The emergence of the style is associated with Italy in the 16th century. During this crisis period, the country lost its economic and political significance, but remained the cultural center of Europe. The church and the nobility, trying to demonstrate their power and consistency in tense financial conditions, turned to art. The desire for illusory luxury and wealth gave rise to the Baroque trend.
Baroque is radically opposed to rationalism and classicism. Of the characteristic features are:
- Dynamism of images;
- Combining the real and the illusory;
- Contrast;
- Affectation;
- Tension;
- Hyperbolic splendor and volume;
- Striving for greatness.
Baroque painting
(Nicola Lancre "Dancing in the Pavilion")
The painting of the Baroque era was influenced by the popularity of the theatrical direction. Shakespeare's words: "The whole world is a theater, and the people in it are actors" eloquently describe many famous works of that time. A striking example is the paintings of P. P. Rubens "The Three Graces" and "Versavia", in which realistic landscapes are complemented by velvet red curtains.
(Raphael "Portrait of Maddalena Doni")
Portrait becomes the predominant genre. All European monarchs are eager to immortalize their greatness on the canvases of famous masters. And every eminent artist practices painting portrait paintings, including Raphael, Holbein, Titian, Leonardo, Durer and others. The skill of the creator is judged by his portrait skill, he is invited to serve as a portrait painter.
(Diego Velazquez "Meninas")
Diego Velazquez's work fell on the golden age of Spanish painting. Serving at the court of the king, he painted a series of portraits of the royal family. Each new work is distinguished by the use of a variety of techniques and technical complications. Velazquez's favorite part of the images is the mirror effect that expands the boundaries of the canvas. She can be seen on the canvases "Menina", "Venus in front of the mirror"
The distinctive features of Spanish art in a general sense are the dualism of the ascetic and the corporeal, the sublime and the down-to-earth, the idealistic and the real, as well as decorativeness, richness of color, and intricacy of forms.
Baroque in architecture
(Michelangelo Buonarroti - Cathedral of St. Peter in Rome)
The basis of the ideology of the Baroque was the opposition of various faiths against the background of the split of the Church (into Catholics and Protestants), the opposition of feudal tendencies to the bourgeois. The spiritual strength of religion is weakening, which leads to disagreements between the secular society and the religious. In the current dramatic circumstances, a new view of architecture is being formed. The style, the beginning of which expressed protest against the oppression of power, over time, in its roots changed its motives. Wealthy customers have appreciated the wide variety of plastic shapes. As a result, ideological forms expressed only compositional techniques.
(Michelangelo Buonarroti - Palace of the Conservatives in Rome)
The origin of the style was the painter and architect Michelangelo Buonarotti. The greatest master of plastic art brought to life the project of the Medici Chapel, while at the same time working on the lobby of the Laurentian library (1520-1534). These works are recognized as the first Baroque architectural works.
The most famous baroque masters of the 17th century are L. Bernini and F. Borromini. Their creative views differed. Borromini inherited the architectural spirit of Michelangelo with its dynamic tension, massive space, expression, emphasized by contrasts. The main direction of Bernini's work is a frank expression of majesty and undisguised luxury.
In addition to the differences, in the works of these masters, there are similar features inherent in most representatives of the style:
- Effectiveness achieved by the fullness of space;
- Splendor of forms;
- Exaggerated pathos;
- Plastic fractures, deflections;
- Complicated, not always fully justified.
Baroque spaces have complex structures. In contrast to the Renaissance, where preference is given to regular geometric shapes (square, circle), in the Baroque, the favorite figure is an oval, giving uncertainty and fantasy to the overall volume. But even this shape is often complemented by characteristic bends of lines, walls have convex and concave sections. The configuration of the plan is complicated by the contiguous volumes, the boundaries between which are barely perceptible, the adjacent elements are perceived as one whole. The dynamics of space is emphasized by the distribution of light and shade. Shaded areas contrast with brightly lit accents. One of the most commonly used techniques is a beam of light from half-open openings, which cuts the air in a pointwise manner.
(Zwinger, Dresden 1719)
Religious construction took on a second wind during the Baroque era. The completion of the protracted construction of St. Peter's Basilica in Rome was of great importance to the religious world. The main Catholic church was a centric volume with a grandiose dome at the head. Michelangelo spent most of the work on the building, and after revising the layout, Bernini finished the work. He framed the cathedral square with a group of majestic columns.
(The Great Catherine Palace in Russia in the Baroque style)
The Baroque architecture so popular in Italy did not suit the taste of countries with Protestant views, such as Scotland, England, northern Germany, Scandinavia. But in the 17th century, the Austrians, after the consolidation of the imperial power, often invited Italian craftsmen to work on palaces.
(The Winter Palace was also built in the Baroque style)
By the beginning of the 18th century, baroque architecture had undergone some changes. Straight lines were replaced by broken and winding ones. Stucco molding, sculpture, large mirrors, flowerpots were widely used. At this time, large-scale projects were developed and implemented, ensemble construction techniques were used for the first time.
Conclusion
Baroque as a style trend developed at the turn of the 16th-17th centuries. - XVIII century. The historical course of that time assumed the emergence of a culture of contradiction between the church and the secular. At the junction of the tastes of two significant components of society, deliberate luxury and wealth of the Baroque arose. The endless flow of the masters' imagination has saturated this style with solemnity, magnificent forms, impulsiveness, variety and an excess of decorative elements. The art of this style, despite the obvious signs, is developing and saturated with new techniques, to this day.
Baroque (Italian barocco - "bizarre", "strange", "prone to excesses", port. perola barroca - "pearl of irregular shape" - a characteristic of the European culture of the XVII-XVIII centuries.
Epoch of baroque
The Baroque era generates a huge amount of time for the sake of entertainment: instead of pilgrimages - a promenade (walks in the park); instead of knightly tournaments - "carousels" (horseback riding) and card games; instead of mysteries - theater and masquerade ball. You can also add the appearance of a swing and "fiery fun" (fireworks). In the interiors, the place of icons was taken by portraits and landscapes, and the music from the spiritual turned into a pleasant play of sound.
Baroque features
Baroque is characterized by contrast, tension, dynamism of images, affectation, striving for grandeur and splendor, for combining reality and illusion, for the fusion of arts (city and palace and park ensembles, opera, cult music, oratorio); at the same time there is a tendency towards autonomy of certain genres (Concerto Grosso, Sonata, Suite in instrumental music).
Baroque man
Baroque man rejects naturalness, which is identified with savagery, impudence, tyranny, brutality and ignorance. A baroque woman values \u200b\u200bthe pallor of her skin, she wears an unnatural, pretentious hairstyle, a corset and an artificially extended skirt on a whalebone frame. She's wearing heels.
And the ideal man in the Baroque era is the gentleman, the gentleman - from the English. gentle: "soft", "gentle", "calm". He prefers to shave his mustache and beard, wear perfume and powdered wigs. Why force if now they kill by pulling the trigger of the musket.
Galileo for the first time directs a telescope to the stars and proves the rotation of the Earth around the Sun (1611), and Leeuwenhoek under the microscope discovers tiny living organisms (1675). Huge sailboats ply the vastness of the oceans, erasing white spots on the geographical maps of the world. Travelers and adventurers are becoming the literary symbols of the era.
Baroque in sculpture
Sculpture is an integral part of the Baroque style. The greatest sculptor and recognized architect of the 17th century was an Italian Lorenzo Bernini(1598-1680). Among his most famous sculptures are the mythological scenes of the abduction of Proserpine by the god of the underworld Pluto and the miraculous transformation into a tree of the nymph Daphne, pursued by the god of light Apollo, as well as the altar group The Ecstasy of St. Teresa in one of the Roman churches. The last of them, with its clouds carved out of marble and the robes of the characters as if fluttering in the wind, with theatrically exaggerated feelings, very accurately expresses the aspirations of the sculptors of this era.
