rus'. There was a rumor among the population that rich people were hiding bread. The people rushed to beat them and look for bread. The Magi stood at the head of the movement. Yaroslav the Wise himself came to the Suzdal land with a retinue and calmed the region.

Several decades passed, and again a powerful popular uprising shook the Russian land. In 1068, the sons of Yaroslav the Wise - Izyaslav, who became the Grand Duke after the death of his father, and his brothers Svyatoslav and Vsevolod - suffered a crushing defeat from the new nomads - the Polovtsy, who appeared in the Black Sea steppes in the early 60s. 11th century The people of Kiev demanded weapons from the prince and were ready to defend the city. But the Grand Duke did not want to arm the people. Ordinary people at the veche denounced the Grand Duke, boyars, combatants for violence against the poor, unfair requisitions. Voices were heard about the need to release from prison the Polotsk prince Vseslav, who was captured by the Yaroslavi brothers.

Hundreds of people rushed to the princely palace. Others went to the prison where Vseslav was languishing. The people went to attack the palace. The Grand Duke fled to Poland to his father-in-law, the Polish king. The crowd broke into the palace, smashed and plundered it. For many years, the accumulated hatred of the poor for rich and successful people, for the top of society, resulted in a riot, robberies. Vseslav was released from prison, and the rebels elevated him to the throne of Kiev.

He ruled for seven months in Kyiv. But when the army of Izyaslav, gathered in Poland, approached the city, Vseslav abandoned the people of Kiev and fled to his place in Polotsk. The rebels lost their leader and no longer resisted. The leaders of the rebellion were severely punished on the orders of Izyaslav.

The flames of revolts also engulfed other Russian cities. The distant Beloozero has risen. From there, confusion spread to the Rostov-Suzdal land, to the land of the Vyatichi. Magi called for reprisals against rich people. The princely squad moved to the northeast. In the dense forests, the Magi were captured and killed, and the uprising was crushed.

Three sons of Yaroslav the Wise took measures to calm the earth. They understood that executions alone could not appease the people. Therefore, their advisers developed in 1072 a new code of laws, since the Russian Truth of Yaroslav the Wise no longer met the needs of the time. At a general meeting of princes and boyars, he was adopted.

Russian Truth of the Yaroslavichs. The new set of laws was aimed primarily at establishing order in the country, protecting property - house, land, property. Without this, society could fall apart, plunge into a quagmire of unrest.

The law established punishments for robbery, arson, murder, mutilation, theft, violation of landmarks.

For the murder of princely economic officials, a fine of 80 hryvnias was due, for the murder of a princely headman (a smaller economic manager) - 12 hryvnias. The Code of Laws punished the theft and harboring of serfs.

Of course, she defended first of all the wealthy people, the owners of estates, merchants, that is, those who owned property. But at the same time, it also contained articles that protected the rights to life and property of any inhabitant of Rus'. So, for the murder of a smerd or a serf, a fine of 5 hryvnia was due. The punishment was imposed not only for the murder of the prince's horse (3 hryvnia), but also for the murder of the horse smerd (2 hryvnia). This was fair, but it was surprising that the serf or serf was valued only 2 hryvnia more than the prince's horse. Such was the price of an ordinary person in Rus' at that cruel time.

The code of laws reflected the development of Rus', the formation of new orders.

The formation of a unified Russian state, begun in the 10th century, received a new round of development in the 11th century. The Kyiv princes, who actively made campaigns on the surrounding lands, subjugated to themselves all the large territories with the local population living here. The center of the unification of the Slavic tribes was Kyiv, from where the administration was carried out, the most important decisions were made. The population of Rus' during this period was quite diverse - the state included not only Slavic tribes, but also part of the Finnish tribes, the Baltic and some others.

Russian territory in the 11th century stretched from Lake Ladoga to the mouths of the Ros River, the right bank of the Dnieper, and also from the mouth of the Klyazma River (the city of Vladimir Zalessky) to the upper reaches of the Western But (the city of Vladimir Volynsky). Rus' retained Tmutarakan, also Galicia (the place of residence of the Croats) constantly passed from Rus' to Poland, submitting to the power of one prince, then another. However, the most important thing was that the scattered tribes and peoples finally began to form a more modern and powerful state.

