Modern technogenic civilization has several key features. The main one is that in such a society, scientific progress always comes first and
The emergence of the term
The term "technogenic civilization" or "technocracy" appeared in 1921. It was first used by a sociologist. In his book Engineers and the Price System, the researcher emphasized the importance of uniting the efforts of engineers from all over the world to improve life on earth.
This concept quickly became popular in the scientific community. Veblen's followers continued the research of their predecessor. Several theories have emerged about what a technogenic civilization is. First of all, it was opposed to traditional society. Such a civilization is characterized by the fact that its members try to preserve their former way of life. They are guided by traditions and painfully endure change. It is a society with slow social development. Technogenic civilization is built around opposite principles - individual freedom, progress, innovation in all spheres of life, readiness to adapt to rapid changes.
Fundamentals of technogenic civilization
Technocracy is not only a civilization (that is, a way of society), but also an ideology. Its supporters believe that there is nothing more important than the development of science. At the same time, the development of technology leads to changes in social life. Technological growth is not just the fun of scientists. It is also a way to solve many social problems (for example, to close the gap between the rich and the poor).
Modern civilization (technogenic) changes not only the way of life of people, but also the political system. Such an ideology implies that the state should be ruled not by a clear institution of power. The mechanisms of governing the country in a technocratic society work without regard to a particular politician. In fact, the personality of the ruler becomes secondary. In the first place is the state machine itself, which, with the help of its social elevators, raises only high-quality managers to the top, and not populists who promise voters in elections
Prerequisites for the appearance
Today it is difficult to deny that science is the main engine of progress. However, the attitude towards the development of technology was not always rosy. Even when humanity left behind the era of barbarism, science for a long time was the lot of the marginalized. The first world civilizations that arose in Antiquity, of course, belonged to the group of traditional societies. In all of them, traditions and customs occupied an important place.
The first prerequisites for the emergence of technogenic civilization can be noted in ancient Greek policies. These were independent cities, in whose life thinkers and scientists played an important role. The policies were governed by the principles of democracy, which replaced the classical tyranny of a single despot. It was in these cities that many significant human inventions appeared.
Struggle with traditional society
The difference between traditional society and technogenic civilization is colossal. Therefore, people had to prove their right to progress for many centuries. A noticeable development of technogenic civilization began in the 15th-16th centuries, when Western Europe learned about the existence of the New World. The discovery of lands on distant shores spurred the curiosity of the inhabitants of the Catholic world. The most enterprising and enterprising of them became navigators and explorers. They opened the world around them and enriched the knowledge of their compatriots. This process could not but affect the general state of minds. In the end, the quantity of knowledge turned into quality.
One of the main obstacles to the development of early technogenic society was religion. The church in medieval Europe was an important institution, both spiritual and political. Her opponents were declared heretics and burned at the stake. At the beginning of the 16th century, the Reformation movement was born in Germany. His inspiration, Martin Luther, advocated reform of the church. The preacher had many supporters, including in the princely German dynasties. Soon an armed struggle began between Protestants and Catholics. It resulted in the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648), after which the principle of religious freedom was established in many European countries.
The impact of progress on the economy
In the new society, much more resources went to the development of education. Universities opened, people studied and learned about the world around them. The development of technology has led to economic growth. Such important inventions as, for example, the steam boiler, allowed some countries to increase their own production and improve the well-being of citizens.
XIX century made England a major world power with colonies in all parts of the world. Of course, it was already a technological civilization. The problems of its development were connected with the fact that people who became masters of the whole world did not immediately learn how to use its resources correctly.
The Importance of Civil Liberties
During the Renaissance and the Enlightenment there was a synthesis of many ideas of the ancient world and Christian civilization. The new ideology received only the best from these two foundations. In particular, it was love for a person. The ideas of the Enlightenment said that there is nothing in the world more important than a single individual.
Today, these principles form the basis of the constitutions of most states of the world. Human-centeredness was first proclaimed as a key idea after the declaration of US independence. In the constitution of this new country, all the basic modern civil liberties were enshrined. A few years later, France followed a similar path, where a revolution took place that destroyed the old order in the face of a conservative absolute monarchy. In the future, for another two centuries, different societies achieved civil liberties in their own ways, without which it is impossible to imagine a technogenic civilization.
The triumph of technogenic civilization
In the 20th century, man and technogenic civilization moved to a new stage of their development. At this time, the pace of social change dramatically accelerated. Today, there is so much new in the life of one generation as there was not a few centuries before. Technogenic civilization is also sometimes called "Western", emphasizing the place of its origin. Today, the main abodes of such orders are Europe and the USA.
It is important that today the crisis of technogenic civilization can no longer occur, because the sources of its development were not new cultural zones as before (colonialism, etc.), but the restructuring of an already existing order. The main success of the transition from a traditional society to a technocracy can be considered a change in values. Today, the most important thing for society is any innovation, something new, as a phenomenon.
Traditional and technogenic civilization cannot coexist together. Therefore, modern society is characterized by dynamic spread to all corners of the planet. Traditional societies become obsolete by themselves in contact with the latest technologies. Adherents of traditions and haters of progress have only one way to survive in today's world - to put their society on the path of isolation. This is how North Korea lives, which does not recognize the discoveries of the West and does not even maintain economic relations with it.
