Etruscov consider the creators of the first developed civilization on the Apennine Peninsula, to whose achievements, still long before the Roman Republic, can include large cities with wonderful architecture, beautiful products made of metal, ceramics, painting and sculpture, extensive drainage and irrigation systems, alphabet, and later Coin coin.

Perhaps the Etruscans were aliens from behind the sea; Their first settlements on the territory of Italy were prosperous communities located in the central part of its west coast, in the region called Etruria (approximately the territory of Sovr. Tuscanyand Lazio).

The ancient Greeks knew Etruscans under the name of Tyrrenes (or Tirsen), and part of the Mediterranean Sea between the Apennine Peninsula and Islands of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica were called (and now referred to) by the Tyrrhenian Sea, because for several centuries, Etruscan Marineners dominated here. The Romans called Etruskov Tuski (from here Sovr. Tuscany) or Etrusca, the Etruscles themselves called themselves the ray or prayer.

Etruscan - ancient tribes that inhabited in the first millennium BC. The North-West of the Apennine Peninsula (the area is an ancient Etrury, modern Tuscany) between the Arno and Tiber rivers, and the developed civilization that preceded the Roman and has a great influence on it.

Etruscan gave the world to the world of their engineering art, the ability to build cities and roads, arched arches of buildings and fighting gladiators, racing on chariots and funeral customs.

In the VII century BC. Peoples who inhabited by Etruria seized writing. Since they wrote in Etruscan, it is legitimate to call the region and the people mentioned above the names. However, the exact evidence proving one of the theories about the origin of the Etruscans does not exist.

Two versions are most common: according to one of them, the Etruscan of Italy, on the other, this people migrated from the East Mediterranean. You can add a modern assumption that the Etrusks migrated from the north can be added to the ancient theories.

In favor of the second theory, it is the works of Herodotus, which appeared in the V century BC. According to Herodotus, Etruscans - this is the people from Lydia, the area in Asia Minor, - Tyrrhens or Tirsen, who are forced to leave their homeland because of a terrible hunger and disadvantaged. According to Herodotus, it happened almost simultaneously with the Trojan War. Etrusca They went to Smyrna, built ships there and, by passing many port cities of the Mediterranean, in the end there were downtown among the Ombonts in Italy. There, the leaders changed their name, called Tirren in honor of Her leader Tyrrhen, the son of the king.

Gellanik from Lesbos Islands mentioned a legend of Pelasgas, who arrived in Italy and became referred to as Tyrrhements. At that time, the Mycenaean civilization was collected and the Empire of Hittites fell, that is, to date the appearance of Tirren follows the XIII century BC, or a little more time. Perhaps this tradition is connected by the myth about flight to the west of the Trojan Hero of Enai and the founding of the Roman state, which had greater importance for Etruscans.

Supporters of the autochthon version of the origin of the Etruscans identified them with the earlier culture of Villanov detected in Italy. Such a theory was set forth in the first century BC. Dionisia Galicarnasthe ribor of the era of August, challenges Herodotus, arguing that the Etrusks were not immigrants, but the local and most ancient people who differ from all their neighbors on the Apennine Peninsula both in the language and custom. N.the arguments given by him are doubted. Archaeological excavations indicate the continuity passing from the culture of Villanov I through the culture of Villanova II with the import of goods of Eastern Mediterranean and Greece to the orientalizing period, when the first evidence of the manifestation of Etruscov in Etruria arise. Currently, the culture of Villanova is not associated with Etrusca, but with ITALIKS.

The third theory, formulated by N.Frere in the 18th century, but still has supporters, defends the northern origin of the Etruscans. According to her, Etruscan, along with other Italian tribes, penetrated the territory of Italy through the Alpine Pass. These archeology, apparently, speak in favor of the first version of the origin of the Etruscans. However, the story of Herodotus should be approached with caution. Of course, the Lidiosian pirates settled the Tyrrhenian coast at a time, but rather moved here with several waves.

Up to the middle of the XX century. The Lidiosian version was seriously criticized, especially after the decryption of the Lidius inscriptions - their language did not have anything in common with Etruscan. However, according to modern ideas, Etruscans should be identified not with the leaders, but with more ancient, the pre-European population of the West of Malaya Asia, known as the "protoluvites" or "the peoples of the sea".

An intermediate point of migration of Etruscans from Malaya Asia in Italy was Sardinia, where from the XV century BC. There was very similar to Etrusca, but the safe culture of the builders of nuragov.

In the era of their highest power, approx. 7-5 centuries. BC, Etrusks spread their influence on a significant part of the Apennine Peninsula, up to the foot of the Alps in the north and the surroundings of Naples in the south. Related to them and Rome. Everywhere, their primacy carried material prosperity with them, large-scale engineering projects and achievements in the field of architecture. According to the tradition, in Etruria, there was a confederation of the twelve major cities-states united in a religious and political union.

Almost probably included Ceres (Sovr. Tarquinius), Tarquinia (Sovr. Tarquinia), Vaythonia, Weia and Volterra (Sovr. Volterra) - all directly on the coast or near him, as well as Perusurance (modern Perugia), Cortona, Volcinia (Sovr. Orbeto) and Arrey (Sovr. Arezzo) in the inner part of the country. Other important cities include vulci, clubs (Sovr. Kuszi), Faleria, Poppoint, Room Mernels and Fiezol.

Despite the fact that their origin and remains uncharted, the Etrusks declared their culture around the eighth century to our era. After that, she gained turnover and the seventh century could have been considered a developed, reaching a peak and a heyday in the sixth century BC.

A sharp cultural approach in Etruria, which began in the VIII-VII centuries BC, is associated with the influence of numerous migrants from the more developed regions of the Mediterranean (perhaps also from Sardinia, where the culture of nuragov builders) and the neighborhood with Greek colonies.

From about the middle of the 8th century. BC. The culture of Villanova (the carriers of which turned out to be here earlier) underwent a change under explicit oriental influence. However, the local element was strong enough to have a significant impact on the process of forming a new people. This allows you to reconcile the messages of Herodotus and Dionysius.

Appearing in Italy, the aliens took the land north of the Tiber River on the west coast of the peninsula and founded settlements with stone walls, each of which became an independent city-state. The Etruscans themselves were not so much, but the superiority in weapons and military organization allowed them to conquer the local population.

A sharp cultural approach in Etruria, which began in the VIII-VII centuries BC, is associated with the influence of numerous migrants from the more developed regions of the Mediterranean and the neighborhood with Greek colonies. (Bagby, Volodichin)

At the beginning of the VII century BC. The so-called orientalizing period began. The point of reference is taken by the date of construction of the tomb of Bokukoris in Tarquinia in 675 BC. There were found objects in the style of Villana and imported goods from Greece and the Eastern Mediterranean.

In the VII century BC. Trade raised Etruria to a new step of welfare. Willanovian settlements began to unite in the cities, the core was formed. There were lush burials.

From early 7th century BC. Etruscans began to expand their political influence in the southern direction: Etruscan kings ruled Rome, and the sphere of their influence extended to the Greek colonia colonies. The agreed actions of Etruscans and Carthaginians at this time in practice significantly obstructed Greek colonization in the Western Mediterranean.

At the end of the VII century BC. Etruscan united in the Union of 12 cities-states, around the middle of the 6th century mastered the campaign.

However, after 500 BC. Their effect began to weaken.

About 474 BC Large defeat struck the Greeks Etruscs, and a little later, they began to feel the pressure of Galov on their northern frontiers.

In the V-III centuries BC Etruscan are conquered by Rome and gradually assimilated. A number of geographical names are connected with Etrusca. The Tyrrhenian Sea was called so ancient Greeks, since "Tirrenami" was controlled (the Greek name of the Etruscans). The Adriatic Sea was named after the Etrian City-Port of Adria, which controlled the northern part of this sea. (Bagby, Volodichin)

At the very beginning of the 4th century. BC. Wars with the Romans and the powerful Gallian invasion of the peninsula forever undermined the power of the Etruscians. Gradually, they were absorbed by the ruled Roman state and dissolved in it.

Etruscan culture disappeared from the face of the earth in the fifth-fourth century BC

In Etruria, there was no centralized government, but there was a confederation of state cities. Among the important centers were clubsium (modern Kusi), Tarquinia (modern Tarquinia), Kare (Svetheti), Veii (Weio), Voltaire, Vetoleonia, Pierusi (Perugia) and Volcinia (Orveto).

The political domination of the Etruscans was at an altitude of the fifth century BC, while they absorbed Umbral cities and took most of Lazium. During this period, the Etruscan had a huge sea power, the result of which became the colony on Corsica, Elbe, Sardinia, the coast of Spain and the Bolear islands.

At the end of the sixth century, Etrury and Carthage concluded a mutual agreement, according to which Etrury spoke out against Greece in 535, which significantly limited the possibilities of trading, and by the fifth century, the nautical power of the Power came to decline.

Romans, whose culture was very influenced by Etrusca (Taruvinia in Rome were Etrusca) suspiciously reacted to their rule.

Etrusks themselves occupied Rome in 616 BC, but in 510 the Romans expelled them.

At the beginning of the IV century, after Etruria was weakened by Gallean raids, the Romans wanted to subjugate this civilization.

Starting with Beiii (396 BC), one Etruscan city after another surrendered to the Romans, and the civil war significantly weakened the power.

During hostilities in the third century, when Rome won Carthage, the Etruscans sent their efforts against former allies.

During the Public War (90-88 BC) in Sulla, the remaining families of Etruscov swore at the loyalty to Marius and in 88, Sulla lost the last traces of Etruscan independence.

The main weakness of the Etruscan Union consisted, as in the case of Greek cities-states, in the absence of cohesion and inability to withstand the uniform front as Roman expansion in the south and the Gallic invasion in the north.

During the political primacy of the Etruscans in Italy, their aristocracy owned a multitude of slaves, which were used as servants and agricultural work. The economic core of the state was the average class of artisans and merchants. Family bonds were strong, and each clan was proud of his traditions and regards them jealously. The Roman custom, according to which all members of the genus received a common (generic) name, most likely goes back to Etruscan society. Even during the decline of the state of siblings of Etruscian families proud of their pedigree.

In the Etruscan society, women led a completely independent life. Sometimes even the pedigree was carried out on the female line. Unlike Greek practice and in harmony with later Roman customs, Etruscian Matron and young girls from the aristocracy often could be seen at public meetings and public spectacles. The emancipated position of Etruscan Women gave a reason to the Greek moralists of the subsequent centuries to condemn the morals of Tirren.

Libya describes Etruscans as "People, more than any other committed by their religious rites"; Arnobius, Christian apologist 4 in. AD, Magnifying Etruria as "Mother Superstitions". The names of numerous gods, demigods, demons and heroes, which are mainly similar to the Greek and Roman deities are preserved.