In Spain, during the Baroque era, wooden sculptures prevailed; for greater believability, they were made with glass eyes and even a crystal tear, real clothes were often worn on the statue.
Baroque in architecture
For baroque architecture ( L. Bernini, F. Borrominiin Italy, B.F.Rastrelland in Russia, Jan Christoph Glaubitz in Rzeczpospolita) are characterized by spatial scope, fusion, fluidity of complex, usually curvilinear forms. Large-scale colonnades, an abundance of sculptures on facades and interiors, volutes, a large number of rivets, bow facades with ripping in the middle, rusticated columns and pilasters are often found. The domes acquire complex shapes, often they are multi-tiered, like those of St. Peter's in Rome. Typical baroque details are telamon (atlant), caryatid, mascaron.
Baroque in the interior
The baroque style is characterized by ostentatious luxury, although it retains such an important feature of the classical style as symmetry.
Wall painting (one of the types of monumental painting) has been used in decorating European interiors since early Christian times. In the Baroque era, it was most widespread. The interiors used a lot of color and large, richly decorated details: the ceiling decorated with frescoes, marble walls and parts of the decor, gilding. Color contrasts were characteristic - for example, the marble floor, decorated with checkerboard tiles. Abundant gilded decorations were a characteristic feature of this style.
The furniture was a piece of art, and was intended almost exclusively for interior decoration. Chairs, sofas and armchairs were upholstered in expensive, richly colored fabric. Huge four-poster beds with flowing down bedspreads and giant wardrobes were widespread. The mirrors were decorated with sculptures and stucco moldings with floral patterns. Southern walnut and Ceylon ebony were often used as furniture materials.
The Baroque style is not suitable for small spaces, as massive furniture and decorations take up a large volume of space.
Baroque fashion
Baroque fashion corresponds in France to the reign of Louis XIV, the second half of the 17th century. This is the time of absolutism. Strict etiquette and complex ceremonial reigned at court. The costume was subject to etiquette. France was a trendsetter in Europe, so other countries quickly adopted French fashion. This was the century when a general fashion was established in Europe, and national characteristics receded into the background or were preserved in the folk peasant costume. Before Peter I, European costumes were also worn in Russia by some aristocrats, although not everywhere.
The costume was characterized by stiffness, splendor, abundance of jewelry. The ideal man was Louis XIV, "the sun king", a skillful rider, dancer, shooter. He was short, so he wore high heels.
Baroque painting
The Baroque style in painting is characterized by dynamism of compositions, "flatness" and splendor of forms, aristocratic and uncommon subjects. The most characteristic features of the Baroque are striking flamboyance and dynamism; a vivid example is creativity Rubens and Caravaggio.
Michelangelo Merisi (1571-1610), nicknamed after his birthplace near Milan Caravaggio, is considered the most significant master among Italian artists who created at the end of the 16th century. new style in painting. His paintings, written on religious subjects, resemble realistic scenes of the author's contemporary life, creating a contrast between the times of late antiquity and modern times. The heroes are depicted in the twilight, from which rays of light snatch the expressive gestures of the characters, contrastingly writing out their characteristic. Followers and imitators of Caravaggio, who at first were called caravaggists, and the current itself caravaggism, such as Annibale Carracci (1560-1609) or Guido Reni (1575-1642), adopted the riot of feelings and characteristic manner of Caravaggio, as well as his naturalism in depicting people and events.
Study history
One of the first monographs devoted to the baroque was Wölflin's book "Renaissance and Baroque" (German: Renaissance und Barock, 1888). Baroque occupied the period between Renaissance and Classicism, and in its later version it was called Rococo. Wölflin calls picturesqueness and passion the characteristic features of the baroque. Dvořák singled out Mannerism from the early Baroque. Subsequently, Panofsky outlined the tendency to see in the baroque not an antithesis, but a continuation of the Renaissance.
Related Videos
History
One controversial theory suggests the origin of all these European words from Latin bis-roca, twisted stone. Another theory - from Latin verruca, steep high place, defect in a gem.
In different contexts, the word baroque could mean "pretentiousness", "unnatural", "insincerity", "elite", "deformed", "exaggerated emotionality". All these shades of the word baroque in most cases were not perceived as negative.
Finally, another theory suggests that this word in all the languages \u200b\u200bmentioned is parodic from the point of view of linguistics, and its word formation can be explained by its meaning: unusual, unnatural, ambiguous and deceptive.
The ambiguity of the Baroque style is due to its origin. According to some researchers, it was borrowed from the architecture of the Seljuk Turks.
Baroque features
Baroque is characterized by contrast, tension, dynamism of images, affectation, striving for grandeur and splendor, for combining reality and illusion, for the fusion of arts (city and palace and park ensembles, opera, cult music, oratorio); at the same time - a tendency towards autonomy of certain genres (Concerto Grosso, Sonata, Suite in instrumental music). The worldview foundations of the style were formed as a result of the shock, which the Reformation and the teachings of Copernicus became for the 16th century. The concept of the world as a rational and permanent unity, which was established in antiquity, changed, as well as the Renaissance concept of man as a most intelligent being. In the words of Pascal, a person began to realize himself as "something in between everything and nothing", "one who catches only the appearance of phenomena, but is unable to understand either their beginning or their end."
Epoch of baroque
The Baroque era gives rise to a huge amount of time for urban residents from the upper and middle class for entertainment: instead of pilgrimages - promenade (walks in the park); instead of knightly tournaments - "carousels" (horseback riding) and card games; instead of mysteries - theater and masquerade ball. You can also add the appearance of a swing and "fiery fun" (fireworks). In the interiors, the place of icons was taken by portraits and landscapes, and the music from the spiritual turned into a pleasant play of sound.
The Baroque era rejects tradition and authority as superstition and prejudice. All that is "clearly and distinctly" thought or has a mathematical expression is true, the philosopher Descartes declares. Therefore, the baroque is still the age of Reason and Enlightenment. It is no accident that the word "baroque" is sometimes taken to denote one of the types of inferences in medieval logic - to baroco... The first European park appears in the Palace of Versailles, where the idea of \u200b\u200ba forest is expressed extremely mathematically: linden alleys and canals seem to be drawn along a ruler, and trees are trimmed in the manner of stereometric figures. In the armies of the Baroque era, which first received uniforms, much attention is paid to "drill" - the geometric correctness of the formations on the parade ground.
Baroque man
Baroque man rejects naturalness, which is identified with savagery and ignorance. (In the era of romanticism, naturalness will be viewed from a different angle and will become one of the main virtues.) A Baroque woman values \u200b\u200bthe pallor of her skin, she wears an elaborate hairstyle, a corset and an artificially extended skirt on a whalebone frame. She's wearing heels.
And the ideal man in the Baroque era is the gentleman - from the English. gentle: "soft", "gentle", "calm". He prefers to shave his mustache and beard, wear perfume and powdered wigs. Why force if now they kill by pulling the trigger of a musket? In the Baroque era, naturalness is synonymous with brutality, savagery, vulgarity and extravagance. For the philosopher Hobbes, the state of nature is a state characterized by anarchy and war of all against all.
Baroque is characterized by the idea of \u200b\u200bennobling nature on the basis of reason. The need for something (“need”) should not be tolerated, but “it is good to offer in pleasant and courteous words” (Yunost honest mirror, 1717). According to the philosopher Spinoza, drives are no longer the content of sin, but "the very essence of man." Therefore, the appetite is formalized in exquisite dining etiquette (it was in the Baroque era that forks and napkins appeared); love interest - in courteous flirting, quarrels - in a refined duel.