Human and nature
One of the most important dominants in technogenic civilization has always been the desire of man to subjugate nature. Man did not immediately learn to take care of the world around him. Its vigorous activity associated with the intensive use of natural resources often leads to harmful environmental conditions. In a series of similar examples, one can note the tragedy at the Chernobyl nuclear power plant. This is the case when people too quickly took up the use of new technology, not yet learned how to use it. Humanity has only one home. An irrational attitude to nature is one of the main problems of technocracy.
It is fundamentally necessary for a member of such a society to engage in transformative activity. It is with this rule that the values of technogenic civilization are associated, thanks to which it constantly changes its own foundations.
The place of the individual in the new society
The emergence of technogenic civilization has changed the position of man in society. In a traditional society, people are extremely dependent on the supreme power, traditions and caste system.
In the modern world, the individual is autonomous. Each person can, at will, change his environment, contacts, working circle. It is not tied to dogmatic orders. Modern man is free. Independence is necessary for the personality for development and self-realization. Technogenic civilization, which is built on innovation and discovery, encourages and supports the individuality of each individual.
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Innovation has been around for thousands of years. Our ancestors were engaged in epochal, or basic, innovations that changed the face of society, moving it forward. And this was long before science was formed and a small layer of scientists involved in it was isolated. Therefore, to say that science is the only source of innovation would be reckless. In recent centuries, when there was an innovative explosion of the industrial age, scientists were not always the initiators of the largest innovations. The initiators of innovations were entrepreneurs (for example, Ford), politicians and statesmen, architects, artists, musicians.
Although innovative practice has existed for many millennia, innovations became the subject of special scientific study only in the 20th century.
There are three significant stages in the formation and development of the theory of innovation:
10-30s - formation of the fundamental foundations of the theory (the period of basic innovations in this area of scientific knowledge);
40-60s - development and specification of basic innovative ideas of the previous period;
Since the mid 70s. - a new theoretical breakthrough associated with the development and spread of the technological order, a wave of epoch-making basic innovations during the formation of a post-industrial society. This period will probably cover the first decades of the 21st century.
The formation of the foundations of the theory of innovation took place within the framework of the formation of the general theory of cycles and crises, primarily in the economic and technological spheres.
A great contribution to the foundation of the theory of innovation was laid by N.D. Kondratiev. Outlining the doctrine of large cycles of the conjuncture of about half a century in duration, he substantiated the natural connection between the "upward" and "downward" waves of these cycles with the waves of technical inventions and their practical use.
N.D. Kondratiev links technological and economic innovative waves with radical changes in other spheres of society: “... wars and social upheavals are included in the rhythmic process of development of large cycles and turn out to be not the initial forces of this development, but a form of its manifestation. But once they have arisen, of course, they in turn exert a powerful, sometimes perturbative influence on the pace and direction of economic dynamics.
Thus, N.D. Kondratiev laid the foundations for a general theory of innovation, covering not only technology and the economy, but also the socio-political sphere, as well as revealing the mechanism of interaction between innovations in various spheres of society.
The founder of the theory of innovation is Joseph Schumpeter, who picked up and developed the main ideas of N.D. Kondratieff in this area. Schumpeter concentrated his attention on economic innovations and highly appreciated the role of the innovative entrepreneur in economic progress.
Schumpeter's main innovation theories:
Innovation activity as the most important function of entrepreneurs;
Distinguishing product innovations and process innovations, radical (basic) and improving, technological and economic innovations;
The place of innovation in the cyclical dynamics of the economy;
The inevitability of overcoming the force of inertia, the resistance of the environment.
Pitirim Sorokin, an associate of Kondratiev, laid the foundations for innovation in the sociocultural sphere, understanding it in a broad sense - not only art and culture, social and political relations, but also the dynamics of scientific discoveries and inventions, interstate and civil wars. In published in 1937-1941. In his four-volume Social and Cultural Dynamics, he studied, in particular, the trend in the dynamics of technical inventions over more than 5 millennia of the history of society, as well as the largest innovations observed over millennia in other areas of the spiritual life of society. Noting the presence of long-term fluctuations in sociocultural dynamics, expressed in a change in the predominance of ideational, sensual and integral sociocultural types, Sorokin denied the existence of a general trend of historical progress, considered these fluctuations (fluctuations) to be aimless, which is difficult to agree with. They gave quantitative estimates of innovative waves in a number of areas of spiritual reproduction.
So, for three decades of the XX century. the fundamental foundations of the theory of innovations, especially technological and sociocultural ones, were laid.
Further development of the theory of innovation - from the 40s to the mid-70s. 20th century - is not characterized by such fundamental breakthroughs in this field of knowledge. This was prevented by the Second World Wave and the post-war arms race, when efforts were directed to the development and dissemination of basic innovations of the 4th cycle of N.D. Kondratiev and the technological order adequate to him; research was of a more practical, applied nature. However, the theory of innovation has made significant progress.
Among the fundamental works of this period, one should note the major monograph by the outstanding English scientist John Bernal “Science in the history of societies” (“Science in history”), published in London in 1954 and in the USSR in 1956.