In addition to the production of grain, olives, wine and building forests, the rural population was engaged in breeding cattle, sheep, hunting and fishing. Etrusks were also manufactured by homemade utensils and personal homing items. The development of production contributed to the abundant supply of iron and copper from Elba Island. One of the main centers of metallurgy was a population. Etrussian products penetrated Greece and Northern Europe.

Etruscov can be considered the people who brought urban civilization to the Central and Northern Italy, but a little known about their cities. Intense, continuing human activity in these areas for many centuries destroyed or hidden from the eye, many Etruscan monuments. Nevertheless, a lot of Mountain cities of Tuscany are still surrounded by the walls, erected by Etrusca (Orbeto, Corton, Kuszi, Fyezol, Perugia and, probably, Cvetlery). In addition, impressive urban walls can be seen in the Way, Falace, Saturnia and Tarquia, and later urban gates, dated 3 and 2 centuries. BC, - in Falace and Perugia.

The cities of Etruscov in the mountains do not have a regular planning, as evidenced by the sections of two streets in Vetoleonia. The dominant element in the appearance of the city was a temple or temples, built on the most sublime places, as in Orves and Tarquia. As a rule, in the city there was a three gate dedicated to the gods-intercessors: Some Tina (Jupiter), others - Uni (Juno), and the third - Menrwe (Minerwe). Extremely regular development of rectangular blocks was found only in Martzabotto (near the owl. Bologna), Etruscan colony on the Renault River. His streets were paved, and the water was assigned to terracotta pipes.

In the Ways and Louteonia, simple dwellings of the type of log huts from two rooms were found, as well as unregular layouts with several rooms. Noble Lukumons, which have ruled by Etruscular cities, probably had more extensive urban and country residences. They seem to be reproduced by stone urns in the form of houses and late Etruscan tombs. The urn stored in the Florence Museum depicts a two-story stone structure similar to the palace with arched entrance, wide windows on the first floor and galleries on the second floor. The Roman type of house with an atrium may dare to Etruscane prototypes.

The Etruscans were built on her temples and raw bricks with terracotta cladding. The temple of the simplest type, very similar to the early Greek, had a square room for a cult statue and relying on two portico columns. The complex temple described by the Roman architect Vitruviem was divided inside into three rooms (Celsius) for the three main gods - Tina, Uni and Menrva.

The portico was the same depth as the interior, and had two rows of columns - four in each row. Since an important role in the religion of Etruscans was assigned to observations of the sky, the temples were built at high platforms. Temples with three kisuls resemble the societies in Lemnos and Crete. Etruscan temples are a kind of Greek. Etruscans also created a developed road network, bridges, sewers and irrigation canals.

Stone Etruscan sculpture reveals more local identity than metallic. The first experiments of the creation of sculptures from stone represent the Table-like figures of men and women from the tomb of Pietrer in Louleyon. They imitate the Greek statues of the middle of the 7th century. BC.

Etruscan painting is especially valuable because it makes it possible to judge the Greek paintings and frescoes that did not reach us. With the exception of several fragments of the picturesque decoration of the temples (Cvetlery and Faging), Etruscular frescoes have been preserved only in tombs - in the Cleverie, Weyah, Orbeto and Tarquinia.

In ancient (approx. 600 BC), the tomb of Lviv in Cveturi has an image of a deity between two lions; In the tomb of Campan in the trees, the deceased is represented by a riding hunt. From the middle of the 6th century BC. The scenes of dancing, the subject, as well as athletic and gladiator competitions (Tarquinia) prevail, although there are images of hunting and fishing.

This proximity could be decisive in the development of civilization of the valley of the Gang River.

In addition to this civilization near the tectonic fault, another 12 ancient civilizations are located:

1. Assyria.

2. Gang - Valley of the Ganges River with the capital in the city of Khastinapura.

3. Greek (Corinth and Mycenae).

4. Ancient Rome.

5. Egyptian with the capital in Memphis.

6. Jerusalem is the West Asian culture of the city-based.

7. Ind - Valley of the Indian River with the capital in Mohenjo Daro.

8. Chinese.

9. Mesopotamia.

10. Minoan

11. Persian.

12. TIR - West Asian culture of the city-state of the TIR.

Bagby refers it to peripheral, secondary civilizations. Etruscan (ITAL. Etruschi, lat. Tusci, Dr.-Greek. Τυρσηνοί, τυρρηνοί, Samonaz. RASNA) - Ancient tribes that inhabited in the first millennium BC. The North-West of the Apennine Peninsula (area is an ancient Etrury, modern Tuscany) and creating a developed civilization preceding the Roman and has a great influence on it.

According to Herodotus, Etruscans are immigrants from Lydia, the area in Malaya Asia - Tyrrhens or Tirsen. Etruscan lettering is not deciphered, and therefore it is unclear the origin of this nation. The hypothesis that Etrusks are the Trojans of the Hittheic origin who arrived in Italy by the sea is rather convincing, but there are other more or less solid assumptions. (Bagby, Volodichin)

But after the decryption of Lidia inscriptions, it became clear that their language had nothing to do with Etruscan. However, according to modern ideas, Etruscans should be identified with the more ancient, the pre-European population of the West of Malaya Asia, known as "protoluvites" or "nations of the sea". Gellanik from Lesbos reported that Pelasgi was expelled by the Greeks and under the leadership of their king Nana, the son of Teutmamd, crossed the mouth of the river where the ships threw. (Bagby, Volodichin)

Then they advanced in the depths of Italy and there colonized the country called tirrenia (Etrury in Latin). It happened long before the Trojan war. Dionysius himself considered Etruscans by the authon people of Italy. However, archaeological and linguistic studies make more and more evidence in favor of the lowlandic version of the origin of the Etruscans. (Bagby, Volodichin)

Monuments of languages \u200b\u200brelated to Etruscan, found in Malaya Asia (Lemnos Stela - Pelasgi) and in Cyprus (ETEOKIPRA - Tevkras). Tirssen, Pelasgi and Tevkra (one of the possible readings of the ancient Egyptian inscriptions) are first mentioned among the "peoples of the sea", invaded in the XII century BC. In ancient Egypt from Asia Minor. Perhaps it is with Etruscia that the ancient Roman myth about Ether, the leader of the Trojans, who moved to Italy after the fall of the Troy, is connected.

In Rome Etruscov called "Taska", which was reflected later in the title of the administrative region of Italy Tuscany. Etruscan inside Rome was the tribe called Lucera. The relationships of the Etruscan language are discussion. Drawing up the dictionary of the Etruscan language and deciphering texts are moving slowly to this day far from completion. (Bagby, Volodichin)

Some authors of the civilizations of the Eastern Hemisphere include thirteen famous ancient civilizations that are near tectonic faults. This is: Assyria. Gang - Valley of the Ganges River with the capital in the city of Khastinapura. Greek (Corinth and Mycenae). Ancient Rome. Egyptian with the capital in Memphis. Jerusalem is the West Asian culture of the city-based. Ind - Valley of the Indian River with the capital in Mohenjo Daro. Chinese. Mesopotamia. Minoan. Persian. TIR - West Asian culture of the city-state of the TIR. Etrusca.

The civilization of the Etruscans was the highest civilization on the territory of modern Italy to Rome's rise. The center of Etruscov land was known at Latins under the name of Etrury. It was located north-west of the Tiber River, modern Tuscany and part of Umbria. Latins were called those people of Etrusca or Taska, and the Greeks are Tirrenoi (from the Tirren Sea). They themselves were Magnifying.

The tongue and culture of Etruscans differ significantly from the fact that it was an ancient residents of Italian Peninsolvo: Villanoves, Umbrians and Picken.

Most of the work in Etruria was made by the indigenous population, which was subordinate, but was not slaves, their winners - to be born Etrusky meant to be born in a special caste. Compared to ancient Gresters or Romans, the local women had a very high status. The well-being and power of Etruscans were partially based on their knowledge of metalworking and using iron deposits, which there were many in the Etruria. A significant share in the culture of Etruscans is a clay and metallic sculpture, frescoes for the decoration of tombs, painted clay utensils. Some motives were taken from Greek art and on the relay, being slightly corrected, transferred to the Romans. Being lovers of music, games and races, Etruscan gave Italy horse chariots. In addition, it was deeply religious civilization. In the process of finding the truth and attempt to know the laws of nature, they clearly delimited the rules according to which it was necessary to interact with the deities. They lacked the scientific rationalism of the Greeks, so they tried to extend the life of the dead, furnishing the tomb as a real house. Despite the fact that it was the religion that became the main feature, because of which Etruscov remembers, it remains to this day quite mysterious.

Etruscan is represented by scientists quite problematic. It is easy to read, as the alphabet came from Greece and the sound design of signs is known, but with the exception of several words, the dictionary is absolutely incomprehensible. And although in this language it is possible to find elements of Indo-European and non-Indo-European languages, along with traces of Mediterranean dialects, it cannot be attributed to any language group. One of the mysteries of the Etruscan civilization remains such a small number of written memos, as well as the fact that the Romans practically did not write anything about the Etruscan letter and literature.

1. Etruscan civilization. Etruscov consider the creators of the first developed civilization on the Apennine Peninsula, to whose achievements, still long before the Roman Republic, can include large cities with wonderful architecture, beautiful products made of metal, ceramics, painting and sculpture, extensive drainage and irrigation systems, alphabet, and later Coin coin. Perhaps the Etruscans were aliens from behind the sea; Their first settlements on the territory of Italy were the thriving communities located in the central part of its west coast, in the region called Etruria (approximately the territory of Sovr. Tuscany and Lazio). The ancient Greeks knew Etruscans under the name of Tyrrenes (or Tirsen), and part of the Mediterranean Sea between the Apennine Peninsula and Islands of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica were called (and now referred to) by the Tyrrhenian Sea, because for several centuries, Etruscan Marineners dominated here. The Romans called Etruskov Tuski (from here Sovr. Tuscany) or Etrusca, the Etruscles themselves called themselves the ray or prayer. In the era of their highest power, approx. 7-5 centuries. BC, Etrusks spread their influence on a significant part of the Apennine Peninsula, up to the foot of the Alps in the north and the surroundings of Naples in the south. Related to them and Rome. Everywhere, their primacy carried material prosperity with them, large-scale engineering projects and achievements in the field of architecture.

From Etruscans, many historical monuments have been preserved: the remains of cities, necropolis, weapons, homemade utensils, frescoes, statues, more than 10 thousand inscriptions dated VII-I centuries. BC, several passages from the Etruscan linen book, traces of Etruscan influence in Roman culture, references to Etruscs in the writings of ancient authors.

Until now, the archaeological examination was mainly Etruscane Mogilniki, rich in funeral utensils. The remains of most cities remain not studied due to thick modern buildings.