The multi-tribal population that used to live on these lands now became part of Kievan Rus or the Russian state, but in the full sense it was impossible to call this state the territory of the Russian people, since the Russian people themselves had not yet fully formed - scattered tribes lived on the territory of Russia, who still largely adhered to their own ancient traditions and very slowly merged into a single people under the influence of Christianity, but Christianity itself had not yet become the main religion for everyone (in the 12th century, pagans still lived in some lands).

The main mechanism that connected all these tribes was state power and state administration. The Grand Duke of Kiev, a descendant of the Varangian Rurik, who was called to Rus' to reign, was considered the head of state. Gradually, other state bodies were formed, attempts were made to reform the tax system and the management system - the state developed.

Religion and society in Rus' in the 11th century

In 988, Christianity was adopted, and it had a huge impact on the development of Rus' in the 11th century. Along with Christianity, new political and social trends, new types of relations began to appear. The prince became the vicar of God, and had to take care not only of the political viability of Rus', but also of the social and spiritual life of his subordinates.

A princely squad appears, which gradually turns from protection into a kind of authority, having more and more powers and freedoms. Representatives of the princely squad were considered people of the highest class, it consisted of the highest (boyars) and the lowest (youths and children). Despite the fact that in the 11th century the squad was still more of a military nature, its economic and political functions had already begun to take shape - the aristocracy began to emerge, the division of society, the formation of a class state, which would only strengthen over the next two centuries.

Russian culture in the 11th century

In the culture and architecture of Rus' in the 11th century, as in all other areas of life, a new round began, associated with the adoption of Christianity. Religious motifs began to appear in painting, the active construction of churches began - the St. Sophia Cathedral was built in Kyiv, which is considered one of the most important architectural monuments of that period. Enlightenment, literacy and writing are actively beginning to spread in Rus', schools are beginning to be built.

The main events of the 11th century in Rus'

1017-1037 - Construction of fortifications and St. Sophia Cathedral near Kyiv;
1019-1054 - Yaroslav the Wise becomes the Grand Duke of Kyiv;
1036 - Yaroslav's victory over the Pechenegs;
1043 - the last armed conflict between Russia and Byzantium;
1095 - the foundation of Pereyaslavl-Ryazan;
1096 - the first mention of Ryazan;
1097 - Lubech Congress of Princes;

Results of the 11th century in Rus'

In general, the 11th century turned out to be a rather favorable period for the formation and development of Rus'. Despite the constant civil strife among the princes, as well as feudal fragmentation, the state continues to form, uniting all new lands under its command, a single religion appears, the class composition of society is formed, and literacy is spreading. Rus' is gradually becoming a strong state, capable of developing and dictating its conditions in foreign policy, as well as resisting the raids of nomadic tribes.

New cities are being actively built, the population is moving from villages to larger settlements, trade and crafts are beginning to develop. The economy and culture are growing, new types of art are emerging (this is primarily due to the adoption of Christianity), tribal differences are gradually fading away, and a single Russian ethnic group is being formed.

Questions No. 2 and 3. Eastern Slavs in antiquity and the formation of the Old Russian state

Territory and occupation of the Slavs. Slavs have lived in Europe since antiquity. They are divided into western, southern and eastern. Russians, Ukrainians, Belarusians are Eastern Slavs.

In the first millennium A.D. e. Eastern Slavs lived along the Dnieper, its tributaries and around Lake Ilmen. (Now the Novgorod region) They were divided into many tribes: they lived clearing, drevlyane, etc. All these Slavic tribes are the common ancient ancestors of the Russian, Ukrainian and Belarusian peoples.

According to contemporaries, the Slavs were a tall, strong, beautiful people.

The main occupation of the Slavs was agriculture. Bread was the main food of the Slavs. Slavs bred livestock- cows, horses, sheep, and also engaged in fishing And hunting. The Slavs were engaged beekeeping, i.e. collecting honey from wild bees.

The social structure of the Slavs. In the first centuries of our era, the Eastern Slavs lived tribal communities. Communities united into tribes.

Just as it was among the ancient Germans, and among the Eastern Slavs, instead of a tribal community, neighboring community.

Each family now had an arable plot of land in use. Each family owned tools and harvested crops. It was their private property.