During this period, much attention was paid to the relationship of innovation with economic growth. Simon Kuznets' Nobel lecture in December 1917 was devoted to this problem. It formulated a number of new approaches to the theory of innovation, developing the ideas of Schumpeter and Bernal.
1. Kuznets introduced the concept of epochal innovations underlying the transition from one historical era to another.
2. The revolutionary acceleration of economic growth rates in the industrial era is caused, according to Kuznets, by an epoch-making innovation - the accelerated development of science has become a new source of growth.
3. Discussing the social consequences of innovations, Kuznets notes that they can be both positive and negative. The economic function of the state is to stimulate their growth and structural changes, to analyze, select or discard the legal and institutional innovations of the new production potential. Without innovation, science languishes; the wave of innovation serves as a breeding ground for the flourishing of scientific research.
4. Technological innovations are interconnected with innovations in other areas of society.
The current stage in the development of the theory of innovation dates back to the publication of the monograph by the German scientist Gerhard Mensch "Technological stalemate: innovation overcomes depression" and subsequent publications and international conferences devoted to the theory of long-wave fluctuations in the economy by Kondratiev and Schumpeter.
Soviet scientists were actively involved in the development of the theory of cycles and innovations. Yu.V. Yakovets published a series of monographs on these problems.
A fundamental study of long-term trends in the dynamics of science, technology and economics was carried out by Academician AI Anchishkin. He singled out three epochal revolutions in the history of scientific and technological progress that implemented clusters of basic innovations:
the first industrial revolution of the late 18th - early 19th centuries;
the second industrial revolution of the last third of the 19th - early 20th centuries;
The third industrial revolution, which began in the middle of the 20th century. and developed into a scientific and technological revolution.
A review of the theories of long-term trends in the capitalist economy by S.M. Menshikov and L.A. Klimenko on this issue, monographs by L.S. Baryutin on technical innovations in industry, V.I. Kushlin about updating the production apparatus.
The legacy of N.D. Kondratiev, his doctrine of the large cycle of the conjuncture and the long-term fluctuations of economic dynamics associated with them. A strong innovative school developed in Russia during this period. A new wave in the development of the theory of innovation is associated with a deep crisis in the world economy in the mid-1970s and early 1980s. XX century, due to the transition to the 5th Kondratiev cycle. This transition took place against the backdrop of a global energy crisis in a price revolution. history origin innovation
The main achievements in the development of the theory of innovation in the second half of the 20th century:
1. Researchers focused their attention on long-wave fluctuations in the economy and society and the waves of basic innovations associated with them. American scientists J. Odelsky and W. Thompson date their beginning to 1930.
2. Along with long-wave fluctuations in invention, innovation, economic activity, ultra-long secular and millennial waves of epoch-making innovations were put forward and studied, transforming not only technology and economics, but the entire structure of society.
Arnold Toynbee studied the cycles in the dynamics of local civilizations, the periodic change of their generations. Fernand Braudel, following R. Cameron, substantiated the presence of not only half-century Kondratieff, but also secular trends lasting from 150 to 300 years, believing that longer historical cycles do not exist.
3. Continuing the tradition of N.D. Kondratiev, O. Spengler, J. Schumpeter, P. Sorokin, innovation researchers extended them not only to technology and economics, but also to other areas of society, including science, political and social life, culture, ethics, religion.
Arthur Schlesinger Jr. in his book The Cycles of American History put forward a position on political cycles lasting 30 years - cycles of active life of one generation. During the first 15 years, each generation is characterized by high innovative activity, and then takes a conservative position. This provision applies not only to politics, but also to other spheres of human activity. The law of generational change has been operating throughout history, largely determining the rhythm of fluctuations in innovation activity.
In the works of Yu. Yakovets in 1984 and 1988, the relationship between the cyclical dynamics of science, inventions, innovations and the change of generations of machines and technological structures, the development of efficiency and prices of equipment was studied, the concepts of environmental, educational, organizational and production, management cycles were introduced. In the next (1999) work by Yu. Yakovets “Cycles. Crises. Forecasts”, all types of cycles in the development of society are systematized as manifestations of the general pattern of cyclical genetic dynamics. Ecological, demographic, technological, economic, socio-political cycles, in the spiritual life of society (in science, culture, education, ethics, religion), generalizing historical cycles, are singled out.
4. At a new stage in the development of the theory of innovation, much attention is paid to their territorial aspect, fluctuations in the level of innovation activity of various countries and civilizations.
5. Particular attention was paid to the economic mechanism for the implementation of innovations. Most researchers stand on the point of view of the need to combine a competitive market mechanism (especially in relation to improving innovations) with active state support for basic innovations that determine the country's competitiveness. Serious attention was paid to innovation management, practical issues of technology commercialization.
6. A new word in the development of the theory of innovation was the substantiation of the concept of technological quasi-rent. As a matter of fact, the main result and incentive of innovation activity is the receipt of excess profits during the period of spreading effective innovations.
These proposals were presented at a round table meeting of the global civil forum of the World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg on September 2, 2002.
Thus, considering the whole path of development of the theory of innovation, one can see that the ideas of cyclical dynamics of Nikolai Kondratiev, Pitirim Sorokin, Joseph Schumpeter, Gerhard Mensch were the basis for the further development of this scientific direction.