The Baroque is characterized by the idea of \u200b\u200ba sleeping god - deism. God is conceived not as a Savior, but as a Great Architect who created the world just like a watchmaker creates a mechanism. Hence such a characteristic of the baroque worldview as mechanism. The law of conservation of energy, the absoluteness of space and time are guaranteed by the word of God. However, having created the world, God rested from his labors and does not interfere in the affairs of the Universe in any way. It is useless to pray to such a God - you can only learn from Him. Therefore, the true keepers of the Enlightenment are not prophets and priests, but natural scientists. Isaac Newton discovers the law of universal gravitation and writes the fundamental work "Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy" (), and Carl von Linnaeus systematizes biology ("The System of Nature",). Academies of Sciences and scientific societies are being established throughout European capitals.
The diversity of perception raises the level of consciousness - something like the philosopher Leibniz says. Galileo for the first time directs a telescope to the stars and proves the rotation of the Earth around the Sun (), and Levenguck under a microscope discovers tiny living organisms (). Huge sailboats ply the vastness of the oceans, erasing white spots on the geographical maps of the world. Travelers and adventurers became the literary symbols of the era: Robinson Crusoe, the ship's doctor Gulliver and Baron Munchausen.
“During the Baroque era, a fundamentally new, different from the medieval, allegorical thinking took place. A viewer who can understand the language of the logo has formed. The allegory has become the norm of artistic vocabulary in all types of plastic and spectacular arts, including such synthetic forms as festivals. "
Baroque painting
The Baroque style in painting is characterized by dynamism of compositions, "flatness" and splendor of forms, aristocratic and uncommon plots. The most characteristic features of the Baroque are striking flamboyance and dynamism; a vivid example is the work of Rubens and Caravaggio.
Michelangelo Merisi (1571-1610), who was nicknamed Caravaggio by his birthplace near Milan, is considered the most significant master among Italian artists who created at the end of the 16th century. new style in painting. His paintings, written on religious subjects, resemble realistic scenes of the author's contemporary life, creating a contrast between the times of late antiquity and modern times. The heroes are depicted in the twilight, from which rays of light capture the expressive gestures of the characters, contrastingly writing out their specificity. Followers and imitators of Caravaggio, who at first were called caravaggians, and the movement itself caravaggism, such as Annibale Carracci (1560-1609) or Guido Reni (1575-1642), adopted the riot of feelings and characteristic manner of Caravaggio, as well as his naturalism in depicting people and events.
Architecture
In Italian architecture, the most prominent representative of Baroque art was Carlo Maderna (1556-1629), who broke with Mannerism and created his own style. His main creation is the facade of the Roman Church of Santa Susanna (1603). The main figure in the development of baroque sculpture was Lorenzo Bernini, whose first masterpieces in the new style date from around 1620. Bernini is also an architect. He owns the decoration of the square of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome and the interiors, as well as other buildings. Significant contributions were made by Carlo Fontana, Carlo Rainaldi, Guarino Guarini, Baldassare Longena, Luigi Vanvitelli, Pietro da Cortona. In Sicily, after a major earthquake in 1693, a new style of late Baroque appeared - sicilian baroque... Light acts as a fundamentally important element of baroque space, entering churches through the naves.
The Cornaro Chapel in the Church of Santa Maria della Vittoria (-1652) is considered the quintessential Baroque, an impressive fusion of painting, sculpture and architecture.
The Baroque style is spreading in Spain, Germany, Belgium (then Flanders), the Netherlands, Russia, France, the Commonwealth. Spanish Baroque, or in the local Churrigueresco (in honor of the architect Churriguera), also spread in Latin America. Its most popular monument is the Cathedral of St. James, which is also one of the most revered by believers in Spain. In Latin America, baroque mixed with local architectural traditions, this is the most elaborate version of it, and they call it ultra-baroque.
With regard to the architecture of France in the XVII century. sometimes the term "baroque classicism" is used. This classicist-baroque style includes the Palace of Versailles along with a regular park, the Luxembourg Palace, the building of the French Academy in Paris, and other works. They do have some of the features of classicism. Characteristic feature The Baroque style is a regular style in gardening art, an example of which is the Versailles Park.
In Germany, an outstanding Baroque monument is the New Palace in Sanssouci (authors - I.G.Buring (German)russian, H. L. Munter) and the Summer Palace there (G. V. von Knobelsdorf).
Baroque in sculpture
Sculpture is an integral part of the Baroque style. The greatest sculptor and recognized architect of the 17th century was the Italian Lorenzo Bernini (-). Among his most famous sculptures are the mythological scenes of the abduction of Proserpine by the god of the underworld Pluto and the miraculous transformation into a tree of the nymph Daphne, pursued by the god of light Apollo, as well as the altar group "Ecstasy of Saint Teresa" in one of the Roman churches. The last of them, with its clouds carved out of marble and the robes of the characters as if fluttering in the wind, with theatrically exaggerated feelings, very accurately expresses the aspirations of the sculptors of this era.
In Spain, during the Baroque era, wooden sculptures prevailed; for greater believability, they were made with glass eyes and even a crystal tear, real clothes were often worn on the statue. The leading master was Pedro de Mena, who worked in Granada and Malaga.
Baroque in literature
Writers and poets in the Baroque era perceived the real world as an illusion and a dream. Realistic descriptions were often combined with their allegorical depictions. Symbols, metaphors, theatrical techniques, graphic images (lines of poems form a drawing), saturation with rhetorical figures, antitheses, parallelisms, gradations, oxymorons are widely used. There is a burlesque-satirical attitude towards reality. Baroque literature is characterized by a striving for diversity, for the summation of knowledge about the world, inclusiveness, encyclopedism, which sometimes turns into chaos and collecting curiosities, a striving for the study of being in its contrasts (spirit and flesh, darkness and light, time and eternity). The baroque ethics is marked by a craving for the symbolism of the night, the theme of impermanence and impermanence, dream life (F. de Quevedo, P. Calderon). Famous play Calderon "Life is a dream". Such genres as the gallant-heroic novel (J. de Scudery, M. de Scudery), the real-life and satirical novel (Fueretier, C. Sorel, P. Scarron) also developed. Within the framework of the Baroque style, its varieties are born, directions: Marinism (Italy), Gongorism (Culturaism) and Conceptism (Spain), eufuism and the metaphysical school (England), precision literature (France), macaronism, that is, mixed Polish-Latin versification (Poland ).
The actions of the novels are often transferred to the fictional world of antiquity, to Greece, court gentlemen and ladies are portrayed as shepherdesses and shepherdesses, which is called the pastoral (Honoré d'Urfe, "Astrea"). Pretentiousness and the use of complex metaphors flourish in poetry. Such forms as sonnet, rondo, conchetti (a small poem expressing some witty thought), madrigals are widespread.
In the West, in the field of the novel, an outstanding representative is G. Grimmelshausen (the novel "Simplicissimus"), in the field of drama - P. Calderon (Spain). V. Vuatur (France), D. Marino (Italy), Don Luis de Gongora y Argote (Spain), D. Donne (England) became famous in poetry. "Precision literature" flourished in France during this period. It was cultivated then, mainly in the salon of Madame de Rambouillet, one of the aristocratic salons of Paris, the most fashionable and famous. In Spain, the baroque trend in literature was called "gongorism" after the name of the most prominent representative (see above).
The baroque in Polish literature is represented by the poetry of the heroic and epic trend of Zbigniew Morsztyn, Vaclav Potocki, Vespasian Kochowski (whose poetry is largely due to the eventful military biography of all three), the courtier (the so-called macaroni style, popular at the end of the 17th century) Jan, Andrzej Morsztyn philosopher Stanislav Herakliush Lubomirsky; in prose - mainly memoirs (the most significant work - "Memoirs" by Jan Chrysostom Pasek).