Along with private property, property inequality also arose.

The tribal system gradually disintegrated. Wealthy leaders began to stand out among the Slavic tribes - princes. Detachments of warriors were created around them - princely squads. The princes collected tribute from the subject population, from their "people". The collection was called polyudie.

Slavic tribes in the VI century. n. e. united in unions. They were led by the princes of the most powerful tribes. Around the princes, the local nobility gradually took shape and strengthened. the center of one of tribal unions a tribe appeared ros, or Rus, lived in ancient times on the Ros River (a tributary of the Dnieper, below Kyiv). Later, the name of this tribe spread to all the Eastern Slavs, who began to be called Russians, and the territory on which they lived - the Russian land or Russia ( formation of the Old Russian state).

In the VI-VIII centuries. among the Eastern Slavs, the process of decomposition of the primitive communal system took place, class inequality began to emerge. In the depths of tribal unions, the beginnings of state associations gradually matured. This facilitated the struggle of the Eastern Slavs with external enemies.

Nomad raids. The Slavs were constantly threatened by the danger of attacks from external enemies. Enemies seized goods: bread, cattle, set fire to the dwellings of the Slavs, drove men, women and children into slavery.

The Eastern Slavs successfully repulsed the onslaught of nomadic tribes and defended their independence.

Customs and beliefs of the ancient Slavs. The Slavs deified the forces of nature. Their religion was pagan.

Question number 4. The adoption of Christianity in Rus' and its significance.

Strengthening the state, strengthening the position of a single prince - all this became possible if the people believed in a single God. So, Vladimir I decided to choose a religion from the beliefs of neighboring states. He stopped his choice on Byzantine Christianity, which, in his opinion, was more suitable than others for the mentality and nature of the life of the Russian people. The adoption of Christianity was slow and difficult, but the significance of this historical event cannot be underestimated.

G. - the prince ordered the people of Kiev to gather at the Dnieper and then everyone to enter the river, priests stood on the bank and performed the holy sacrament of baptism.

G. - the pagans revolted in Novgorod and were pacified by force of arms, after which, like the people of Kiev, they gathered on the banks of the river and baptized.

The construction of temples and monasteries began. The prince invited educated priests from Byzantium and opened church schools.

The meaning of the adoption of Christianity in Rus':

The desire to strengthen the international authority of Kievan Rus.
The way of life of people has changed. The church banned sacrifices, polygamy, blood feuds and other pagan traditions.
Development of the Byzantine cultural heritage. The development of culture, the creation of written monuments.
The international position of the Old Russian state has changed. It joined the general ranks of the Christian states of Europe. The prince needed a religion capable of strengthening princely power. (example Byzantium).
It is impossible to keep all the Slavic lands, relying only on military force.

Question number 5. Kievan Rus in the 11th-12th centuries.

XI - XII centuries - a particularly important period in the history of Kievan Rus. At this time, the processes of consolidation of the Old Russian people, the strengthening of the feudal system and the state were actively taking place. It was two great personalities, Yaroslav the Wise and Vladimir Monomakh, who achieved the greatest rise in the country, recognition and high authority in the international arena, the spread and strengthening of Christianity, the growth and development of cities.

First half of the 11th century in the history of Kievan Rus - was marked by the general rise of the country, the strengthening of economic and cultural ties between its individual parts, the flourishing of Kyiv as the center of the state. Yaroslav the Wise considered the preservation of the integrity of the state to be his most important task. His foreign and domestic policy was subordinated to this. Culture and education achieved great success during the reign of Yaroslav the Wise.

During the time of Yaroslav, the first monument of Russian law was compiled - the most ancient “Russian Truth”, which was given to Novgorod in 1016 as a collection of legal norms when considering various conflicts among the Novgorod population.

The organizer and active participant in the fight against the Polovtsy was Vladimir Monomakh, who earned fame and popularity in Rus' for this. Vladimir Monomakh (1113-1125), having become the prince of Kyiv after Svyatopolk, understood that legislative measures were necessary to calm the people. As a result, a new law appeared - the “Charter of Volodimer Vsevolodich”, or an addition to the legal code “Russian Truth”. The twelve-year reign of Monomakh in Kyiv was marked by the strengthening of state unity. The successes of the unification policy of Vladimir Monomakh had a positive impact on the economic development of the ancient Russian lands. Chronicles note the growth and development of such cities as Kyiv, Novgorod, Ladoga, Smolensk, Pereyaslavl, etc. Rus' significantly strengthened its international position at that time. The devastating invasions of the Polovtsy stopped. Improved relations with Byzantium and other countries. The protection of the state interests of Kievan Rus forced it to resort to force of arms: to repel nomadic invasions or to pave the way to international markets.