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Innovation as an activity Plan History of innovation activity. Stages of development of innovative practice The emergence of innovation as a science is due to the entire course of the historical development of social production, especially during its industrialization. the onset of a crisis of overproduction turning into a stage of depression. These phases are considered by researchers as some property inherent in the economy of machine production. Dahl's innovation is defined as the introduction of novelty into new customs.
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The history of the formation of innovation. Innovation as an activity
Plan
- History of innovation activity. Stages of development of innovative practice
- Development of innovations in the USSR
- The concept of innovation
- System concept of innovation activity
- Life cycle of innovation
- Literature
1. History of innovation. Stages of development of innovative practice
The emergence of innovation as a science is due to the entire course of the historical development of social production, especially during the period of its industrialization. In this process, it is not difficult to trace certain patterns: 1. sporadically changing phases of the revival of production, 2. its rapid rise, 3. the onset of a crisis of overproduction, turning into a stage of depression. These phases are considered by researchers as some property inherent in the economy of machine production.
In general, the term "innovation" was originally associated in the 19th century with changes in culture. In the explanatory dictionary of V. Dahl, "innovation" is defined as "... the introduction of novelty, new customs, orders." At the same time, there is a clarification that "... not every innovation is useful" ...
However, a number of researchers consider the process of development of science and technology, starting from the ancient world, the era of the ancient Paleolithic, marked by the invention of the first tools and primitive technology. Indeed, these processes can be regarded as innovative, given that they have become one of the determining factors in the social division of labor, the formation of social and production relations in primitive society. Invention of stone tools, development of stone processing methodsduring the Mesolithic; the emergence of complex tools and the emergence on this basis of housing construction technologies (dugouts, pile buildings), grinding, polishing, drilling,the origin of mining and the improvement of stone processing methods; invention of the drilling machine. Invention of the wheel and wheeled carts. The origin of textile and fur industries inLate Neolithic. Eneolithic. First use of metal. Fuse. The appearance of the first copper tools and weapons. The dominance of hoe agriculture. Construction of adobe ground dwellings and dugouts.
antique technique. Transition from barbarism to ancient civilization. Technique of the slave-owning mode of production. Specialization of agricultural and handicraft production. The emergence of inventions. Mining development. The development of military technology. Improvement of roads and means of transportation. Using rotational motion to create a wheeled cart. Sailing shipbuilding as a consequence of the development of trade. Weaving craft and improvement of textile technology. The development of agricultural technology. The invention of the potter's wheel. The origin of writing and the appearance of writing instruments.
Middle Ages. Feudal mode of production. Development of handicraft production. The emergence of workshops. Production specialization. The birth of manufactories. The origin of machine production. Mining development. Development of metallurgy and metalworking. Improvement of military equipment. The invention of gunpowder. The emergence and development of firearms. Development of land and water transport. The spread of navigation through the use of the phenomena of magnetism and the creation of a compass. Mechanical watches. Making and using glasses. Use of natural energy. The emergence of water and wind engines, mills. The development of printing and paper production.
However, these processes are innovative processes that determine the main stages in the development of human society as a whole. If we talk about the development of innovations as a special scientific sphere of social life, then this periodization looks somewhat different. Here we can single out the main stages in the study of the problems of innovative practice, which makes it possible to judge the stages of the formation of innovation itself as a science. As mentioned above, in the 19th century, innovation was associated with sociocultural change. In the 20th century, the term "innovation" was accepted by economic science. In 1909, W. Sombart in his article "The Capitalist Entrepreneur" substantiated the concept of the entrepreneur as an innovator. He comes to the conclusion that the main function of the entrepreneur, which is to bring technical innovations to the market for profit, encourages him not to be content with obtaining a new one, but to strive to distribute this new as widely as possible ...
First stage (from the beginning of the twentieth century to the end of the 70s of the twentieth century) is associated with the studies of N.D. Kondratiev, J. Schumpeter, S. Kuznets, whose theoretical and methodological guidelines focused on understandinginnovations mainly as a means of economic growth, overcoming the economic crisis and technical and technological modernization of productionand formed the basistechnical and economic approach to the study of innovation processes. In 1911 J. Schumpeter proposed a general concept of innovative entrepreneurship. He drew attention to the fact thata dynamic entrepreneur invents new combinations of factors of production, which are the source of entrepreneurial profit.J. Schumpeter identified 5 such combinations:
- The release of a new product or a well-known product of a different quality.
- Implementation of a new previously unknown production method.
- Penetration into a new market.
- Obtaining new sources of raw materials or semi-finished products.
- Organizational restructuring, including the creation of a monopoly or its elimination.
After the Great Depression of the early 1930s, among managers in the United States, and then in other developed capitalist countries, the phrase "innovation policy of the company" became popular as a symbol of the manager's ability to bring the company out of depression. During this period, empirical research began on innovations carried out by various organizations and enterprises. These studies focused on 3 main areas: 1) the firm as an initiator and creator of innovation, its sensitivity to innovation, dependence on organizational structures and management methods. 2) Marketing or company behavior in the market, risk factors, methods for predicting the success of innovations, economic performance indicators of individual stages and innovations in general. The main research paradigm isopen systems theory combined with a game approach, where the firm interacts with the market as an environment and where the final stages of the innovation process are the result of the actions of many actors, each of which acts in accordance with its own interests, taking into account the likely reactions of partners. 3) State policy regarding the innovative activity of firms, supporting their competitiveness in the world market.Management theory becomes the leading paradigm.