Etruscan used the alphabet close to Greek, but the direction of the Etruscan letter was usually left-sided, unlike Greek and Latin; Occasionally, the Etruscan practiced a change in the direction of the letter with each line.

From viii century. BC. The main focus of the Etruscan civilization was Etrury, from where the Etruscan by conquests settled in the north to the Alpine Mountains and in the south to the Naples Bay, thus taking the large territory in Central and Northern Italy.

The main occupation of the majority of the population on this territory was agriculture that required, however, in most areas of considerable efforts to obtain good yields, since some terrain were wetrated, other arms, third hilly players. Etruscan became famous for the creation of irrigation and reclamation systems in the form of open channels and underground drainage. The most famous building of this kind was the large Roman clock-chariter underground waste channel for removal into the Tiber water from the swamps between the hills, which was located Rome. This channel, built in the VI century. BC. During the reign in Rome, the Etruscan King Tarquinia of the ancient, it is valid and understood and understood into the Sewage system of Rome. Drainage of swamps contributed to the destruction of malaria seats. To prevent landslides, the Etruscans strengthened the slopes of the hills with retaining stone walls. Libya and Pliny, the Sr. Titus report that the Romans were driven by the Roman clock. On this basis, it can be assumed that in the construction of large structures and in other areas of its domination of the Etrusca attracted the local population to the serving of labor service.

As well as everywhere in Italy, wheat, shelter, barley, oats, flax, grapes were grown in the areas of Etruscan settlement. The tools for the processing of the Earth served a plow, which was injected by a pair of oxen, hoe, shovel.

A great role was played by cattle breeding: bred cows, sheep, pigs. Engaged Etruscan and horse breeding, but in a limited scale. The horse was considered to have sacred animals and was used, as in the east and in Greece, exclusively in military affairs.

High development has been reached in Etruria production and processing of metals, especially copper and iron. Etrury was the only region of Italy, where there were ore deposits. Here, copper, silver, zinc, iron; Especially rich deposits of iron ore were developed on the nearby island of Ilva (Elba). Etruscans needed for the manufacture of bronze Tini from Gallia from Britain. Iron metallurgy spread widely in Etruria from the VII century. BC. Etruscans mined and treated a huge amount of metal at that time. They mined ore not only from the surface of the Earth, but, the construction of the mines, developed and deeper deposits. Judging by the analogy with Greek and Roman mining, the mining of ore was manual. The main tools of miners around the world were then a fit, kirk, hammer, shovel, a basket for the end of ore. Metal was paid in small melting furnaces; Several well-preserved furnaces with ore and charcoal residues were found in the vicinity of Popolonia, Volterer and Windsonia, the main metallurgical centers of Etruria. The percentage of the extraction of metal from ore was still so low that in the newest time it turned out to be economically advantageous to overpay the mountains of slag around Etruscane cities. But for its time, Etrury was one of the advanced metal production and processing centers.

The abundance of metal tools of labor contributed to the development of Etruscov's economy, and their troops contributed to the establishment of domination over the conquered communities and the development of slave relations.

Metal products made an important article of Etruscan exports. At the same time, some metal products, such as bronze boilers and decorations, Etruscans imported. They imported the metals that they lacked (tin, silver, gold), like raw materials for their craft industry. Each Etruscan city minted his own coin, on which the symbol of the city was depicted, and sometimes its name was also indicated. In the III century. BC. After submission, Rome Etruski ceased to minimize his own coin and began to use Roman.

Etruscan contributed to urban planning in Italy. Their cities were shared by powerful walls from huge stone blocks. For the most ancient building of Etruscan cities, street curves were characterized by terrain's relief and repeated the bends of the coastline of rivers and lakes. With the external chaoticness of such a building in it there was a rational side - the consideration of environmental conditions. Later, under the influence of the Greeks, the Etruscans switched to a clear planning of urban quarters in a chess order, in which the streets oriented on the countries of the world were crossed at right angles. Although such cities were beautiful, they were easy to navigate and they were convenient for the movement of transport and device of water supply and sewage, the Greek type of urban planning also had its drawbacks: he basically ignored natural conditions such as terrain and dominant winds.

In the Ways and Louteonia, simple dwellings of the type of log huts from two rooms were found, as well as unregular layouts with several rooms. Noble Lukumons, which have ruled by Etruscular cities, probably had more extensive urban and country residences. They seem to be reproduced by stone urns in the form of houses and late Etruscan tombs. The urn stored in the Florence Museum depicts a two-story stone structure similar to the palace with arched entrance, wide windows on the first floor and galleries on the second floor. The Roman type of house with an atrium may dare to Etruscane prototypes.

Temples and other Etruscan buildings were erected on a stone foundation, but an unhappy brick and wood used for the construction of walls and floors, so they were almost nothing survived from them. According to legend, Etruscular masters was built in Rome, on the Capitol Hill, the main shrine of the Romans - the Temple of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva.

Near the cities located extensive necropolis. Known Etruscular tombs of three types: mines, chamber with bulk migration and rock, cut down in rock. Rich burial grounds differed in large sizes and luxurious finish: they consisted of several rooms decorated with wall paintings and statues. Sarcophages, chairs and many other funeral accessories were carved out of stone and therefore well preserved. If the rich tombs, apparently, copied the plan and interior decoration of the rich house, then about the houses of the simple people give the presentation of funeral urns in the form of clay models of huts.

Many Etruscan cities had access to the sea if not directly, then through rivers or channels. For example, the city of Spin, located in the northeast of Italy, at the Adriatic coast, joined the channel with a length of 3 km long and width of 30 m. Although the remnants of the Loustonia in modern Tuscany are 12 km from the sea, but in antiquity it was located on the shore of the bay , deeply crashed into the land. In Roman time, only a shallow water lake remained from that bay, and then it dried.

Etruscan shipbuilding was very perfect, the materials for which Pine forests of Etruria, Corsica and Latia were supplied. Etruscan ships walked on oars and under sails. In the underwater part of the military vessels had a metallic ram. From VII century BC. Etruscans began to use a metal anchor with a rod and two paws. The Romans borrowed this type of anchor, as well as a ram called Rostrom. The strong fleet of the Etruscans allowed them to compete with the Carthaginians and the Greeks.

High development has reached ceramic production from Etruscov. Their ceramics are close to Greek, but they created their own style, which in science is called "bucker". His characteristics make up the form of the form of metal vessels, black shiny color and bas-relief decoration.

Etruscular woolen fabrics were exported, as well as, undoubtedly, were widely used in everyday life of Etruscans. In addition, the Etruski was famous for linen and very widely used products from flax: the canvas went to the manufacture of clothes, sails, military armor, served as writing material. The custom of writing linen books later moved to the Romans. Etruscan led extensive trade with the countries of the Mediterranean. From the developed industrial cities of Greece and from the Carthage, they imported luxury objects, from the carfagen, in addition - elephant bone as raw materials for their artisans. The buyer of expensive imported goods was Etruscan to know. It is assumed that in exchange for imported luxury Etrury supplied copper, iron and slaves in developed trade and craft centers. However, it is known that in developed societies found the demand of various products of the Etruscan craft.

In the trade of Etruscans with the Northern tribes, inhabited in Central and Western Europe, up to Britain and Scandinavia, probably, the exports of finished products - metal and ceramic products, fabrics, and wine prevail. The consumer of these goods performed mainly to know the barbaric tribes, which was paid with Etruscian merchants to slaves, tin, amber. Greek historian Diodor Sicilian reports that in trade with Calpius Celts, the Italian merchants, under which it is believed to be in mind the Etruscans, a slave was obtained for the amphora wine.

The best Etruscular sculptures, perhaps, should be considered those that are made of metal, mainly from bronze. Most of these statues captured the Romans: according to the senior slay ( Natural history XXXIV 34), in some voltsies taken in 256 BC, they got 2000 pieces. Rome symbol, famous Capitol Wolf (It is approximately dated by time after 500 BC, now in the Palazzo Dei Conservatory in Rome), already known in the Middle Ages, probably also made by Etruscia.

Sea trade prevailed from the Etruscans above the land and combined with piracy, which was characteristic of other seurrets of that time. According to A. I. Nemirovsky, the greatest spread of Etruscan piracy falls on the period of decline of Etruscan States in the IV-III centuries. BC, when, on the one hand, due to the Greek competition, the Celtic invasion and Roman expansion turned out to be undermined their foreign trade, and on the other, the piracy was stimulated by the growing demand for slaves in Roman society. It was at that time in the mouth of the Greeks became synonymous with the words "Tyrrhens" and "pirates".

Each Etruscan city was an economic integer. They differed among themselves the character of their economic activity. Thus, the poppoint specialized in the extraction and processing of metals, clubs - at agriculture, Ceres - on the craft and trade. It is not by chance that therefore, it was precisely that it was particularly competing and begun with Greek colonies in Italy and Sicily, which were considerable centers of handicraft production and foreign trade.

Information about the religion of the Etruscans has been preserved better than other sides of the life of their society. The main deities of Etruscan Pantheon were Tin, Uni and Menrva. Tin was the deity of the sky, the thumbs up and was considered the king of the gods. His sanctoes were on high, steep hills. According to its functions, TIN corresponded to the Greek Zeus and Roman Jupiter, so it's not by chance later in Rome, the image of the type merged with the way of Jupiter. The goddess Unit corresponded to the Roman junoon, so they also merged into Rome in the uniform image of Junites. In the image of the Etruscan goddess Menrva, features are visible, characteristic of Greek Athena: both were considered patrons of crafts and arts. In Rome with the development of the crafts, the reversion of the Goddess Minerva, the image of which was identical to Athena Menrve. Uncertain information about the Supreme God Vertumna (Voltumne, Voltumnia) has been preserved. There is an assumption that this name is only one of the epithets of God Tina.

In addition to the numerous top gods, Etrusks were also worshiped by a whole host of the lower deities - good and evil demons, which in many depicted in Etruscane tombs. Like the Hurts, Assyrians, Hettites, Babylonians and other Middle Eastern nations, Etruscan represented themselves demons in the form of fantastic birds and animals, and sometimes people with wings behind their backs. For example, the Good Demons of Lases, corresponding to Roman Laram, was considered from the patrons of the home focus from Etruscians and were presented in the form of young women with wings behind their backs.

The main places of departure of the cult was the temples, which were placed the statues of the deities. Sacrifice the gods brought true, wine, fruits, butter, animals. During family meals on the table or on the hearth, put a small cup with food for demons - the patrons of the house. On the funeral tripshes of noble people sacrificed the gods brought prisoners. It is assumed that the Etrusks forced the prisoners to fight among themselves to death or traveled their beasts. It was in the form of fights of slaves at the funeral for nobility of the Gladiatorovsky Games were borrowed in the III century. BC. Romans; They also borrowed from Etruscans and travelers of people with beasts. Gradually losing his religious meaning of human sacrifice to the public spectacle, these players existed before the late Roman Empire period.