The history of Kievan Rus officially begins in 882 - as recorded in the annals, it was then that Oleg from Rurikovich, having killed Askold and Dir, began to rule the principality with its capital in Kyiv. His campaigns, as well as the wars of conquest of other princes, led to the fact that the lands under the hand of Kyiv became more and more. Kievan Rus in the 9th-12th centuries is a large and developed European state.

Foreign and domestic policy of the ancient Russian state

From the very beginning, foreign policy had several directions at once: it was necessary to resist both Byzantium, which spread its expansion to the Northern Black Sea region, and the Khazars, who prevented trade in the eastern direction, and the Pecheneg nomads - they simply devastated Rus' with their raids.

Byzantium repeatedly tried to subdue Ancient Rus', but not all of its attempts were successful. So, after Oleg’s sea campaign against Tsargrad, a trade agreement beneficial for the East Slavic state was concluded between the countries, however, during the reign of Igor, after his less successful military operations, the conditions changed to less favorable for Rus'.

The most successful in terms of foreign policy was the reign of Svyatoslav - he not only defeated the army of the Khazar Khaganate and Volga Bulgaria (having previously captured the Vyatichi), but also conquered the North Caucasian tribes and founded the Tmutarakan principality.

Rice. 1. Svyatoslav Igorevich.

He also concluded an agreement with Byzantium, after which he turned his gaze to the Balkans. However, the conquest of the Bulgarian kingdom in 967 turned an insidious ally against him: the Byzantine ruler supported the Pechenegs, they went to Kyiv, but were defeated by Svyatoslav. He again returned to the Danube and, with the support of the Bulgarians, went to Tsargrad. The map of hostilities was constantly changing, either Svyatoslav or the Byzantine side took the upper hand, and at some point the Kiev prince decided to return to his capital, but was killed by the Pechenegs on the way.

Economy and culture of Kievan Rus

Rus' in the 9th early 12th century was a state with feudal land ownership. The owners of the land were not only the princes, but also the boyars and warriors, and a little later the church was added to them. The labor force, on which the economic development of Kievan Rus was based, were serfs, serfs and other categories of the population. They took food rent from them.

As for culture, it was largely formed under the influence of the Byzantine tradition - this applies not only to architecture, but also to painting. His own literature was also formed under the influence of translated literature, but it was ideologically rich and artistically perfect. The most famous works of that time are The Tale of Bygone Years, Monomakh's Teachings and, of course, The Tale of Igor's Campaign.

The 10th - the first half of the 11th century was a separate period of ancient Russian history. It was the heyday of Kyiv. Under Vladimir the First, who is now called differently - who is the "Red Sun", who is "bloody", the vast lands of the East Slavic tribes were united. The rule of these lands came from the Grand Duke of Kyiv.

This is the inheritance that went to the son of Vladimir Yaroslav (aka Wise). They write about Yaroslav in textbooks, they know his name. He continued the work of his father, further expanding the borders of Rus', and patronized the spread of new Christian letters and books.

Chroniclers and historians glorified the names of Vladimir and Yaroslav, other Russian princes were lost against their background. And there were enough principalities in Rus' at that time - you can see from the picture. And among the other rulers of Rus' in the 11th century there were many talented, brave, successful in the military field, and endowed with charisma.

One of these princes was Mstislav Tmutarakansky. A tale in the mind arises an analogy with fairy tales - Tmutarakan. But apparently there were serious reasons for this name, not at all fabulous. About the life of Mstislav, only fragmentary reports have been preserved in Russian chronicles. But the affairs of the prince remained in history, in particular because he could direct the history of Rus' in the 11th century in a different direction, displacing Yaroslav - such interesting stories we get.