The totality of these areas of research is called "innovation".
Such trends in understanding the goals of innovation processes dominated until the 80s of the twentieth century and were reflected in the works of both domestic (A.N. Aganbegyan, L.S. Blyakhman, V.S. Rappoport) and foreign (J.A. Allen, K. Pavitt, E. Rogers, W. Roberts, L. Ullman, W. Walker and others) researchers. The results of research activities during this period made it possible to monitor technical and technological innovations and correlate them with changes in economic indicators, which contributed to the formation of innovation as a branch of science abroad by the 1970s.
In general, the first stage in the development of innovation as a science is associated with the study of factors affecting the effectiveness of innovations, the accumulation of empirical material, which has been transformed into numerous classifications that are irreducible to each other.
Second phase (from the beginning of the 80s of the XX century to the middle of the 90s of the XX century) is characterized byorientation towards a comprehensive study of innovative processes and specific innovations, taking into account the factors that determine their effective implementation, which leads to the beginning of research on the social background of innovative activity.At this time, the first training programs for participants in innovative activities appeared, with the aim of consulting on a set of practical problems related to the implementation of innovations (I.V. Bestuzhev-Lada, A.I. Prigogine, B.V. Sazonov, N.I. Lapin, V. S. Tolstoy, V. D. Hartman, V. Shtok and Belarusian researchers - V. A. Alexandrov, G. A. Nesvetailov). During this period, a temporary gap in the process of institutionalization of innovation in domestic science is revealed, which manifested itself in acquiring the status of a scientific direction only by the 90s of the 20th century. In domestic and foreign science, the status of alternative existence of research approaches to the study of innovative issues is being formalizedtechno-economic and socio-humanitarian with a clear dominance of the first. This marked the beginning of the differentiation of research practices in the field of innovation, which resulted in a one-sided consideration of innovative phenomena, mainly from the standpoint of a technical and economic approach, and a fragmentary analysis of the social aspects of innovation.The main subject of research is the innovation process, including spontaneous diffusion and purposeful transfer of innovations.
Third stage (from the 90s of the twentieth century to the present) is characterized byinclusion in the problem field of innovation of the social aspects of innovation and a change in the disposition of research approaches, expressed in the transition from alternative to their parallel implementation(A.S. Akhiezer, Yu.A. Karpova, V.Zh. Kelle, A.G. Krasnov, S.E. Kryuchkova, A.V. Markov, M.V. Myasnikovich, P.G. Nikitenko, V P. Petrov, A. I. Prigozhin, G. N. Sokolova, D. I. Stepanenko, S. A. Shavel, Yu. V. Yakovets). At this stage, the attention of researchers is focusedon the analysis of various types of innovative situations, the development of methods for early risk assessment, the formation of recommendations regarding the state policy in the field of innovation.
Some researchers (N.I. Lapin) propose to single out the fourth modern stage in the development of innovation.The key aspect of the study at the present stage is innovative networks that are as sensitive as possible to the rapid dynamics of the market, marketing-oriented, capturing potential demand trends.This period is characterized by: 1) methodological rethinking of the status of research approaches and innovation paradigms along the path of their interaction and integration, which can be considered the beginning of a new stage in their development; 2) differentiation of innovation, which is expressed in the appearancesocial innovation(systems of knowledge about new methods of social development, about the features of the emergence and implementation of social innovations), and within its framework - the sociology of innovations, logistics of innovations, statistics of innovations; 3) humanization and humanization of innovation, which is expressed in the understandinginnovations as social phenomena that require research from the standpoint of the socio-humanitarian sciences.
Currentlyinnovation processit is proposed to understand it as an integral system of activities related to the preparation, creation and practical implementation of technical, technological, organizational, managerial, economic, social and other innovations that satisfy commercial and non-commercial public needs through translation of innovations into the system of cultural norms, samples and values. This is the process of creating an innovation, its dissemination and use of the result.
Thus, starting from the level of individual production organizations, firms, innovative practice and its scientific research in the West spread to the level of national institutions.
2. Development of innovations in the USSR
A different way of developing innovations was used in countries with a planned economy, including the USSR. Here, innovative practice has been developed predominantly at the national state level. The centralized management of scientific and technical progress allowed the Soviet Union to achieve outstanding success in the military-technical field (the production of nuclear weapons, the development of the atomic fleet, astronautics, and certain types of military equipment.
At the same time, the backlog of the Soviet economy from Western Europe and the USA increased (the low level of equipment with high technology; a high proportion of heavy types of labor; the insecurity of the population in goods and services of high quality). There were growing unsolvable vital problems (grain dependence on the West, the housing problem, closedness from the outside world, etc.). The threat of a lag in the field of information-intensive weapons was growing. Since the mid 50s. anxiety about the fate of the economic competition between the USSR and Western countries is growing in society.