In Russia, the Baroque literature includes S. Polotsky, F. Prokopovich.
In German literature, the traditions of the Baroque style are still supported by members of the literary community "Blumenorden". They gather in the summer for literary festivals in the Irrhein grove near Nuremberg. The society was organized in 1646 by Georg Philipp Harsdörffer with the aim of restoring and maintaining the German language, which was badly damaged during the Thirty Years War.
Theoretically, the poetics of the Baroque was developed in the treatises Wit, or the Art of the Sophisticated Mind by Baltasar Gracian (1648) and Aristotle's Spyglass by Emanuele Tesauro (1655).
Baroque music
Baroque music appeared at the end of the Renaissance and predated the music of the Classicist era. Representatives - Vivaldi, Bach, Handel. The leading position in the genres of cantata, oratorio, opera. Characteristic is the opposition of the choir and soloists, voices and instruments, a combination of large-scale forms, a tendency towards the synthesis of art, with a simultaneous tendency to isolate music from words (the emergence of instrumental genres).
Baroque fashion
At first, when he was still a child (he was crowned at the age of 5), short jackets, called brasierrichly decorated with lace. Then pants came into fashion, rengraves, like a skirt, wide, also richly decorated with lace, which lasted a long time. Later appeared justocore (from French it can be translated: "exactly on the body"). This is a type of caftan, knee-length, in this era it was worn buttoned, a belt was worn over it. They wore under the caftan
Authors: V. D. Dazhina, K. A. Chekalov, D. O. Chekhovich (General Information), V. D. Dazhina (Architecture and Fine Arts), K. A. Chekalov (Literature), Yu. S. Bocharov (Music)Authors: V. D. Dazhina, K. A. Chekalov, D. O. Chekhovich (General information), V. D. Dazhina (Architecture and fine arts), K. A. Chekalov (Literature); \u003e\u003e
BAROKKO (Italian barocco, presumably from Portuguese barroco - a pearl of irregular shape or from Latin baroco - mnemonic designation of one of the modes of syllogism in traditional logic), style in art of con. 16-18 centuries. Covered all areas of plastic. arts (architecture, sculpture, painting), literature, music and performing arts. B.'s style was an expression of typological. community nat. cultures during the formation absolutism , which was accompanied by heavy military. conflicts (incl. Thirty Years' War 1618–48), the strengthening of Catholicism and church ideology (see. Counter-reformation). Thanks to this community, it is also legitimate to talk about cultural and historical. era B., inherited the era Renaissance ... Chronological. B.'s boundaries do not coincide in dep. regions (in Latin America, a number of countries in Central and Eastern Europe, in Russia the style was formed later than in Western Europe) and in various. types of art (for example, in the 18th century, Bashkiria exhausted itself in Western European literature, but continued to exist in architecture, art, and music). Italy is rightfully considered the birthplace of Bulgaria. B. is successively associated with the mannerism of the 16th century. and coexists with classicism .
B.'s style reflected a new worldview that replaced Renaissance humanism and anthropocentrism, in which the features of rationalism and mystical were contradictory. spiritualism, striving for scientific. systematization of knowledge and passion for magic. and esoteric. teachings, interest in the objective world in all its breadth and religions. exaltation. Sci. discoveries that pushed the boundaries of the universe, brought awareness of the infinite complexity of the world, but at the same time turned man from the center of the universe into its small part. The destruction of the balance between man and the world was manifested in the antinomy of B., which gravitates towards the sharp contrasts of the sublime and the base, the carnal and the spiritual, the refined and the brutal, the tragic and the comic, etc. The calm balance, the harmony of the Renaissance art were replaced by increased affectation, exaltation, rapid dynamics. At the same time, striving to actively influence the viewer-listener, B.'s style relied on a carefully thought-out rational system of techniques, in other words. degree based on rhetoric [primarily on the teachings of "invention" (lat. inventio) and about stylistic. figures, "decoration" (lat. elocutio)]. Rhetoric. principles were transferred to decomp. types of art, defining the construction of lit. works, theatrical action, programs of decorative and monumental painting cycles, muses. compositions.
Wanting to combine contrasting images within the framework of one work, and often the elements of different. genres (tragicomedy, opera-ballet, etc.) and style manners, the masters of B. attached particular importance to virtuoso artistry: the victory of technology over the material of art symbolized the triumph of a creative genius, which possesses "wit" - the ability to unite in a single image distant and dissimilar concepts. Ch. the instrument of "wit" was a metaphor - the most important of the baroque tropes, "the mother of poetry" (E. Tesauro).
The desire for all-round influence on the audience led to the rapprochement and interpenetration of various types, characteristic of B. types of art (architectural illusion in painting and scenography, sculptural and picturesque architecture, theatricalization of sculpture, poetic and pictorial picture of music, combination of image and text in curly poetry and in the genre of the emblem). Pathetic. "High" B. with its inherent grandeur and splendor (architectural ensembles, altars and altar images, triumphs and apotheosis in painting, operas on mythological subjects, tragedy, heroic poem; theatrical performances - coronations, weddings, burials, etc.) were adjacent to chamber (still life in painting, pastoral and elegy in literature) and grassroots (comedy sideshows in opera and school drama) forms of B. Life likeness in B. art often bordered on both spectacular theatricality (the motive of the world as a theater is typical for B.), and with complex symbolism: an object depicted in realistic. manner, concealed a hidden meaning.
The term "B." originated in the 18th century. among art historians close to classicism (I. Vinkelman, F. Militsia); initially expressed a negative assessment of Italian. architecture of the 17th century, and later of all art of this period. The epithet "baroque" in classicism. normative aesthetics served as a designation for everything that was outside the rules and was contrary to orderliness and classical. clarity. In musicology, the term "B." (for the first time - in the "Musical Dictionary" by J. J. Rousseau, 1768) for a long time also had a negative meaning, fixing attention on certain "oddities" that fell out of the norms of classicism. One of the first historians. B.'s interpretation was given by J. Burckhardt (in the book "Il Cicerone", 1855), who defined the style of B. in connection with Italian. architecture con. 16th century The theory of B. as a style will depict. art different from the Renaissance and Classicism was formulated by G. Wölflin (Renaissance and Baroque, 1888; Basic Concepts of Art History, 1915), who singled out formal categories to distinguish between the essentially opposite styles of the Renaissance and B. The idea of \u200b\u200bB . as a historian. style was transferred to literature and music only at the beginning. 20th century Modern B.'s concept tends to take it beyond the bounds of art and literature, to transfer it to such areas as sociology, politics, history, religion, and philosophy. Sometimes the concept "B." interpreted not in a concrete historical. sense, but as a designation of the totality of stylistic. features, periodically repeating on decomp. stages of cultural evolution (for example, elements of baroque style are seen in romanticism, expressionism, surrealism, Latin American magic realism, etc.).
Architecture and fine arts
Certain features of Bolivia's style (a craving for the grandiose, dynamic composition, dramatic tension) became apparent as early as the 16th century. in the work of Correggio, Michelangelo , J. da Vignola, F. Barocci, Giambologna. The heyday of Byelorussia dates back to the 1620s and 1930s; the final stage falls on the middle. 18th century, and in some countries at the end of this century.
In B.'s art, the idea of \u200b\u200ba triumphant church was embodied, which contributed to the solution of large-scale architects. tasks, the creation of magnificent ensembles (the square in front of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome, the restructuring of the most important Roman basilicas, the style churrigueresco in Spain, etc.), the flourishing of pictorial interior design and a representative altar painting. Organic for B. was also the idea of \u200b\u200bthe triumph of power, which was reflected in the lawsuit of the courtier B., characteristic not only of the centers of absolutism (France, Portugal, Spain, Austria, Russia, some states of Germany and Italy), but also of the republics, asserted their power (Venice, Genoa).