Origin of Mstislav

Mstislav was the son all the same Vladimir I from the Polotsk princess Rogneda. The year of birth is not precisely established, it is assumed that the 983rd. Yaroslav and Mstivlav had another blood brother - Izyaslav, who later became the prince of Polotsk.

The ancestors of the paternal brothers were famous:

Prince Svyatoslav (who ruled in Kyiv in 945-972)
great-grandmother - the wise princess Olga.

And with Mstislav, in addition, on the mother's side, his grandfather was an independent Polotsk ruler. His name was Rogvoloda, and obviously he came from the very governors of Rurik, whom, according to The Tale of Bygone Years, he "planted" in Slavic cities. Rogvolod and his daughter Rogneda were most likely of the Varangian (Scandinavian) family.

Prince Vladimir, before being baptized, by the way, led a completely non-Christian lifestyle, and this is not typical in Slavic culture either. Mstislav, in addition to his siblings, had 9 more half-brothers. Prince Vladimir had eight wives in his life and they also write about concubines (although this is highly doubtful to me personally - he himself could have been impaled for this, even if the prince - Rus' was not like that in the 11th century).

Under Vladimir, subordination to Kyiv was gradually ensured through governors, whom the prince planted in all cities. Vladimir and his numerous sons made governors. So the kids became princes in their childhood, under the supervision of the boyars, educators and advisers, of course. So from a young age, the Rurikovichs were taught to carry their princely burden.

Mstislav and the Tmutarakan Principality

It is not known when Mstislav became the prince-governor of the Tmutarakan principality, which was located on the Taman Peninsula. Chronicles often mention the name of Mstislav in association with Tmutarakan, which indicates that he spent a long time in that autonomous possession of Rus'.

In Tmutarakan, Prince Mstislav started a family. His wife's name was Maria, she was most likely from a local noble Alanian family. And he is also the real grandson of his grandfather Svyatoslav Igorevich, and it was not without reason that they called him Brave and Daring. Military campaigns, battles and personal fights were the passion of the prince. He was always in the saddle, in pursuit of military victories, glory and booty. The legends about those gray times painted the ideal prince-leader also generous. Mstislav, brought up in their atmosphere, clearly aspired to be like that. The latter was already rare among monarchs in Rus' in the 11th century.

This is how Mstislav Tmutarakansky went down in history for his military exploits, and not as a statesman.

Being a prince on the Taman Peninsula was generally not easy, which probably also influenced the character of Mstislav. Power on Taman has changed more than once since ancient times. Once the Scythians lived here, then the Sarmatians, Greeks, Jews came here. They began to be replaced by various Turks: Bulgar Turks, Khazars. The last Khaganate located here was defeated by Svyatoslav Igorevich, Mstislav's grandfather.

Rus' in the 11th century. Yaroslav the Wise and Mstislav

But not without confrontation between the two brothers did not share something. Or rather, no war. And there was a fight, in the year 1024 AD. near the city of Listvin, near Chernigov, in rain and thunderstorms. Against the striking force of Yaroslav the Wise - the Varangians - Mstislav put up a Chernigov squad in the center of the army. It was the northerners who took the blow of the Varangians, and then Mstislav himself arrived in time with his squad. They defeated the Varangians.

Yaroslav, together with the leader of the Varangians, fled from the battlefield, but not to Kyiv, but to Novgorod. Rus' split in two again. Yaroslav retained his influence and power in Novgorod, Mstislav remained the ruler of Chernigov and Tmutarakan lands. Yaroslav's governors sat in Kyiv.

Mstislav did not dare to capture Kyiv, although he was definitely capable of doing so. Maybe he just didn’t want to, because the “monomakh hat” is heavy. Yaroslav - he is wise, waited a couple of years, gathered a squad in the north and appeared in Kyiv.

This time, the brothers had enough endurance from further bloodshed, making peace. But this world thus consisted of two parts:

the entire left bank of the Dnieper with Seversk land, Chernigov, Pereyaslavl and other cities went to Mstislav. Tmutarakan Rus also remained behind him. Mstislav, who essentially became the ruler of a neighboring state, made Chernigov his residence.
under the control of Yaroslav remained Kyiv with the right-bank lands, the entire North of Rus', headed by Novgorod.

Therefore, in fact, at that time one can speak of a single state only conditionally, although in the following years the brothers lived peacefully with each other.