In the second half of the 50s. On the initiative of Khrushchev, the management of industry was restructured. In order to overcome the sectoral isolation of enterprises, sectoral ministries were abolished and territorial economic councils were created. But this led to a violation of the unity of state policy, a slowdown in scientific and technical progress and the pace of production. After the dismissal of Khrushchev in 1965, at the plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, Kosygin proposed a new reform: the restoration of sectoral ministries and the expansion of the rights of labor collectives. A movement began for planning the social development of labor collectives. But soon this project was recognized as ideologically harmful (the influence of the bourgeois market). The rights of the ministries have been expanded, while the rights of directors and labor collectives have been curtailed. In 1967, at the XXV Party Congress, Kosygin stated the unsatisfactory introduction of the achievements of science and technology into production.
The management of scientific and technical progress has become one of the priority areas of scientific research. The problems of implementation and wide use of innovations remained in the background as problems of the micro level. The focus was on problems at the macro level. Thus, in the USSR, research and development in the field of innovation began in the mid-1970s. XX in. In a short time, they made it possible to obtain significant results of a theoretical and applied nature. These results focused on the release of the innovative potential of workers, the integration of entrepreneurial elements into the planned economy. But such principles were not in demand in the Soviet society, which does not diminish their scientific and applied significance for the socio-economic development of Russia.
3. The concept of innovation.
Innovation there is a process of creating, distributing and using a new practical means for a new or better satisfaction of an already known need of people, groups, society. However, some researchers see innovation as the end result.innovation activities, which in turn is defined asthe process of translating the results of research and development into a new or improved product sold on the market, or a technological process used in practice. In any case, we cannot deny that innovation is one of the types of activity, and, therefore, has a structure, internal logic of development and structural, functional and meaningful parameters that are characteristic of any type of activity. Based on this, we single out the following components in the structure of innovation activity:
Need the state of the subject's need for something that lies outside him, but which is a necessary condition for maintaining the subject's normal life. In the case of innovation, it is social in nature.
motive an object of need, something for the sake of which an action is performed.
Target an ideal image of the anticipated result.
Funds an instrumental component of activity, a certain set of actions, through which it is possible to achieve the goal.
Result final product. Correlating the result with the goal, you can determine the degree of its success.
However, innovation is inherently social. It is carried out in a certain social environment. Therefore, it is necessary to introduce 2 more components into its structure. it subject (actor ), the one thanks to whom innovation arises and develops. First of all, these are people who invent an idea, develop a concept for the implementation of activities, implement it in practice and bring it to consumers, ensuring mass satisfaction of the corresponding social need.
The activities of people, including innovative ones, are carried out in groups, labor collectives. Therefore, the actors of innovation are organizations , focused on the production and implementation of innovation as a means of making a profit. In addition, the actors of innovation are organizations indirectly involved in this process: administrative and managerial, socio-political, social, etc. This means that innovation activity involves the interaction of many social structures, the purpose of which is to increase the efficiency of their activities. And this can be considered as one of the leading criteria for the success of innovation, because. if this does not happen, then the innovation cannot be considered successful, no matter how significant its subject content is. Let us recall the fact that under the conditions of the central planning of the Soviet economy, economic incentives were replaced by command-and-control methods of organizing activities. The low economic interest of actors (enterprises, employees) not only slowed down innovation processes, but actually hindered their implementation and implementation, nullifying the effectiveness of any innovative ideas. Of course, this does not mean that all non-market mechanisms and motives (incentives, awards, etc.) should be eliminated, but they should, together with market ones, create the most favorable environment ...
Thus, it can be argued that if the internal environment of innovations is created by people as their authors, then the external environment is created by society as a whole, including the economic component (market mechanisms), social structure, and culture. In addition, many innovations interact with world markets (world economy, international relations), as well as with the natural environment (environmental factor). At the same time, the influence of innovations on the indicated components is not one-sided, it is a process of interaction (for example, if changes occur in the natural environment during the implementation of innovation, this, in turn, modifies the innovation process).
4. System concept of innovation activity
Taking into account the multiplicity of interdependent factors identified above and having a direct impact on innovation processes, it is obvious that the analysis and comprehensive assessment of the effectiveness of innovation requires a systematic approach.
The objective basis of innovation as an activity is social needs that are formed in various spheres of society and do not receive their satisfaction through the available resources. If these needs remain unsatisfied, this leads to tension, depression and crisis phenomena, both at the level of individuals and at the level of the relevant social spheres and society as a whole. Satisfaction of these needs is possible by constructing new social practices adequate to the changing conditions, i.e. through some innovative activity. This innovative activity is the essence of innovation. In other words, innovation can be viewed as a form of organization of innovation activities to purposefully meet the changing needs of people in the process of social development.
What exactly is the specificity of innovation activity? Scientific analysis shows that all types of human activity can be divided into reproductive and productive.reproductive activityIt is based on the repetition of already developed schemes of actions and is aimed at obtaining an already known result by known means. Its end result is quantitative indicators. Productive activity is associated with the development of new goals, means to achieve them or the achievement of known goals by new means. It includes the creation of a new quality, therefore, its necessary component is creativity, including the self-development of an innovative personality.