The striving for splendor of forms and spectacular spectacle, inherent in B., manifested itself most clearly in architecture. It was during the B. era that a new European was born. urban planning , the type of modern is being developed. houses, streets, squares, mountains. estates. In the countries of Lat. America's urban planning. principles B. determined the appearance of many. cities. Palace and park ensembles (Versailles, Petrodvorets, Aranjuez, Zwinger and others), decorative and applied and small sculptural forms, landscape gardening are flourishing. The architecture of Brazil is characterized by a tendency towards synthesis of arts , the emphasized interaction of the volume with the spatial environment (the natural environment of the park, the openness of the architectural ensemble of the square), the curvilinearity of plans and outlines, the sculptural elasticity and plasticity of forms, the contrasting play of light and shadow, the different scale of volumes, illusionism (J.L. Bernini, F. Borromini , D. Fontana, Pietro da Cortona , K. Maderna, K. Rainaldi, G. Guarini, B. Longena, H. B. de Churriguera, G. Jesius, L. Vanvitelli and others). Painting and sculpture actively interact with architecture, transforming the interior space; stucco moldings are widely used, decomp. materials in their spectacular and colorful combinations (bronze, multi-colored marble, granite, alabaster, gilding, etc.).
In will depict. art of B. is dominated by virtuoso decorative compositions of religious, mythological. or allegorical. content (plafonds by Pietro da Cortona, A. Pozzo, brothers Carracci, P.P. Rubens, G. B. Tiepolo), spectacular theatrical ceremonial portraits (A. Van Dyck, G. L. Bernini, G. Rigo), fantastic ... (S. Rose, A. Manyasco) and heroic. (Domenichino) landscapes, as well as more intimate forms of portrait (Rubens), landscape and architectural lead (F. Guardi, G. A. Canaletto), pictorial parables (D. Fetti). Court life and its theatricalization contributed to the active development of representative forms of painting (decorative cycles of paintings in palace apartments, battle painting, mythological allegory, etc.). The perception of reality as an infinite and changeable space makes the picturesque space boundless, which opens upward in spectacular ceiling compositions, goes deep into inventive architects. landscapes and theatrical scenery (scenography B. Buontalenti, G. B. Aleotti, G. Torelli, J. L. Bernini, I. Jones, family Gally-Bibbiena and etc.). Perspective effects, spatial illusions, linear and compositing. rhythms, contrast of scales violate the integrity, give rise to a feeling of improvisation, free birth of forms, their variability. The primary role was played by the optical. effects, fascination with aerial perspective, transfer of atmosphere, transparency and humidity of air (J. B. Tiepolo, F. Guardi, etc.).
In the painting of the "tall" B., guided by the so-called. great style, preference was given to the historical. and mythological. genres that were then considered the highest in the genre hierarchy. In this era, the "lower" (in the terminology of that time) genres arose and developed fruitfully: still life, genre painting itself, landscape. Democratic. B.'s direction, alien to theatricalization and affectation of feelings, proved to be realistic. everyday scenes ( "Painters of reality" in France, representatives caravaggism , bodegones genre in Spain, genre and still life in Holland and Flanders), non-church religion. painting (J.M. Crespi, Rembrandt).
B.'s style existed in many nat. options that were distinguished by a bright identity. For flam. B. is most characteristic of the work of Rubens with his ability to convey the feeling of the fullness of life, its internal. dynamics and variability. Use B. is distinguished by a more restrained and ascetic style, combined with an orientation towards local realism. traditions (D. Velazquez, F. Zurbaran, J. de Ribera, architect JB de Herrera). In Germany (architects and sculptors B. von Neumann, A. Schluter, brothers Azam, etc.) and Austria (architects I. B. Fischer von Erlach and I.L. von Hildebrandt) B. style was often combined with rococo features. In the claim of France, B. preserves the Renaissance rationalistic. basis, later actively interacts with the classicist. elements (so-called baroque classicism). Separate stylistic Byelorussia's features were manifested in the emphasized decorativeism of the buildings of the state rooms of Versailles, decorative panels by S. Vouet and C. Lebrun. England with its characteristic cult of classical architecture. forms and palladianism (I. Jones, K. Wren) mastered a more restrained version of the baroque style (mainly in decorative painting and interior design). In restrained, ascetic forms, the style manifested itself in some Protestant countries (Holland, Sweden, etc.). In Russia, the development of the B. style falls on the 18th century. (flourishing - 1740-50-ies), which was associated with the growth and strengthening of the absolute monarchy. An earlier period, defined as naryshkin Baroque , is closely related to the traditions of the architecture of Ancient Rus and is not directly related to the style of B. The originality of Rus. B. was determined not only by the stability of the nat. traditions and forms, but also the interaction of baroque features with classicism and rococo (sculptor K. B. Rastrelli , architects B.F.Rastrelli, S.I. Chevakinsky, D.V. Ukhtomsky). Nat. variants of the B. style arose in Poland, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, Hungary, Slovenia, and Zap. Ukraine, Lithuania. The centers of distribution of B. were not only European. countries, but also a number of countries Lat. America (especially Mexico and Brazil, where B. acquired hypertrophied features in the forms ultra-baroque), as well as the Philippines and others. colonies.
Literature
The early manifestations of B. in the literature, which remain close to Mannerism, belong to the last quarter. 16th century: tragedy by R. Garnier "Hippolyte" (1573), "Tragic poems" by T. A. d'Aubigne (created in 1577–79, published in 1616), T. Tasso's poem "Jerusalem Liberated" (1581 ). The style fades away in the 2nd floor. 17th century (chronological border of B. for Italy is the foundation of the academy "Arcadia" in 1690), but in glory. literatures continued to hold onto well into the Enlightenment.
The formative experimental beginning, the craving for novelty, for the unusual and the unusual in the literature of B. are associated with the formation of the new European picture of the world and are largely generated by the same renewal of cognition. paradigms as scientific. and geographic. opening of the turn of the 16th-17th centuries The influence of new European empiricism is reflected in the active use of life-like and even naturalistic writers. forms (not only in prose, but also in poetry), according to the law of contrast, combined with the hyperbolism of style and the cosmism of the figurative structure (poem by G. Marino "Adonis", published in 1623).
The most important component of B. is the striving for diversity (lat. "Varietas"), which was considered as one of the criteria of the artist. perfection of poetry (including B. Gracian y Morales , E. Tesauro, Tristan L'Hermite, and especially J. P. Camus, the creator of the monumental 11-volume work The Motley Mix, 1609-19). Comprehensiveness, the desire to summarize knowledge about the world (taking into account the latest discoveries and inventions) are the characteristic features of B. In other cases, encyclopedism turns into chaos, collecting curiosities, the sequence of reviewing the universe takes on an extremely whimsical, individually associative character; the world appears as a labyrinth of words, a collection of mysterious signs (treatise of the Jesuit E. Binet "Experience of Miracles", 1621). Books of emblems are widely popular as universal collections of various kinds of truths and ideas about the world: the influence of emblems is felt in the poetry of J. Marino, F. von Tsesen, J. Morshtyn, Simeon of Polotsk , in the novel by B. Gracian-i-Morales "Criticon" (1651–57).