A large role in the religion of Etruscans played an idea of \u200b\u200bthe gloomy postal kingdom, where the souls of the dead are going. The Etruscan God of the underground kingdom of Aita corresponded to the Greek God Aida.

An important place in the Etruscan society occupied priesthood. Priests-Garuspiki were visited by fortune-intensity of sacrificial animals, primarily on the liver, as well as interpretation of various signs - unusual natural phenomena (lightning, birth of freaks, etc.). The priests-August won on the behavior of birds. These features of the Etruscan cult through a number of mediating units are borrowed from Babylonia. In turn, they were adopted by the Romans from Etruscov.

Archeology confirmed the literary tradition that spoke about Etruscan influence on Rome. The terracotta decoration of the early Roman temples is made in the Etruscan style; Many vases and bronze items of the early republican period of Roman history are made by Etrusca or in their manner. A double ax as a symbol of power, according to Romans, had an Etruscan origin; Double axes are presented in Etruscan funeral sculpture - for example, on Stele Veluska, located in Florence. Moreover, such double actuators were placed in the tomb of the leaders, as it was in the Popolon. At least up to 4 in. BC. Rome material culture wholely depended on the culture of Etruscans.

2. The ancient population of Italy lived in the territorial communities - the PAGAs, as a result of the association of which the city arose. At the head of the Archaic Rome, there was a selection king, combining the duties of the Supreme Priest, a military man, legislators and judges, and with him consisted of Senate. The most important affairs solved the People's Assembly.

In 510-509. BC e. The republic is formed. Republican Board remained until 30-29 BC. e., after which the period of the empire comes. Rome during these years leads almost continuous victorious wars and turns out of a small town to the capital of the huge state of the Mediterranean, spreading its influence on numerous provinces: Macedonia, Ahaya (Greece), near and far, Spain, the regions of Africa and Asia, the Middle East. This leads to intensive cultural exchanges, intensive proceedings of the interpenetration of cultures.

The luxurious mining of triumphars, the stories of the soldiers, the penetration of wealthy people in the newly acquired provinces led to a revolution at the level of household culture: the ideas about wealth changed, new material and spiritual needs arose, new morals were born. The massive passion for the eastern luxury began after the Asian triumphs of L. Cornelia of Scipion and GG. Mandandie pain-juice. Fashion quickly spread for attalic (Pergamian robes), chased silver, Corinthian bronze, inlaided beds like ancient Egyptian.

Conquest of the Hellenistic states, and to i c. BC e. And Hellenistic Greece made a coup in the culture of Rome. The Romans collided with a culture that exceeded the depth and variety of their own. "Greece captured captured its winners," will say later Horace, ancient Roman poet. The Romans began to study the Greek, literature, philosophy, bought Greeks-slaves to teach children. Rich families sent their sons to Athens, Ephesus and other cities of Greece and Malaya Asia to listen to lectures of famous speakers and philosophers. This affected the growth of the Roman intelligentsia. Two new comic types appeared in the literature in the literature: ridiculous grikers and harsh persecutes of Greek sciences. In many families, foreign education was combined with old-fabric traditions and patriotic gonors.

Thus, in the culture of ancient Rome, the Etruscan and the ancient Greek beginning are clearly traced.

The whole history of cultural relations between Rome and Greece from this pore is the secret worship of the Romans in front of Greek culture, the desire to achieve its perfection, which is sometimes to the imitation. However, assimilating ancient Greek culture, the Romans invested their content into it. The rapprochement of Greek and Roman cultures was especially noticeable during the Empire. Nevertheless, for the Romans, the stateless harmony of Greek art remained for the Romans, the poetic spirituality of his images remained. Pragmatism of thinking, engineering solutions led to the functional nature of Roman culture. Too sober, the Roman was too pratis, so that, admiring the skill of the grims, to achieve their plastic equilibrium and the amazing generalization of the plan.

The ideology of the Roman was primarily determined by patriotism - the idea of \u200b\u200bRome as a higher value, about the debt of a citizen to serve him, not sparing forces and life. In Rome, the courage, loyalty, dignity, moderation in his personal life, the ability to obey Iron discipline and the law was revealed. False, dishonesty, flattery was considered vices inherent in slaves. If the Greek bowed before the art, philosophy, then the Roman essay the writer, the work of the sculptor, painter, the performance on the stage despised, like slave classes. Decent citizen of Rome affairs in his submission were only wars, politics, law, historiography and agriculture.

In 509 BC In Rome, after the expulsion of the last (seventh) Rex Tarquinia, the republican system was established. The period of the republic is the period of intensive upward development of production, which led to significant social shifts, which was reflected in the change in the legal status of individual groups of the population. Significant role in this process was played by the Jessed Covivating Wars, steadily expanding the boundaries of the Roman state, which turned it into the powerful world power.

The main social division in Rome was division into free and slaves. The unity of the free citizens of Rome (Quiritov) was supported by the existence of their collective ownership of land and slaves owned by the state. However, over time, collective ownership of Earth has become a fictitious, public land fund passed to individual owners, until finally, agricultural law 3 years BC. did not eliminate him, finally approved private property.

The free in Rome broke up into two socio-class groups: the inuchive top of the slave owners (landowners, merchants) and small producers (farmers and artisans) who made up the majority of society. The urban poorly proletia is adjacent to the latter. Due to the fact that slavery had a patriarchal character, the struggle between major slave owners and small producers, who most often treated the land and worked in workshops, for a long time amounted to the main content of the history of the Republic of Roman Republic. Only with time the contradiction between slaves and slave owners is at the forefront.

The legal status of the personality in Rome was characterized by three status - freedom, citizenship and family. Only a person who possessed all these status has full legal capacity. In public right, it meant the right to participate in the People's Assembly and hold public positions. In private right, she gave the right to join Roman marriage and participate in property legal relations.

According to the status of freedom, the entire population of Rome shared on free and slaves. Full might could only be free.

Slaves in the period of the republic are transformed into the main oppression and operated class. The main source of slavery was military captivity. So, after the defeat of the Carthage, 55,000 people were drawn to slavery, and in total in the II-I centuries. BC. -.moremillion (the number of Roman citizens who had property values \u200b\u200bat that time did not reach 400,000). Of great importance as a source of slavery had a widely developed slave trade - buying slaves abroad. By virtue of the difficult position of slaves, their natural reproduction was less important. It is possible to note the fact that despite the abolition of the Looping law by debt bonders, in fact, it is true in limited sizes, continued to exist. By the end of the period of the republic, the distribution and self-sale in slavery receives.

Slaves were state and private ownership. The first became most of the prisoners of war. They were operated in mines and state workshops. The position of private owner slaves has continuously deteriorated. If at the beginning of Roman history, during the period of patriarchal slavery, they were part of families of Roman citizens, and entirely obeying the units, nevertheless used some protection of the sacred (sacred, based on religious beliefs), then during the heyday of the republic, the operation of the work of slaves was sharply intensified . Antique slavery becomes the same basis of the Roman economy as the work of small free producers. Particularly heavy was the position of slaves in large slave-owned latifunds. The position of slaves engaged in urban craft workshops and household was somewhat better. Significantly better was the position of talented workers, teachers, actors, sculptors from among slaves, many of whom managed to get freedom and become freed.

No matter what place the slave in production was occupied, he was the property of his master and was considered as part of his property. The power of the owner over the slave was almost unlimited. Everything produced by the slave was received by the owner: "What is purchased through a slave - is purchased for Mr." The owner also highlighted the slave what he considered it necessary to maintain its existence and efficiency.

The slave relations determined the overall disinterest of slaves in the results of their labor, which in turn made slave owners to look for more effective forms of operation. Such a form became a pacule - part of the owner's property (land plot, craft workshop, etc.), which he provided a slave for independently conducting the economy and obtaining a part of income from him. Pacific allowed the owner to more effectively use his property to receive income and interest the slave in the results of his work. Another form that originated during the republic was Colonat. The columns were not slaves, and tenants of land that fell into economic dependence on landowners and ultimately attached to the Earth.

They became impoverished free, freedoms and slaves. The colons had personal property, they could enter into contracts and marry.

Over time, the position of the Colon becomes hereditary. However, in the period under review, Colleta, as well as peculiar, has not yet received a lot of distribution.

The ineffectiveness of slave labor has led at the end of the republican period to the massive vacation of slaves to the will. The freedmen remained within a certain dependence on their former owner, which turned into their cartridge, in whose favor they were obliged to carry certain material and labor obligations and which in the case of their ability to inherit their property. However, the development of this process in the period when the slave-ownership is still developing, contradicted the common interests of the dominant class, and therefore in 2 BC. A law was published that limited this practice.

According to the status of citizenship, the free population of Rome was divided into citizens and foreigners (overrins). Full legal capacity could have only free-born Roman citizens. In addition to them, the citizens treated freedmen, but they remained customers with the customers of the former owners and were limited in rights.

As the property differentiation develops, the role of wealth increases in determining the position of the Roman citizen. In the area of \u200b\u200bslave owners at the end of the III-II century. BC. The preferred estates of Nobille and riders arise.

The highest estate (Nobili) included the most notable patrician and rich Plebea gods. The economic base of Nobille was a major land tenure and enormous cash. Only they began to replenish the Senate and be elected to the highest government positions. The nobility turns into a closedlass, access to which a new person was practically impossible and which jealously guarded his privileges. Only in rare cases, people who did not belong to the nobilitet by birth became senior officials.

The second estate (riders) was formed from the trade and financial nobility and landowners of the middle hand. In i century BC. The process of fusion of Nobils with the top of riders who have access to the Senate and important judicial positions is developing. Renal relations arise between their individual representatives.

As the limits of the Roman state expands, "the number of free was replenished at the expense of the residents of the Apennine Peninsula (fully conquered at the middle of the III century. BC) and other countries. They differed from Roman citizens, in their legal position. Inhabitants of Italy, not included in The Roman community (Latins), at first did not use all the rights of Roman citizens. They were divided into two groups - the ancient Latins and Latin of the colonies. Before the first recognized property rights, the right to act in court and marry with Roman citizens. But they were deprived of the right to participate In the people's assemblies. Latins, residents of colonies, founded by Rome in Italy, and some of its cities and regions that have entered into the Rome of the Union Treaties, enjoyed the same rights as the ancient Latins, with the exception of the right to marry with Roman citizens. Further As a result of allied wars (I century. BC), all Latins were granted the rights of Roman citizens.