Productive activity is differentiated into spiritual and subject-practical. Spiritual means change, the creation of new spiritual values, knowledge, beliefs, beliefs. It includes forecasting and design, as remains at the project level. The second refers to the practical change by man of the world around him and of himself as an actor. This is the actual innovation activity, where at the initial stage an innovation project is created, which then becomes a reality.
Summarizing all of the above, we can define innovation as a subject-practical productive activity of people, which is creative and creates new qualities in various areas of social life. Its object is other types of activity that were formed in the previous period and acquired a reproductive character. And their means have become routine for this community of people. Innovative activity, therefore, is aimed at changing them. And its main function is to change their methods, mechanisms. It follows from this that innovation activity is a meta-activity that transforms reproductive activities.
A systematic analysis of innovation as an activity makes it possible to single out the basic principles of innovation activity: integrity, structure and dynamism. Innovation is an integral system, which is not reduced to the sum of its constituent elements, but has specific properties that are absent from its individual components. At the same time, innovation is a subsystem of a wider system, with which it interacts as with its own environment. At the same time, innovation is structured into subsystems that are interconnected.
However, innovation is a controversial system. When it arises, it asserts itself as a creative, unique activity. Then it begins to reproduce itself, functioning according to the laws it has created. Over time, these mechanisms become routinized and innovations become a daily practice, replaced by new ones ...
Innovations can have not only a positive impact on the social environment, but also a negative, dysfunctional one, breaking the balance. Sometimes this is due to side effects that, exceeding the effect of the original innovation, nullify ... This may give rise to a desire to evade innovation, to resist them.
5. Life cycle of innovation.
So, innovation is a dynamic, internally contradictory system that has an active nature. Its effectiveness depends both on the internal mechanisms of the innovation process and on the ways of its interaction with the external environment. Accordingly, in this activity, 2 aspects can be distinguished: substantive and formal. Informative manifests itself in the procedural characteristics of innovation. The innovation process includes 4 components: fundamental research, invention, development and commercial stage, including the preparation and launch of industrial production. Various authors offer diverse models of innovation, including from 5 to 9 stages. At the same time, the distribution of costs is extremely uneven and in different models these indicators vary significantly. One thing is clear: in the processes of industrial production, all these stages (from fundamental research and development of ideas to the disposal of industrial waste) are carried out by different people.
In formal aspect, the innovation process is a sequential cycle of specialized types or forms of activity. Generally, there are 3 main forms of innovation production: local production, monopoly production and extended production.
1Local production of innovation.
This form is limited to the production and use (consumption) of innovation only by the firm or organization that ordered it. The local innovation cycle consists of the following stages:
- Development of an innovation project, including a feasibility study;
- The first development of an innovation, including applied research, development and production of a prototype, and the first replication of an innovation;
- The first use of innovation, its consumption by the customer and the first experience of service support.
For the actual innovation process, the local cycle is more of a trial experimental character. The process of innovation itself has already been launched, but there is still no connection with the external environment. This is a form of innovation process that prevents the spread of innovation in a wider national and world market. In essence, this is a quasi-market and short process.
II .Exclusive production of innovation
As in the first case, the production of innovations is carried out by the creator firms, but they sell their products through the external market, addressing it to many consumers. An intermediate reproduction cycle occurs when the market mechanism is turned on, but its action is limited by the presence of a single producer. It allows the firm-actor to determine market prices and receive monopoly excess profits.
III .Enhanced innovation production.
The production of this innovation is mastered by many firms. The cycle of the innovation process becomes complete. It includes 2 more stages: dissemination of production methods (know-know) and forms of its use; and expanded production of innovation, as well as the final stage routinization of innovation up to the saturation of the market and the cessation of its production. Only in the form of expanded production of innovation do market mechanisms fully come into play. They allow integrating all actors, linking their interests and goals, which could not be done in a planned economy by administrative methods.
The innovation life cycle (LIC) expresses the dynamics of the interaction of the innovation process with the external environment, its effectiveness for manufacturers and consumers. The type of LCI depends on the form of the innovation process and on the nature of the external environment. We have already considered the forms of the innovation process, and in the external environment, 2 layers are of paramount importance for the LCI: economic (clients and competitors) and infrastructural and managerial.
The local innovation cycle limits the LCI to the implementation of the created innovation at one point the customer. And the environment for such a process narrows down to a limited number of manufacturers. The life cycle of such an innovation includes 3 phases: development production implementation. itlocally-implemented ZhCI. The market is present only at the first stage, where manufacturers compete for the right to receive an order. At subsequent stages, market relations lose their stimulating value. Competitors are present rather as potential in the future struggle for the next order.
Monopoly production of an innovation faces competition with the emergence of other producers of that innovation. itmonopoly market life cycle. At a certain stage, it is transformed, turning into a proper market cycle.
The expanded production of an innovation is entirely market-driven, with the intensity of competition increasing, prompting producers to lower the prices of the innovation in order to expand its production and maintain high profits (mobile phones, computers). This is an extended-market LCI. It distinguishes 5 main stages: start rapid growth maturity saturation finish.