For literature B. is characterized by the desire to study life in its contrasts (darkness and light, flesh and spirit, time and eternity, life and death), in its dynamics and on different. levels (pendulum movement between the levels of social hierarchy in H. von Grimmelshausen Simplicissimus, 1668-1669). B.'s poetics is marked by increased attention to the symbols of the night (A. Griffius, G. Marino), the theme of the frailty and impermanence of the world (B. Pascal, J. Duperron, L. de Gongora-i-Argote), dream-life (F. de Quevedo y Villegas , P. Calderon de la Barca). In baroque texts, the ecclesiastical formula of "the vanity of the world" (Latin vanitas mundi) is often heard. Ecstaticity, a spiritual beginning often merge with a morbid fascination with death (the treatise by J. Donne "Biotanatos", published in 1644; poetry by J. B. Chassigne). Both stoic indifference to suffering (A. Griffius) and sublimated eroticism (F. Deport, T. Carew) can become a recipe against this fascination. B.'s tragedy is partly socio-historical. determinism (wars in France, Germany, etc.).
Marked with stylistic sophistication and rich rhetoric. figures (repetitions, antitheses, parallelisms , gradations, oxymorons etc.), the poetry of B. developed within the framework of the nat. variants: gongorism and conseptism (in which the deliberate semantic obscurity inherent in B. was expressed with particular force) in Spain, marineism in Italy, metaphysical school and eufuism in England. Along with the writings of a secular, court, and salon (V. Vuatur) character, an important place in the poetry of B. is occupied by spiritual poems (P. Fleming, J. Herbert, J. Lubrano). The most popular genres are sonnet, epigram, madrigal, satire, religion. and heroic. poem, etc.
For Western Europe. B. extremely significant genre of the novel; it is in this genre that B. most fully reveals itself as an international style: thus, J. Barclay's Latin-language novel Argenida (1621) becomes a model for narration. prose throughout Zap. Europe. Along with the real, everyday and satirical. modifications of the baroque novel (C. Sorel, P. Scarron, A. Furetiere, I. Mosheroche) enjoyed great success for his gallant heroic. variety (J. de Scudery and M. de Scudery, G. Marini, D.C. von Lohenstein). T. n. B.'s high novel attracted readers not only with its intricate twists and turns, an abundance of literature. and polit. allusions and a clever combination of the "romantic" and cognizant. started, but also means his own. volume, which can be considered one of the manifestations of the baroque "poetics of amazement", seeking to embrace the world in all its bizarre variety. Religion is close to the gallant-heroic structural features. novel by B. (J. P. Camus, A. J. Brignolet Sale).
In the culture of Brazil, marked by increased theatricality, the dramatic occupies an important place. genres - as secular ( elizabethan drama in England, pastoral tragicomedy, "new comedy" in Spain) and religious (Spanish auto, biblical dramas by J. van den Vondel). P. Corneille's early dramaturgy also belongs to B. his Comic Illusion (1635–36) is an encyclopedia of theatrical genres of the 16–17 centuries.
Liter B., following the lit-swarm of mannerism, gravitates towards genre experiments and a mixture of genres (the emergence of the essay genre, heroic and burlesque poems, tragicomedy opera). In "Simplicissimus" by H. von Grimmelshausen, elements of rogue, allegorical, utopian, pastoral novels, as well as the style of schwanks and popular prints, are combined. The scholarly Christian epic Paradise Lost by J. Milton (1667–74) also includes a number of small genres - ode, anthem, pastoral eclogue, georgica, epithalamus, complaint, albu, etc.
A characteristic feature of B., which is paradoxically combined with a tendency toward abnormality, is a tendency toward theoretical. self-comprehension: treatises "Wits and the art of a sophisticated mind" B. Gracian-i-Morales (1642–48), "Aristotle's telescope" by E. Tesauro (published in 1655). A number of B.'s novels include literary-aesthetic. commentary: "The Wild Shepherd" by S. Sorel (1627), "The Dog of Diogenes" by FF Frugoni (1687–89); Assenat by F. von Zesen (1670).
In glory. The countries of Brazil have a number of features that make it possible to speak of "Slavic Bulgaria." as a special modification of the style (the term was proposed in 1961 by A. Andyal). In a number of cases, it is perceived as secondary in relation to the Western European. samples (J. Morsztyn as a successor of marineism in Polish. poetry), but the first Polish. the poetics of M. K. Sarbevsky (Praecepta poetica, early 1620s) is ahead of the treatises by B. Gracian-i-Morales and E. Tesauro in time. The highest achievements of fame. B. are associated with poetry (philosophical and love lyrics in Poland, religious poetry in the Czech Republic). In Russian lit. B. is less pronounced tragic. attitude, it is inherent in the ceremonial, state. pathos, educational beginning, strongly expressed by the founder of the poet. B. in Russia Simeon Polotsky, his student Sylvester (Medvedev) and Kariona Istomina ... In the 18th century. B. traditions were supported Feofan Prokopovich and Stefan Yavorsky ; narrate. the structures of the baroque novel are used in Masonic prose ("Cadmus and Harmony" by MM Kheraskov, 1786).
Music
B.'s style prevailed in Europe. prof. music 17 - 1st floor. 18th century The boundaries of the B. era, as well as trad. The division into stages of early (1st half of the 17th century), mature (2nd half of the 17th century), and late (1st half of the 18th century) B., is rather arbitrary, since B. was established in the music of different countries at the same time. In Italy, Byelorussia declared itself at the turn of the 16th and 17th centuries, that is, approximately 2 decades earlier than in Germany, and in Rus. music it penetrated only in the last Thursday. 17th century due to the proliferation part singing .
In the present. representation B. - a complex style, combining diverse manners of composition and performance, ie, the proper "styles" in the understanding of the muses. theorists of the 17th and 18th centuries ("Church", "theatrical", "concert", "chamber"), styles of nat. schools and dep. composers. The diversity of B. in music is clearly manifested when comparing such distant from each other in style. in relation to works such as operas by F. Cavalli and G. Purcell, polyphonic. cycles J. Frescobaldi and violin concerts by A. Vivaldi, "Sacred Symphonies" by G. Schütz and oratorios by G. F. Handel. They do, however, demonstrate what it means. the degree of commonality when comparing them with samples of the Renaissance music of the 16th century. and with classic. style 2nd floor. 18 - early. 19th centuries As in the previous music-historical. epoch, the musical in B. is closely connected with the non-musical (word, number, dance movement); however, a new phenomenon also arises - the isolation of purely musical methods of organization, which made possible the flourishing of genres of instrumental music.
The era of B. in music is often called the era of the general bass, thus noting the wide distribution and important role of this system of composing, recording, and performing music. The possibility of decomp. transcripts of the general bass testifies to the specificity of baroque compositions - their fundamental variability and significant dependence on a specific performing embodiment, in which performers (as a rule, in the absence of detailed author's instructions in the musical text) have to determine the tempo, dynamic. nuances, instrumentation, the ability to use melodic. jewelry etc. down to means. role improvisation in a number of genres (for example, in the "untactivated" preludes of the 17th century French harpsichordists L. Couperin, N. Lebesgue and others, in the cadenzas of soloists in 18th century instrumental concerts, in the reprisal sections of da capo arias).
B. - the first style in the history of Europe. music with an obvious dominance of the major-minor tonal system (see Harmony, Tonality). It was within the framework of B. that homophony first declared itself (the division of musical texture into the main melodic voice and accompaniment). At the same time, the free style of polyphony and its highest form, the fugue, was formed and reached its peak (in the works of J.S. Bach); in B.'s music used b. including a mixed type of texture, combining elements of polyphony and homophony. It was at this time that the individuals took shape. muses. thematicism. Typically baroque muses. the theme consists of a bright initial intonation nucleus, followed by more or less continuation. deployment leading to short completion - cadence. Baroque themes, as well as entire compositions, are characterized by a much greater metro-rhythmic freedom in comparison with classical ones based on a rather rigid song and dance framework.