The second category of the free, not had the rights of Roman citizens were overheated. These included free residents of provinces - countries outside Italy and conquered by Rome. They had to bear tax accidents. There were also free residents of foreign states. Overhells did not have the rights of Latins, but received property legal capacity. To protect their rights, they had to elect patrons - cartridges, for whom were in a position that differed little from the situation of customers.

Family status meant that only the heads of Roman families were full of political and civil legal capacity. The rest of the family members were considered to be under the rule of the temples. The latter was the face of "own law", the members of his family were called the persons of the "alien right" -prava of the temple. Entering property legal relations, they acquired property not for themselves, but for him. But the restrictions in private law did not affect their position in the public right. In addition, these restrictions began to weaken, it began to recognize the right of family members to acquire their own property.

The legal status of the person changed with a loss of one or another status.

The greatest changes took place with the loss of the status of freedom (captivity, appeal to slavery). It meant the loss and status of citizenship and family, i.e., the full loss of legal capacity. With the loss of citizenship status (expulsion), the legal capacity of the citizen was lost, but freedom remained. Finally, the loss of the status of the family (as a result, for example, adoption of the head of the family by another person) led only to "own law".

3. Neighborhood to classes with art and sciences did not mean that the Roman remained a fearful. In enlightened houses, not only the Greek language, but also the right, elegant Latin, were taught.

Already in the republican period in Rome there are original, original art, philosophy, science, the method of creativity is formed. Their main feature is psychological realism and truly Roman individualism.

The ancient Roman model of the world was fundamentally different from Greek. It did not have an events of the person organically inscribed in the event of the policy and space, like the Greeks. The event model of the Roman has simplified to two events: the event of the individual fit into the event of the state, or the Roman Empire. That is why Romans paid their attention to the individual.

A noticeable trace in science left the works of Meal Alexandria in spherical geometry and trigonometry, the geocentric model of the Peace of Ptolemy, works on optics, astronomy (a catalog of more than 1600 stars) was made experiments on animals in physiology. The doctor Galen came to the opening of nerve values \u200b\u200bfor motor reflexes and blood circulation. A construction technique developed, which allowed to create the Colosseum of Flaviev, one and a half-year-meter bridge across the Danube during Trana, and so paragraph the mechanics were improved, load-lifting mechanisms were used. According to Seneki, "despicable slaves" every time was invented by something new: the pipes for which pairs were walking to heat the premises, a special polishing of marble, mirror tiles for the reflection of the sun's rays.

The art of mosaic spread: even in the houses on the Rhine, glass was inserted into the windows. And Meneli, and Ptolemy were Greek scientists working in Rome.

The astrology was very popular, which was engaged in the largest astronomers. Basically, Roman scientists have comprehended and commented on the Greeks.

The appearance of a literary drama in Rome.

The Romans took the literary drama in the finished form of the Greeks, transferred to the Latin language and adapted to their concepts and tastes. This is explained by the historical situation of that time. The conquest of the South Italian cities, who had all the treasures of Greek culture, could not pass for the Romans without a trace. Greeks begin to appear in Rome as prisoners, hostages, diplomatic representatives, teachers.

In the situation of public lifting caused by the victorious ending of the 1st Punic War, at the festive games of 240 BC. It was decided to put a dramatic representation. The formulation was commissioned by the Greek Libya Andronika, who had fallen into Rome as a prisoner of war after taking a target in 272 BC. Andronik was a slave of one Roman senator, from which he received his Roman name - Libya. Libya Andronik, released to the will, began to train the Greek and Latin languages \u200b\u200bof the sons of Roman nobility. This school teacher also put on the game tragedy and, probably, also a comedy, reworked by him from a Greek sample or, perhaps, simply translated from Greek to Latin. Staging Libya Andronika gave impetus to the further development of the Roman theater.

From 235 BC Begins to put on the stage of his plays of the playwright of the Gnea Neva (approx. 280-201. BC), which probably belonged to the Roman Plebeian family. Unlike Greek playwrights, they usually wrote in one particular genre, he composed and tragedies and comedies. His tragedies were also alterars of Greek plays. But the Neva was engaged not only by alterations of tragedies with mythological plot. He was the creator of tragedies from Roman history. Such a tragedy was called the Romans of the pretext. Sometimes pretexts were written on modern event playwrights. However, the greatest glory of the Neva reached in the field of comedy.

Historiography IV. BC e.

In rather difficult conditions, historiography developed. The great Roman historian Tacitis in his works "History" and "Annala" shows the tragedy of society, consisting in incompatibility of the imperial power and freedom of citizens, princeps and the Senate. Skillful dramatization of events, subtle psychologism and the accuracy of judgments make Tacitis hardly not the best of Roman historians.

Roman historiography - from the Katon of Elder to Tacitus - with great fullness reflects the facts of history and legends of Rome. One of the first historians of Rome was Mark Portions Caton Senior. Proceedings of Roman historians IIIB. and the first half of IV BC e. They played a big role in creating classical Roman historiography.

1. Jul Julius Caesar-Colonse and one of the founders of the Roman Empire and Caesarism was an outstanding author of military historical memoirs and wrote on the literary and critical work of high artistic quality in language and style.

2. Tote of the Guy Squares of Crisp (86-35 BC) drew completely two writings - "conspiracy of the cylinder" and the "Yugurtian war" (the history of the hard war of the Romans with the Numidian King of Yogurt II), as well as "stories" - The presentation of Roman history for 10 years, starting from 78 g., Didewas only in passages.

Salvices - a talented master of historical prose, took place from Plebeian kind, first was in the ranks of populations, then he moved to Caesar, driving the province of Africa, it was a great condition. He is an opponent of aristocracy and the rich and reigned them because they do not give capable people from other classes to achieve responsible government posts. In this he sees the reason for the decomposition of the republic.

3. Titz Libidized in 59 BC. e. In the city of Patavia (in modern Padua), he was brought up in ancient republican traditions and received philosophical and rhetorical education. Patavia in civil war was on the side of Pompei, the city had republican traditions, so Libya received from Octavian August sometimes an ironic assessment of Pompeyaptsa. But in the historical works of Libya, the ideology of the ruling circles of the Roman society is held, the elections of the political ideas of "Aneida" Vergil.

At the heart of Libya's historical works lies the idea of \u200b\u200bthe greatness of Rome, the glorification of ancient morals, heroes and patriotism of ancestors. This worship before the nravami ancestors was completely coincided with the restoration policy of the principal.

Music, singing and dancing.

In Rome, there were always a lot of musicians, composers, music teachers and singing,

but almost all of them took place or from Greece itself, or from the Greek cities of the south of Italy, or from Egypt. Professional dancers and dancers who spent publicly came to the eternal city from Syria and Spain. Since the Eastern cults and rites (for example, the cult of Isids) began to be approved in Rome, the musicians who arrived from there were borrowed from where the cult itself was borrowed. But the musicians who accompanied their play purely Roman rites, military musicians and those who accompanied actors on the stage were mainly the people of Roman or, in any case, Italy origin.

Musicians, whatever origin, have been, enjoyed by some privileges in Rome as a reward for the services they have provided the city with their game or singing during large nationwide celebrations. So, in the privileged position there were military musicians, symphonymics - musicians who participated in religious ceremonies, as well as those who played wind instruments. Babyllarii ("Treshchniki"), which on the stage asked Hor's tact and dancers, enjoyed the public with the same sympathies as the most outstanding actors. Famous musicians and singers appreciated so highly that they managed to tie friendly relations with representatives of the most significant birth.

Politics and law in ancient Rome.

The most important cultural innovations of Roman antiquity are associated with the development of politics and law. Ancient Roman of Jurisprudence.

Management of a huge Roman dermis of state bodies, a well-organized administrative structure, legal laws regulating civil relations, legal proceedings, etc. First legal document - Law 12 books regulating criminal, financial, trade relations. The continuous expansion of the territory leads to the emergence of other documents - private law for Latinians and the public law regulating the relationship between Latinians and the conquered peoples living in the provinces.

Among the Ancient Roman lawyers are the figures of the scenes, Papinian, Ulpiana. The original contribution was made to the area of \u200b\u200blaw an outstanding lawyer of Adrian Salvius Julian, who viewed all the existing Pretorous Edicts (Pretoras carried out the Supreme Judicial Power), selected everything that corresponded to new living conditions, led them to the system, and then turned them into a single pretorsky edict. Thus, all valuable experience was taken into account in the preceding court decisions. There were other schools of lawyers who compete among themselves.

Roman historian Polybiy already in II century. BC e. She saw in perfection of the political and legal device of Rome, the key to its power. Ancient Roman lawyers really laid the foundation of legal culture. Roman law still remains the basis for which modern legal systems are relying. But clearly stipulated by the legislation of the relationship, the powers in the duties of numerous bureaucratic institutions and officials - the Senate, the Master, Consuls, prefectors, procurators, censors, etc. - did not eliminate the tensions of the political struggle in society. There is noobilitis for its struggle in the system of power in the system of power, seeking support from them.

Antiquity showed the subsequent epochs Maxim "Man - Measure of All Things" and showed what vertices can reach a free person in art, knowledge, politics, state construction, finally, in the most important self-knowledge and self-improvement. Beautiful Greek statues have become a standard of beauty of the human body, Greek philosophy - a model of the beauty of human thinking, and the best acts of Roman heroes are examples of the beauty of civil serving and state creation.

In the ancient world, a grand attempt was made to combine the West and the East in a single civilization, overcoming the separation of peoples and traditions in a great cultural synthesis, discovered how fruitful interaction and interpenetration of cultures. One of the results of such a synthesis was the emergence of Christianity born as a religion of a small community on the outskirts of the Roman world and gradually turned into world religion.

Ancient heritage for centuries has feed and continues to feed world culture and science. From antiquity, a person made a thought of cosmic origin and the fate of the Earth and the genus of the human, about the unity of nature and man, all those who lived and live on our planet. The human mind is already then reached the stars. Knowledge mined in antiquity showed his huge opportunities. Then the foundations of many sciences were laid.

Antiquity has become the crumine of literature and the art of the following epoch. Any lift in the cultural life of the Middle Ages or the new time has been conjugate with the appeal to the ancient heritage. With the greatest fullness and power, it was expressed in the era of the Renaissance, which gave the greatest geniuses and great works of art.

LITERATURE

Nemirovsky A.I., Khaarsekin A.I. Etrusca. Introduction to Etruscology. Voronezh, 1969.

Cultural technology for technical universities. Rostov-on-Don: Phoenix, 2001.

The history of the state and the rights of foreign countries. Part 1. Textbook for universities. 2nd ed., Ched. Ed. prof. Krashennikova N.A. and prof. Lykova O.A. - M.: Publisher Norma (Publishing Group Norma Infra M), 2001.

History of the ancient world, T.3. - M., 1980.

Cruced Yu.S. Readings on the history of the ancient world. - M., 1980.