At the start, there is no income from innovation; moreover, it is unprofitable. At the stage of rapid growth, there is a monopoly production of innovation, which gives excess profit. The maturity stage is associated with the expansion of the production of an innovation, due to which income is maintained, although the market value of the innovation decreases (competitors appear). At the stage of saturation, the price drops sharply, and production is on the verge of unprofitability. Finally, at the last stage, there is an oversaturation of the market, production becomes unprofitable.
When evaluating the effectiveness of innovation, at least 2 criteria should be taken into account: the contribution of innovation to profitability and to the competitiveness of the company. This largely determines its position in the socio-economic environment. The contribution to the firm's profitability is estimated by the difference between the income from the implementation of innovation and the costs of its production. Stage-by-stage accounting is necessary, but the final assessment of the contribution of innovation to the profitability of the company should be cumulative based on the results of all stages and in comparison with the contributions of other innovations. Then it turns out that even if not only the start-up but also the finish stage is unprofitable, the total balance of costs and income can be positive.
The other contribution of innovation to firm competitiveness is even more important, but more difficult to identify and evaluate. In general, this contribution can be judged by the impact of innovation on such parameters as the provision of firms with orders and capacity utilization. We will explore these issues in more detail in subsequent lessons.
6.Literature
a) basic literature:
1. Dyatchin N.I. History of the development of technology. Rostov-on-Don, 2011.
2. Rozin V.M. Philosophy of technology. Tutorial. M., 2011.
3. Lapin N.I. Fundamentals of innovation//Theory and practice of innovation.-M., Logos, 2008.
b) additional literature:
1. Alferov Zh.I. Physics and life. - M.-S.-Petersburg, 2011.
2. Valyansky S.I., Kalyuzhny D.V. Another history of science. From Aristotle to Newton.
M., 2002.
3. Popper K. Logic and growth of scientific knowledge. - M., 2003.
4, Gurkov I.B. Innovative development and competitiveness. M.: TEIS, 2003. Ch.5.
5.Lapin N.I. Theory and practice of innovation. M.: LOGOS, 2010. R. II.
6. Milner B.Z. Organization theory. 3rd ed. M.: INFRA-M, 2002. Ch.39.
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Innovation originated at the beginning of the twentieth century, when the regularities of technical innovations were studied. The first innovative observation was made by N.D. Kondratiev in the 20s. He discovered the so-called "big cycles" ("long waves"), formed from each basic innovation and representing a multitude of secondary, improving innovations.
To justify large cycles, N.D. Kondratiev analyzed extensive statistical material on the four leading capitalist countries (England, France, Germany, USA) for 140 years (from the end of the 18th century to the beginning of the 20th century) and revealed the presence of 3 cyclical waves lasting 40-60 years.
In addition, N.D. Kondratiev revealed empirical patterns that accompany fluctuations. In the development of the first wave, inventions in the textile industry and the production of iron, inventions related to the use of water energy, played a decisive role.
The second wave, in his opinion, was due to the construction of railways, the development of maritime transport, mechanical production in all industries based on a steam engine.
The third wave was based on the use of electrical energy in the production, the development of heavy engineering, the electrical industry, and new discoveries in the field of chemistry. Radio communication, telegraph, automobiles, airplanes came into life, non-ferrous metals, aluminum, and plastics began to be used.
5. Causes and factors influencing the rate of diffusion of innovations.
Internationality of science. Development of the material and production base of the relevant branches of the state. The development of an experimental base, which implies not only the availability of equipment and laboratories, but also the appropriate attitude of the state, supports and forms an innovative climate in society on the basis of relevant legislation and other factors. Worker qualification. Developed infrastructure.
5.1 The concept of innovation.
Distinguish the concept of innovation in a broad and narrow sense. AT broadly defined as innovation understand the use of scientific and technical knowledge to transform various aspects of social life. In a narrow sense- this is an activity aimed at obtaining new scientific and technical knowledge and their implementation in the production sector in order to create a competitive product.
Development of innovation activity in Russia.
The modern Russian school of innovation in unity with the theory of cycles and crises dates back to 1988. when in the monograph Yu.V. Yakovets "Acceleration of scientific and technological progress: theory and economic mechanism", a classification of innovations (technical innovations) according to the level of novelty was proposed, the concept of an innovation cycle was introduced, its structure was determined, the connection with scientific, inventive and innovation cycles was revealed, the mechanism for mastering innovations was considered, differential scientific and technical income (later it was called technological quasi-rent) as the main incentive for the development of inventions.
These provisions have been developed in a number of works by teachers of the Department of Theory and Practice of State Regulation of the Market Economy of the RAGS, where a strong innovative school has developed under the guidance of Doctor of Economics, prof. Kushlina V.I.
The need for a transition to an innovative economy capable, on the one hand, of providing a sufficient variety of products produced in the country, and, on the other hand, of reducing dependence on imports of strategically important goods and technologies has increased significantly due to the global financial crisis. The fall in world prices for energy resources, along with a high share of imports for Russia, led to the actual devaluation of the national currency. Successful overcoming of the crisis phenomena largely depends on what potential the Russian economy will have after the end of the crisis. This potential will determine the competitiveness of the Russian economy, the increase of which is possible on the basis of technological modernization through domestic developments and imports of advanced innovative solutions.