During the B. era, music expanded its expression. opportunities, especially in the desire to convey the diversity of human emotional experiences; they were presented in the form of generalized emotional states - affects (see. Affects theory). However, Ch. the task of music in the era of B. was considered the glorification of God. Therefore, in the genre hierarchy, fixed in the theoretical. treatises of that time, the primacy was invariably assigned to the genres of church music. Nevertheless, in practice, secular music turned out to be no less significant, especially in the field of muses. theater. It was during the B. era that a very long period of its history took shape and passed through the most important musical and stage music. genre - opera, the degree of distribution and development of which was in many ways an indicator of the level of muses. culture of a particular country. The centers of operatic art during the B. era were Venice (late C. Monteverdi, F. Cavalli, M.A.Chesty), Rome (S. Landi), Naples (A. Scarlatti), Hamburg (German operas by R. Kaiser , G. F. Handel), Vienna (Honor, A. Caldara, I. J. Fuchs), Paris (J. B. prelude, fugue, choral variations, etc.) ., and a concert appointment. Other genres of instrumental music were also actively used: trio sonata (A. Corelli, G.F. Telemann and others), dance suite for decomp. compositions - from harpsichord or solo violin to large ensembles (F. Couperin, J.S.Bach, G.F.Handel and others), a concert for a solo instrument with orchestra (A. Vivaldi, J.S.Bach, etc. ), concherto grosso (Corelli, Handel). In a concert grosso (an ensemble-orchestral concert with a singling out of a group of soloists), the characteristic qualities of B. were clearly manifested - the active use of the principle of concert, contrasting comparisons of sound masses of different density (similar qualities are possessed by many vocal compositions of the B. spiritual concerts, which were especially widespread in Russia in the late 17th and 18th centuries).
The connection with rhetoric is expressed both in the general principles of the location of the muses. material, and in the use of specific melodic-rhythmic. revolutions with established semantics - the so-called. muses-rhetoric. figures, which in vocal music strengthened the meaning of the verbal text, and in instrumental music - to a certain extent made it possible to "decipher" the figurative content (however, to reveal the content, F. Couperin, J. F. Rameau, G. F. Telemann often gave instrumental compositions characteristic names, and I. Froberger, I. Kuhnau, A. Vivaldi even accompanied them with detailed literary programs). However, instrumental music devoid of word support, which in many respects retained its applied functions (dance, drinking, etc.), gradually acquired aesthetic. intrinsic value, turning into a concert itself.
Schnurer G . Katholische Kirche und Kultur in der Barockzeit. Paderborn, 1937; Retorica e Barocco. Roma, 1955; Die Kunstformen des Barockzeitalters / Hrsg. von R. Stamm. Bern, 1956; Renaissance. Baroque. Classicism. The problem of styles in Western European art of the 15th – 17th centuries. M., 1966; Baroque in Slavic cultures. M., 1982; Croce B. Storia dell'età barocca in Italia. Mil. 1993; Paul J.-M. Images modernes et contemporaines de l'homme baroque. Nancy 1997; Battistini A. Il barocco: cultura, miti, immagini. Roma, 2000; Welflin G. Renaissance and Baroque: A Study of the Essence and Formation of the Baroque Style in Italy. SPb., 2004.
Architecture and fine arts. Riegl A. Die Entstehung der Barockkunst in Rom. W., 1908; Weisbach W. Der Barock als Kunst der Gegenreformation. B., 1921; idem. Die Kunst des Barock in Italien, Frankreich, Deutschland und Spanien. 2. Aufl. B., 1929; Male E. L'art religieux après le concile de Trente. P., 1932; Fokker T. H. Roman Baroque art. The history of the style. L., 1938. Vol. 1-2; Praz M. Studies in seventeenth century imagery: In 2 vol. S. l., 1939-1947; Mahon D. Studies in seicento art and theory. L., 1947; Friedrich C. J. The age of Baroque, 1610-1660. N. Y. 1952; Argan G. C. L'architettura barocca in Italia. Rome, 1960; Battisti E. Renaiscimento e barocco. Firenze, 1960; Bialostocki J. Barock: Stil, Epoche, Haltung // Bialostocki J. Stil und Ikonographie. Dresden, 1966; Keleman P. Baroque and Rococo in Latin America. N. Y. 1967; Rotenberg E.I. Western European art of the 17th century. M., 1971; Held J. S., Posner D. 17th and 18th century art: baroque painting, sculpture, architecture. N. Y. 1971; Russian baroque art. M., 1977; Vipper B. Russian Baroque Architecture. M., 1978; Voss H. Die Malerei des Barock in Rom. S. F., 1997; The triumph of baroque: architecture in Europe, 1600-1750 / Ed. H. Millon. N. Y. 1999; Bazin J. Baroque and Rococo. M., 2001.
Literature.Raymond M. Baroque et renaissance poétique. P., 1955; Getto G. Barocco in prosa e in poesia. Mil. 1969; Soko ł owska J... Spory o barok. Warsz., 1971; Dubois Cl.-G. Le Baroque. P., 1973; Slavic baroque. M., 1979; Emrich W. Deutsche Literatur der Barockzeit. Königstein, 1981; Questionnement du baroque. Louvain; Brux. 1986; Identitа̀ e metamorfosi del barocco ispanico. Napoli 1987; Hoffmeister G. Deutsche und europäische Barockliteratur. Stuttg. 1987; Souiller D. La littérature baroque en Europe. P., 1988; Le baroque littéraire: théorie et pratiques. P., 1990; Pavi ℏ M... Baroque. Beograd, 1991; Sazonova L.I. Poetry of the Russian Baroque (second half of the 17th - early 18th centuries). M., 1991; Kuchowicz Z. Czł owiek polskiego baroku. Ł odż, 1992; Baroque in the avant-garde - avant-garde in the baroque. M., 1993; Mikhailov A.V. Poetics of the Baroque: the end of the rhetorical era // Mikhailov A.V. Languages \u200b\u200bof culture. M., 1997; Genette J. On a Baroque Narrative // \u200b\u200bFigures. M., 1998. T. 1; Hernas Cz. Barok. Warsz. 1998; Silyunas V. Yu. Lifestyle and Art Styles: (Spanish Mannerism and Baroque Theater). SPb., 2000; D'Ors E. Lo Barosso. Madrid, 2002; Rousset J. La littérature de l'âge baroque en France: Circé et le paon. P., 2002.
Music.Bukofzer M. Music in the Baroque era from Monteverdi to Bach. N. Y. 1947; Clercx S. Le baroque et la musique. Brux. 1948; Le baroque musical. Recueil d'études sur la musique. Liège, 1964; Dammann R. Der Musikbegriff im deutschen Barock. Köln, 1967; Blume F. Renaissance and Baroque music. A comprehensive survey. N. Y. 1967; idem. Barock // Epochen der Musikgeschichte in Einzeldarstellungen. Kassel, 1974; Stricker R. Musique du baroque. ; Stefani G. Musica barocca. Mil. 1974; Livanova T.N. Western European music of the 17th – 18th centuries. among the arts. M., 1977; Raaben L. Baroque music // Questions of musical style. L., 1978; Braun W. Die Musik des 17. Jahrhunderts. Laaber, 1981; Donington R. Baroque music: style and performance. N. Y. 1982; Palisca C. V. Baroque Music. 3rd ed. Englewood Cliffs, 1991; Baron J. H. Baroque music: a research and information guide. N. Y. 1992; Lobanova M. Western European Musical Baroque: Problems of Aesthetics and Poetics. M., 1994; Anderson N. Baroque music from Monteverdi to Handel. L., 1994.
ital. - bizarre) - a trend in the art of the late XVI - mid. XVIII centuries, associated with the noble-church culture of the period of absolutism, striving to reflect the grandeur, splendor, splendor.