Kuzishchen V.I. History of ancient Rome. - M.: Higher School 1982.

Nemirovsky A.I. At the origins of historical thought. - Voronezh, 1979.

Struve V.V. Readings on the history of the ancient world. - M., 1975.

Utchenko S.L. Political teachings of ancient Rome sh-i centuries. BC. - M., 1977.

Readings on the history of ancient Rome. - M.: Higher School, 1987.

1. Culture of ancient Rome / Ed. E. S. Golubsyova., M., 1983-1988.

2. Ancient Rome. Ed. A.Myasnikova.-SPb: "Autograph" .- 1996.- 378c.

3. Ilinskaya L.S. Ancient Rome.-M.-1997.-432 p.

4. The history of world culture / ed. Levchuk L. T., K., 1994.

Federal Agency for Education

GOU VPO "Ural State Economic University"

Department of Economic Theory

Test

by discipline: "Culturalology"

Chapter 2. Origin of the Etruscan People.

Etruscans have always been considered the mysterious people who had little in common with his tribes surrounded. It is quite natural, and in antiquity, and now they tried to find out where he came from. This is a subtle and complex problem, and to this day I have not received a generally recognized solution. How are things in our time? To answer the question, it is important to recall the opinions of the ancient authors about this, as well as the subsequent judgments of contemporary scientists. Thus, we will find out whether the facts known to us come to any reasonable decision.

In antiquity on this issue there was an almost unanimous opinion. It was based on the story. Herodotus, the first great Greek historian, About the adventures that led Tyrrhenians to the Earth Tuscany. That's what he writes:

"They say, at the Board of Atis, the son of Mana, the whole Lydia swept the great hunger. For some time, the leaders tried to lead the usual life; But, since the hunger did not stop, they tried to think of something: some offered one, others - the other. They say, it was then that the game in the bone was invented, the game in grandmother, playing the ball and others, but not only a game of checkers, since the leaders do not claim her invention. And this is how these inventions helped them to fight hunger: out of every two days one day was devoted entirely to the game to forget about the search for food. The next day, people interrupted the game and ate. So they lived eighteen years.

But since disaster not only did not subside, but, on the contrary, intensified, the king divided the Lidi people into two parts; One of them was to stay on the lot, the second is to leave the country. The king was headed by the group that was supposed to stay, and at the head of the second group put his son Tyrrhen. Those lidians who walked to leave the country went to Smyrna, built ships, immersed all their belongings on them and sailed to the search for land and means to food. Investigating the coast of many countries, they finally reached the land of Umbrians. There they founded cities where they live to this day. But they stopped be called the leaders, taking their name by the name of the king who headed them. So they got the name Tyrrhenans. "

We really know that the inhabitants of the romans, whom the Romans called Tuski or Etrusca (hence the current name of Tuscany), the Greeks were known as Tyrrhenans. From here, in turn, the name arose Tyrrhenian Sea, on the shores of which the Etrusks built their cities. Thus, Herodotus draws a picture of the migration of the Eastern People, and in its presentation etruscan turn out to be the same Lydians, which, according to the chronology of Greek historians, left their country fairly late - in the XIII century BC. e. And settled on the shores of Italy.

Consequently, all Etruscan civilization occurs directly from a low-immigination plateau. Herodotus wrote his work in the middle of V c. BC e. Almost all Greek and Roman historians took his point of view. Vergilius, Ovid and Horace in their poems are often called Etruscans in the Lydians. According to Tacitis (Annala, IV, 55), during the Roman Empire lidi city Sarddy retained the memory of its distant Etruscan origin; Lydians and then considered themselves the brothers of Etruscans. Seneca Certains Etruscov as an example of migrating the whole people and writes: "Tuscos Asia Sibi Vindicat" - "Asia believes that she spawned tuks."

So, the classical authors did not doubt the truth of the ancient legends, which, as far as we know, first announced Herodot. However, Greek theoretics Dionysius Galicarnas Those who lived in Rome under August, stated that he could not adhere to this opinion. In the first work on Roman history, he writes the following: "I don't think Tyrrhenans were immigrants from Lydia. The language of them and the Lidians are different; And it cannot be said that they retained any other features that would be traces of origin from their alleged homeland. They worship with other gods than the leaders; They have other laws, and at least from this point of view, they differ from the leaders stronger than even from Pelasgov. Thus, it seems to me that those who claim that Etrusks are native, and not coming from the sea; In my opinion, this follows from the fact that they are very ancient people who are not similar to any other nations on any other nations. "

So already In ancient times, there were two opposite opinions on the origin of the Etruscans. In the new time, the discussion broke out again. Some scientists following Nicola Frere.which at the end of the 18th century was the permanent secretary of the Academy of Inscriptions and Graceful Literature, offered a third decision to put to two already existing ones. According to him, Etruscan, like other Italian peoples, came from the north; etruscan had Indo-European roots and were part of one of the waves of invaders who consistently collapsed on the peninsula starting with 2000 BC e. Currently, this thesis, although not disproved fully, has very few adherents. He does not withstand and check the facts. Therefore, we must immediately discard him to avoid unnecessary complication of the problem.

This nordic hypothesis Based on the imaginary connection between the title retov, or the reassigns that the friends fought, the son of August, and name "rasya"which, according to certificates of classical authors, came themselves Etruscans. The presence of the retold allegedly represents the historical evidence that in the ancient times, the Etruscans came from the north and crossed the Alps. And this opinion seems to be confirmed by Tita Libya, Which notes: "Even alpine tribes, especially the retold, have the same origin as the Etruscans. The risks of their country itself turned into a wild state, so that they did not save anything from their ancient Pranodina, with the exception talk Yes, and then in extremely distorted form "(V, 33, II). Finally, in the areas where the retold lived was indeed found inscriptions in a language similar to Etruscan.

In fact, we have an example of how false conclusions are derived from true facts. The presence of Etruscans in Russia - Reality. But this happened relatively recently and is not connected with the hypothetical transition of Etruscans on the Alpine valleys. Only in the 4th century BC e. When, because of the Celtic invasion, Etruscs had to go from the Padan Plain, they found shelter in the Alpine foothills. Libya, if you carefully analyze his text, it does not mean anything other, and the Etruscan type inscriptions found in the registry created not earlier III century BC e.Superbly explained to this particular movement of Etruscane refugees to the north.

The thesis about the eastern origin of the Etruscans has much more grounds. It seems that it is unequivocally confirmed by many data. linguistics and archeology. Many traits of Etruscan civilization are very much reminded that we know about civilizations of ancient Malaya Asia. Although various Asian motifs in Etruscan religion and art, in the end, can be explained by a random coincidence, supporters of this thesis believe that the eastern features of the Etruscan civilization are too numerous and too noticeable; Therefore, they indicate, should be excluded by the hypothesis about the pure coincidence.

Etruscans - "Rasse" - It can be found in numerous very similar forms in various adverbs of Malaya Asia. Hellenized title "Tirrenants" or "Tirsnets" Also, apparently, it comes from Anatolian plateau. This is an adjective, most likely formed from the word "Tirrha" or "Tyrr". We know about the terrain in Lydia, which was exactly and called - Tyrr. The temptation appears to see the relationship between Etruscan and Lidia's words and attribute some kind of curious parallel. Judging by the Latin Word turris - "Tower", - undoubtedly since this root, then the name "Tyrrhenans" literally means "Citadel people". Root very often meets in Etruscan. Enough to remember Tarhona, brother or son Tyrrhen, who founded Tarquia And Dodecapolis - League from the twelve Etruscian cities. Or the Tarquia itself, the sacred city of the ancient Etruria (Square). However, the names formed from the root Tarch Often meet in Asia Minor. There they were given to the gods or rulers.

In 1885 Two young scientists of the French school in Athens, Cousin and Durrbak, made a major discovery on Lemnos Island in the Aegean Sea. Not far from the village of Kamini, they found a funeral stele with jewelry and inscriptions. We see on it depicted in profile face of a warrior with a spear and two outstretched text: One around the head of the warrior, the other on the side of the stele. This monument, the creation of local archaic art, was created no later than VII century BC E.., That is, much earlier than the Greeks won the island (510 BC). The inscriptions are made by Greek letters, but their language is not Greek. Very quickly, the similarity of this language with the tongue of Etruscans was noticed. Here and there are the same endings; It seems that the word formation is performed according to the same rules. Thus, on the island of Lemnos in the VII century BC. e. They spoke in a language similar to Etruscan. And stela - not a single proof. Shortly before the Second World War, the Italian school researchers found on the island and other fragments of inscriptions in the same language - obviously, in the language that the inhabitants of the island used to conquer the feminoclon.

If the Tyrrhenians came from Anatolia, they could well stop at the Aegean Islands as Lemnos, leaving small communities on them. The appearance of stele from therapy, more or less coinciding over time with the emergence of Etruscan civilization, is quite explained from the position of the hypothesis about the eastern origin of the Etruscans.

Fig. 5. The funeral stele from therapy on Lemnos Island. National Museum, Athens.

Trying to solve this problem, the researchers appealed to anthropology. A systematic study of approximately forty skulls found in the Etruscane graves Italian anthropologist Serge did not give convincing results and did not reveal any significant difference between the data from Etrury and from other areas of Italy. Sir Gavin De Vir recently made an idea to take advantage of genetic testimonies based on blood groups. Proportion in which there are four blood groups, More or less constant for every people. Consequently, studying blood groups, you can learn about the origin and degree of kinship of peoples, not too divided into time.

Since over the centuries, the population of Tuscany remained relatively stable, modern Toskans should save genesinherited from Etruscans (Haplogroup of Etruscans G2A3A and G2A3B. found in Europe; Gaplogroup G2A3B went to Europe through Starcevo and then through the archaeological culture of linear belt ceramics, was discovered by archaeologists in the center of Germany)

On the maps showing the distribution of blood groups in modern Italy, the area of \u200b\u200bthe peninsula is distinguished by an area with explicit differences from the rest of Italy and having similarities with the eastern peoples. The results of these studies allow us to assess the possible signs of Eastern Etruscans. However, the greatest caution should be observed, since this phenomenon can be explained by the impact and completely different factors.

It will take too much space to list all Etruscan customs, religious representations and artistic techniques that are often associated with the East. We mention only the most noticeable facts. Etruscans, like in,they held a privileged position that did not have anything in common with the humiliated and subordinate position of the Greek (and eastern) woman. But such a sign of civilization we observe and in the social structure of Crete and Mycene. There, as in Etruria, women are present on performances, ideas and games, Without staying, as in Greece, halves in the quiet rest of the female half.

We see Etruscan women on the feast next to the husbands: on Etruscular frescoes often depict a woman, resting next to the owner of the house behind the fellow table. As a result of such a custom, the Greeks, and then the Romans unreasonably accused Etruscian women in immorality. The inscriptions give another confirmation of the apparent equality of the Etruscan woman: often a face dedicated to the inscription, mentions the name of the mother along with the name of the father or even without it. We have evidence of the spread of such matronium in Anatolia, especially in Lydia. Perhaps there are traces of an ancient matriarchy.

Fig. 6. A married couple on the burial feast. With Bayres engravings in "Tarquinia Hypores", part IV, Ill. 8.

In the field of art and religion points of coincidence even more. Unlike Greeks and Romans, like many Eastern peoples, Etrusks confessed the religion of revelations, whose commandments were zealously worried about the holy books. The Supreme Gods of Etruscov was a trinitywhich worshiped in triple temples. it , Uni and Mennel, Which Romans, in turn, began to read under the names of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva.

Cult Trinitywhich worshiped in the shrines with three walls - each was dedicated to one of the three gods - is also present in the Criton-Mikan civilization. Etruscan tombs often surround cIPPI - Low pillars with decorations that are a symbol of the Divine Presence, or without them. They are carved from the local stone - either from nonfro or from volcanic rocks - diorita or basalt. This resembles a low-monia cult, in which the deity is often represented as a stone or column. Eating Etruscane Columns Also depicted in the schematic and symbolic form of the dead as a deified hero.

Even the ancients hit the unhealthy and manic attitude of the Etruscans to the deities, their constant desire to know the future, studying the omen sent by the people to the gods. Such a detrimental religiosity so great interest in pruney Inevitably makes you remember similar moods in many eastern peoples. Later we will consider in more detail the technique of predictions, extraordinarily widespread from the Etruscans.

Etrussian Priests - Garuspiki - Other peoples of antiquity had a reputation of masters in the art of progress. They succeeded in the interpretation of signs and miracles. The analytical method of Garuspikov has always been based on an incredibly confusing causual. Thunder blow, such a strongly associated with the Tuscan heavens, where terrible and cruel thunderstorms often raise, was the subject of research affecting us with their detailed and systematic character. Garuspiki, in the opinion of the ancients, did not know themselves equal in the art of the fulivers. However, some eastern peoples, for example, babylonian, long before them tried to interpret the thunderstorms in order to guess the will of the gods. To us reached babylonian texts which explains the meaning of thunder depending on the relevant day of the year. They have undoubted similarity with Etruscan text, which is preserved in the Greek translation of John Lidia and represents nothing but calendar thunderstorms.

The favorite occupation of Garuspikov was study of the liver and the internals of animals sacrificed to the gods; It seems that the name of Garuspikov comes from this rite. We see on Etruscane bas-reliefs and mirrors images of priests who make this strange surgery, which also reminds us of ancient Assiro-Babylonian customs. Of course, this method of progress was known and was used in other countries. For example, there are numerous evidence that he practiced later in Greece. But nowhere else was given such a tremendous value, as in some countries of the Ancient East and in Square. In the course of modern excavations in Malaya Asia and Babylonia, many were found terracotta liver models. They cut prophecies based on the configuration of depicted organs. Similar items found in Etruscan Earth. The most famous of them - bronze liver discovered in the vicinity of Piacenza in 1877 From the outside, it is divided into several parts wearing The names of the Tussan Gods. These deities occupy certain areas in the sky, which correspond to clearly defined fragments of the victim's liver. What God is sent by the sign, was determined by what part of the liver was found; In the same way, God sent, who owned the part of the sky, from which she struck. Thus, Etrusks, and before them Babylonians, saw the parallelism between the liver of the sacrificial animal and the world as a whole: the first was just a microcosm reproducing the structure of the world in a tiny scale.

In the field of art, communication with the East indicate the outlines of some objects and specific gold and silver processing methods. Etrussian items made of gold and silver are made with great skill in the VII century BC e. Treasures from the tomb of Regolini-Galassi are striking by perfection and technical ingenuity. We admire them, we involuntarily remember the subtle technique of jewelers of the Middle East.

It is clear that such a coincidence of well-known facts only reinforces the conviction of supporters of "Eastern hypothesis". Nevertheless, many scientists tend to adopt the idea of \u200b\u200bthe indigenous origin of the Etruscans, which almost two thousand years ago put forward Dionysius Galicarnassky. They do not deny anyway kinship connecting Etrury and East But explain it in a different way.

Before the Indo-European invasion, the Mediterranean region was inhabited by ancient peoples associated with numerous kinship bonds. The invaders who were from the north in the period from 2000s to 1000 BC. er, destroyed almost all of these tribes. But here and there they inevitably remained some elements that survived the total cataclysm. Etruscan tell us supporters of this hypothesis, represent exactly one of these islets of ancient priest; They survived a catastrophe, which explains the Mediterranean features of this civilization. Thus, it is possible to explain the indisputable relationship of the Etruscan language with some pre-Allinskiy idioms of Asia Minor and the Aegean basin, like those are captured on the Lehrian Stele.

Such is a very attractive point of view that a number adheres to linguists - Pupils of the Italian researcher Thrombetti. Two recently published books Massimo Pallottino and Franz Altheim Give a scientific substantiation of this thesis. Both author emphasize one significant moment of their argument. In their opinion, until now, the problem is extremely incorrectly formulated. We are always wondering where did the Etrusks come from As if this is the most natural case, when the whole people unexpectedly declared in some region, which later becomes his homeland. Etruscans are known to us only in the Apennine Peninsula (and the islands of the Aegean Sea?); In fact, it turns out here all their history. Then why should we ask a purely academic issue about their origin? The historian should rather be interested in how the Etruscan nation was formed, her civilization. To solve this problem, he not necessarily postulate the eastern origin of the Etruscans, Which is impossible to prove and which in any case is very unlikely.

Herodota's story It should be perceived as a variety of those numerous legends to which the ancient authors are addressed, the narration of the origin of the peoples. Etruscan, apparently, occurred from the mixing of ethnic elements of various origin; It is from such a mixing that an ethnos arises, a nation with clearly defined characteristics and physical features. Thus, the Etruscans are again becoming what they never ceased to be, - Pure italian phenomenon. Therefore, we can often part with a hypothesis about their migration from another country, the source of which in any case requires an extremely careful attitude towards himself.

Such is the essence of the new teachingwhich denies a semi-historical-semi-brand tradition and strangely repeats the conclusions Dionysius Galicarnassky, the first tried to refute this tradition. So people who have a reputation in modern Etruscology, declared themselves with supporters of authonity, or at least Partial autochthonicity of the Etruscan people, denying the traditional hypothesis, although it continues to maintain a significant number of researchers.

We must admit that it is not easy to make a choice in favor of this or that theory. Attempts by Altheim and Pallottino to prove the Italian origin of the Etruscans Rely on a number of observations, certainly loyal and withstanding checks, whatever we think about their idea in general. Of course, it is more important to trace strictly the historical evolution of the Etruscan people in the Tuscan Earth, What to waste forces trying to find out where he came from. In any case, no doubt the manifold of the roots of the Etruscan people. He was born thanks to the merger of various ethnic elements, and we must abandon the naive idea of \u200b\u200bthe people, which suddenly, as if miraculously, appears in Italian Earth. Even if there were migration and invasion of conquerors from the east, they could be pretty small groups that were mixed with Itali tribes that have long been living between Arno and Tiber.

So, the question is whether the idea of \u200b\u200bnavigators from Anatoly, who arrived in the Mediterranean Sea and were looking for a place where they could live on the shores of Italy.

It seems to us that with such a clearly defined point of view, the legend of the aliens from the east saves its meaning. Only it allows you to explain the origin at a specific point in the time of civilization is largely completely new, but with many features that Bind the Etruscans with the Critic Miracle and Middle Eastern World. If a Theory of autochthonity To bring to a logical completion, it will be difficult to explain the unexpected birth of crafts and arts, as well as religious ideas and rites, which were not previously known in the Tuscan Earth. Assumptions were made to what had occurred a kind of awakening of the ancient Mediterranean peoples - the awakening caused by the development of marine and trade relations between the Eastern and Western Mediterranean at the beginning of the VII century BC. e. But such an argument is unable to explain than caused by such a rapid development of culture in Italy, whose civilization was located behind and in many ways to the primitive stage.

Of course, migration cannot be dated, according to Herodotus, 1500-1000. BC e. Italy is in history at a later stage. On all Peninsula, the bronze age continued to about 800 BC. e. And only by the VIII century. BC e. We can attribute two events that had the greatest importance for the history of the ancient Italy, and respectively, and the entire Western world, the arrival of the first Greek colonists for the southern shores of the peninsula and on sicily ok. 750 BC e. and the first flourishing of Etruscan civilization in Tuscany, which occurred, according to undisputed archaeological data, not earlier than 700 BC. e.

Thus, in the central and southern Italy, two great civilization civilization center developed more or less simultaneously, And both contributed to the awakening of the peninsula from a long sleep. Earlier, there was nothing comparable to the brilliant civilizations of the Middle East - Egyptian and Babylonian. This awakening is noted the beginning of Etruscan history, as well as the arrival of Ellin. Tracking the fate of Tuskai, we see the introduction of Italy to the history of mankind.

Reimon Etruscan block. Predickers of the future.
| | Chapter 3.

Today etruscan question Still not found due permission in science. It is not known the origin of the Etruscans, their language is not deciphered. But we know that it was a very developed civilization, formed in the territory north of Lazium - in the field of etruiria. "The nature of Etruria during the entire stone century was not able to man. Even in the era of Neolith, when there are powerful agricultural cultures in the south of the Appeenin Peninsula in the south of the Appenin Peninsula, in the future Etruria there is still almost no population. "1 Only in the century of metals in Etruria several ethnic groups appear, to which approximately in the XII century. BC. Added third, inrogenous. As in the case of Sumerum, the culture of Etruscans was not initially united, but was formed a result of difficult, but as a result of the fruitful interaction of several ethnic groups.

Periodization Etruscan culture is currently not established, but the following stages of the development of this culture are usually allocated:

X-IX centuries. BC. - Culture Villanov

IX - VII centuries .. BC - the oldest period (the formation of the actual Etruscan culture),

600-475 .. BC - the period of the highest heyday of Etruscan culture and art,

475-400 .. BC - the beginning of the crisis, decline in cultural activity,

400-225 .. BC - Etruscan cities are conquered by the Romans, the features of Hellenism are noticeable in art, and finally,

225-30 GG .. BC - The second period of the heyday of this culture.

Culture Villanova (named so at the place of the first finds) is clearly manifested. 900 BC. Judging by archaeological data, this is the first culture, within the framework of which the synthesis of different ethnic tradition is planned, accordingly, it is precisely within its framework that the contours of the future Etruscan civilization begin to be developed.