Excellent definition
Incomplete definition ↓
BAROQUE
from ital. barocco - bizarre, strange), an artistic style that occupied a leading position in European art from the end. 16 to mid. 18th century Born in Italy. The term was introduced into the con. 19th century by the Swiss art critics J. Burckhardt and G. Welflin. The style embraced all types of creativity: literature, music, theater, but it manifested itself especially clearly in architecture, fine and decorative arts. The Renaissance feeling of a clear harmony of the universe was replaced by a dramatic understanding of the conflict nature of being, endless diversity, the immensity and constant variability of the surrounding world, the power of powerful natural elements over man. The expressiveness of baroque works is often built on contrasts, dramatic collisions between the sublime and the low, the majestic and the insignificant, the beautiful and the ugly, the illusory and the real, light and darkness. The penchant for composing complex and verbose allegories coexisted with extreme naturalism. Baroque works of art were distinguished by redundancy of forms, passion and tension of images. As never before, there was a strong feeling of the "theater of life": fireworks, masquerades, a passion for dressing up, reincarnation, all kinds of "tricks" brought a playful beginning to a person's life, an unprecedented spectacle and bright festivity.
Baroque masters strove for synthesis different types arts (architecture, sculpture, painting), to create an ensemble, which often included elements of wildlife, transformed by the artist's imagination: water, vegetation, wild stones, thoughtful effects of natural and artificial lighting, which caused the flourishing of landscape gardening architecture. The baroque buildings retained the structure of the architectural order, but instead of the clear orderliness, calmness and regularity characteristic of the classics, the forms became fluid, mobile, acquired complex, curvilinear outlines. The straight lines of the cornices were "torn"; the walls were crushed by bundled columns and abundant sculptural decorations. Buildings and squares actively interacted with the surrounding space (DL Bernini. The ensemble of the square of St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome, 1657–63; the Church of Sant Andrea al Quirinale in Rome, 1653–58; F. Borromini. The Church of San Carlo alle Cuatro Fontane in Rome, 1634–67; G. Guarino. Church of San Lorenzo in Turin, 1668–87).
Baroque sculpture is characterized by a special tactility, materiality in the interpretation of forms, virtuoso, reaching illusory, demonstration of the texture of the depicted objects, the use of various materials (bronze, gilding, colored marbles), contrasts of light and shadow, violent emotions and movements, pathetic gestures and facial expressions ( D.L.Bernini, brothers K. D. and E. K. Azam).
Baroque painting is characterized by monumentality and spectacular decorativeness, the neighborhood of the ideally sublime (the Carraci brothers, G. Reni, Guercino) and the mundane (Caravaggio). Baroque principles were most fully manifested in magnificent ceremonial portraits (A. Van Dyck, G. Rigaud); in luxurious still lifes, which showed the abundant gifts of nature (F. Snyders); in allegorical compositions, where the figures of rulers and nobles stood side by side with images of ancient gods who personified the virtues of the portrayed (P.P. Rubens). The plafond (ceiling) painting experienced a bright flourishing (frescoes of the Church of Sant'Ignazio in Rome by A. del Pozzo, 1685-99; plafond of the Palazzo Barberini in Rome by P. da Cortona, 1633-39; murals of the Palazzo Labia in Venice by G. B. Tiepolo, c. 1750). Baroque plafonds created the illusion of the disappearance of the roof, a "breakthrough" into the sky with swirling clouds, where crowds of mythological and biblical characters were carried away in a swift colorful whirlpool. The works of the greatest masters of the 17th century, such as D. Velasquez, Rembrandt, F. Hals, and others, reveal a touch with the baroque style.
In Russia, elements of the Baroque appeared later than in Europe - in the second half. 17th century - in the paintings of Yaroslavl churches, in arts and crafts, in the buildings of the so-called. Naryshkin Baroque, the traditions of which were developed in his work by IP Zarudny ("Menshikov Tower" in Moscow, 1704–07). The style actively penetrated into Russian culture with the beginning of the Peter's reforms in the first decades of the 18th century; in the 1760s. baroque is replaced by classicism. At the invitation of Peter I, many foreign masters come to Russia: architects D. Trezzini, A. Schlüter, G. I. Mattarnovi, N. Michetti, sculptors N. Pino, B. K. Rastrelli, painters I. G. Tannauer, L. Caravak, engravers A. Shkhonebek, P. Picard and others.
In accordance with Peter's personal tastes, visitors and domestic artists were guided mainly by a more restrained version of the Baroque that had developed in Holland; the mystical exaltation of the works of Italian masters remained alien to Russian art. In Russia, baroque coexisted (and often intertwined) not with classicism, as it was in Europe, but with the emerging rococo. Portrait became the leading genre of painting. Baroque stylistics permeated the entire system of decoration of holidays and celebrations of the early 18th century, which developed during the reign of Peter I (illuminations, fireworks, triumphal arches erected from temporary materials, abundantly decorated with decorative painting and sculpture). The leading baroque sculpture in Russia was the Italian BK Rastrelli. In his portraits and monuments, the solemn elevation of the image, the complexity of the spatial composition are combined with jewelry subtlety in the execution of details ("Empress Anna Ioannovna with a little arapchon", 1741). A striking example of Baroque naturalism is Rastrelli's "The Wax Person" of Peter I (1725).
In Russian painting of the Petrine era (I.N. Nikitin, A.M. Matveev), the influence of the baroque is felt in a special uplifting, increased internal energy of portrait images.
The heyday of the Baroque in Russia fell on the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna (1741–61). The most striking embodiment of the style in architecture was the solemn buildings full of life-affirming pathos created by BF Rastrelli (Winter Palace, 1732–33; palaces of MI Vorontsov, 1749–57, and S. G. Stroganov, 1752–54, in St. Petersburg). The grandiose landscape gardening ensembles in Peterhof (1747–52) and Tsarskoe Selo (1752–57) fully embodied the synthesis of architecture, sculpture, painting, decorative and applied and landscape art. Bright - blue, white, gold - colors of palace facades; water cascades and fountains in parks with their incessant noise and incessant movement of falling water, reflecting the glare of the sun during the day, and the ghostly lights of fireworks at night, all created a festive spectacle. Rastrelli's church architecture combined the traditions of European Baroque and Old Russian architecture (Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg, 1748–54). The leading Baroque architects of the mid-18th century. there were also SI Chevakinsky, who worked in St. Petersburg (Nikolsky Naval Cathedral, 1753–62), and DV Ukhtomsky, who built in Moscow (Krasnye Vorota, 1753–57).
In plafond painting, the most recognized masters were the Italians D. Valeriani and A. Perezinotti, who also successfully worked in the genre of theatrical and decorative art. In the work of Russian masters, the leading genre remained the portrait. In the works of A.P. Antropov, the baroque was embodied in the images of the portrayed, saturated with power and strength, the contrast of internal energy and external immobility, stiffness, in the authenticity of individual, carefully painted details, in bright, decorative colors.
Russian engraving of the Baroque era (A.F. Zubov) combined rationalism, efficiency with efficiency in depicting naval battles, solemn processions, and ceremonial views of the new capital of Russia. Engravers ser. 18th century often turned to the city landscape (ceremonial views of St. Petersburg, made according to the originals of M.I. teaching aids, atlases and book illustrations). These graphic works combined documentary thoroughness in the image of the smallest details and an abundance of decorative elements - cartouches with inscriptions, vignettes, rich and abundant ornamentation.
The baroque style with its dynamic forms, contrasts and restless play of light and shade comes to life again in the era of romanticism.
Excellent definition
Incomplete definition ↓