During this period, all those zones are mastered, which in the future will become the capitals of Etruscan States. But culture itself is not yet interconnected villages, each of which has its own necropolis. The prevailing funeral rite of this time is a trovescence using an urn of a characteristic biconic form, reflecting the symmetry of the underground and landmarks (later biconic urns will develop in potatoes). Multiple types were used as the caps, the most expressive of which is considered helmet screwed.

Ancient period. Throughout the IX-VIII centuries BC. In Etruria, there is a kind of cultivated coup. There is a sharp concentration and strengthening of power. The leader from now on sharply stands out against the background of the other members of the community, and bury it on a new rite - corpecution (although the old cerebral rite remains with the storage of the ashes of the deceased in the canopes or more complex curly ashes in the form of a seated man or a woman).

It is planned to switch from settlements to progressors. The layout of these early cities already takes into account the orientation on the sides of the world, its center is the Palace Complex - Regum. Everywhere develops broad transit trade with the countries of anterior Asia, (especially by china), as well as with Greece. The largest cities of this period are precisely those that are on the trading path - Tarquinia, Ceres, Weii, Vulci.

New types of VAZ and new ornaments appear.

tsari-Lukumon 2.

Flaw period. During the VII-VI centuries. Military Etruscans have already north, medium and southern Italy, spreading their influence on all Western Mediterranean.

During the highest heyday (600-475 BC), Etrury was a federation of twelve independent cities that was a religious association. The federation included a greater number of cities, but in the Etruscan priest symbolism the number 12 was sacred.

Etruscan ceramics and bronze products reach a high degree of perfection. They willingly buy even the Greeks, and all Western Mediterranean is simply filled with the products of Etruscan artisans. Special place is occupied by jewelry, primarily made in the grain technique.

Ancient Rome was in semi-artistic - semi-disabilities with this federation, it was possible that Rome was experiencing a certain dependence on the Etruscans. There is a point of view that both Romulus 3, and Numa were not Italians, but Etruscia, moreover, the approval of the royal form of government is very likely due to the influence of Etruscan civilization. Anyway, the flourishing of the royal power in Rome is really associated with the Etruscan dynasty (VI century. BC), which led to a sharp expansion of Etruscan civilization on ancient Rome. It is by this period that the formation of the Roman policy and the intensive development of the architecture of Rome.

The culture of the Etruscans during the period under review was already at a very high level and, on the one hand, continued to experience the influence of the cultures with whom the trade was made (primarily Greek and Middle East), and on the other, it was noticeably averaged the modern Italian (Roman).

Etruscov earlier than other nations arose cities With regular planning, the streets were focused on the sides of the world, and the city was divided into rectangular quarters of about 150 x 50 m (Martzabotto city, back). However, in other cities, archaic layout was still preserved, often terraced, the following relief features (regular planning of MARCABOTTO also preceded a more free and not reminiscent of hypodamov). The goose as typical, by the description of Vitruvia, the Etruscan city, had three gates and three sacred plots.

The ritual of the foundation of the city was archaic and close to both Greek and Roman: the border was drowned by a plowed furrow 4. (With a rethinking version, this tradition has been preserved until now in interstate boundaries).

Much better, we know the underground architecture of Etruscov, i.e. Break complexes. The main materials in the architecture of Etruscans are a stone of various breeds, bowed without a solution (serfs, foundations of temples and residential buildings), as well as a tree, raw brick (walls).

Introduction

This work is devoted to one of the most mysterious civilization of ancient Europe - Etruscs. The uniqueness of this people attracts many scientists and lovers of history. One of these lovers is me.

Object of research Etruscan civilization

Research Subject Culture Etruscans

The purpose of the work is to study the influence of ancient Greek culture on the development of the culture of Etruscans.

Tasks of work

1. Give the overall characteristic of the Etruscan civilization.

2. Describe the achievements of ancient Greek culture.

3. To identify the areas of Etruscan culture to which an ancient Greek culture had the greatest influence.

Hypothesis: The ancient Greeks during the Great Colonization had an impact on Etruscan culture.

Relevance of work

To date, there are quite a lot of work that are devoted to Etruscs, for example, the work of Nemirovsky A.I "Etrusci. From myth to history, "but the topic about the influence of ancient Greek culture on the culture of Etruscans is mainly described only indirectly. There is no separate work on this topic. So my work has a certain potential. She will be grandeur enough for those who are just beginning to be interested in the history and culture of this people.

General characteristics of Etruscan civilization

This people entered the story under different names. The Greeks were called them tirsnaments or tyrrhens, and the Romans are trees or Etrusca. As you already understood, Etrusks are enough mysterious peoples. Their main mystery is in their origin. Written monuments of the Etruscans themselves cannot help us in the raystery of this mystery, since their language is practically not deciphered. Therefore, scientists have to build various hypotheses, which are based on some archaeological find, as well as on certificates of the Greeks and Romans. All theories about the origin of the Etruscans (except the most implausible) can be reduced to four hypotheses.

1) Eastern hypothesis is the most ancient of all hypotheses. It is based on the works of Herodotus and some other ancient authors. In their opinion, Etruscan - immigrants from Asia Minor. The reasons for which they had to leave their initial homeland are called the Trojan War and the campaigns of the "Peoples of the Sea". In favor of this theory, there are also some features of the political device ("Federation" of 12 cities, division by 3 years of tribes) and other features that are related to the ethrins with the peoples of the Hetto-Luvian group. Opponents of this theory doubt that the whole people could move from Malaya Asia to Italy during the period of the Trojan war and the campaigns of the "nations of the sea". In addition, the Etruscan language does not look like a hatt or other languages \u200b\u200brelated languages.

2) "Theory of formation" on this theory of Etruscans as an ethnos was formed in Italy (or before direct relocation to her) from representatives of several different peoples. Nowadays it is most common. It is adhered to, in particular A.I. Nemirovsky, A.I. Kharchenko and other Russian scientists.

3) Northern hypothesis according to it, Etruscan came to Italy because of the Alps. It was based on the report of Libya on the similarity of the language of Etruscans and Retov (the people who lived between the Alps and the Danube), as well as the similarity of the German runes with the letters of the Etruscan alphabet. Nowadays, it does not have adherents, as it was found as the German runes, and the language of Retov occurred from Etruria, there is no way vice versa.

4) Autochthonic hypothesis: Etruscan - indigenous (pre-European) inhabitants of Italy. This theory is most popular with Italian scientists.

One way or another, but the Etruscans became one of the peoples of Italy. The first archaeological monuments associated with Etrusca (dated the end of the 7th century BC) appeared in one region of Italy, which was called Etrury (by the way the modern name of this region - Tuscany, comes from one of the names of Etruscov - Taska)

Etrury is a swampy plain, which simply becomes not suitable for agriculture, and the coast with shallow harbors, which without the necessary care is easily entered by sand. So, in order to make these land suitable for life, Etruscs needed to make tremendous efforts. And they attached them. Even at the dawn of its history, the Etruscan, with the help of labor of conquered peoples were able to spend huge drainage work. And Etrury has become an extremely fertile region.

In agriculture, Earthlands prevailed: growing grain crops and flax. A fairly important source of the country's wealth was mining metals - copper and iron. On it, the Etrusks made a huge state, as the metals were needed by everything. Pretty great success of the Etruscans have achieved in pottery. In the VIII-VII centuries BC, Etruscan Masters made a very original Keramic "Bucker", which enjoyed in great demand throughout the Mediterranean.

Trading ties of Etruscans were very high. They traded almost with all of Europe. Etruscan origin objects are found not only in Italy, but also in Spain, France, Greece, Turkey and on the coast of North Africa. In the middle-earth countries (especially in Greece), the Etruscans took out metals in the ingots, metal pots (especially the demand for metal mirrors with carved patterns on the turnover), ceramics, and they were mainly imported by luxury objects - elegant Greek ceramics, glass from Egypt, purple fabric from Phenicia. The peoples that lived behind the Alps, the Etrusks were sold wine, weapons and homemade utensils, acquired instead of fur and slaves.

The main force in the Etrusky society was to know. In her hands, all power in Etruscan cities was concentrated, and most of the land also belonged to them. Only representatives of the nobility could wear the surname. No less power of priests. They were the main keepers of knowledge. Also, they applyed to them when it was necessary to carry out divination (we wondered as a rule on the internals of animals) priests were also engaged in the interpretation of the results of divination. And taking into account the fact that the Etrusks were very superstitious people and the results of divination for them were very important, the priests could easily interpret the results of divination as it was profitable. So the priests to some extent possessed even greater power than to know.

About the "middle class" of the Etruscan society, we are practically nothing known. What was his composition, and whether the representatives of this class were owned as unknown to us.

Dependent people in the Etrusky Society were divided into 3 categories: Launuts and etie and slaves. The attitude to the slaves in the Etrusky society was practically not distinguished by how the slaves were treated in Greece and in the East. They were the property of their Mr., and they were not rarely perceived by themselves as people, but as livest. However, in contrast to the Greeks, Etrusks did not limit the possibility of a slave to redeem themselves from the owner. Category Launuts in its position, a little reminded Spartan Ilotov. They were associated with their patriarch patriarchal-childbirth, as they were part of the family of their cartridge. Mostly, the category was completed from the freeds and those free people, which were in debt boalan. The position of Launuts was hereditary: their children and grandchildren remained in this estate. ETER, unlike launuts, were associated with cartridges not by patriarchal-childbirth, but voluntarily brought by oath of loyalty. They received a small plot of land from their cartridge (part of the crop from which he walked the cartridge) or acted as artisans, making for their patron what he needed.

The main political unit of Etruscov was a city. Each such city, as a rule, was subordinate to several cities that used a certain autonomy. At the head of the city, the state was either the king (Lucon) or magistrates that were chosen from nobles.

So far, it is not known whether Lukamon had real power or it was limited to the Council of Elders. It is known that Lucurone headed troops during wars and that he was the Supreme Priest in his city. His personality was considered sacred, he was considered as an embodiment of the patron saint of this city. Perhaps the post of Tsar was selective (the truth is not known whether their life or for a certain time) elected).

Starting from the 6th century BC in many Etruscan cities, the power of Lukumonov was eliminated, and sampled magistrates came to replace them. More often than others mention Zilk, or cite. It is known that young people under the age of 25 could take this position, so that the powers of this magistrate were not great. The names of some other magistrates are known (Marnux, Purth), but nothing is known about their functions.

City-states of Etruscov united in unions - twelve-grades (the number 12 was sacred). In total, there were 3 unions in Etria (it was the main alliance) in the valley of the Pad River (software) in northern Italy and in the campaign in southern Italy. In the event of the disposal of one of the members of the Union, another city-state was chosen in his place (as a rule, he was chosen from those cities that were subordinate from the city out of the Union). Each spring of the head of all cities of the Union was going to the religious capital of Etrury - Voltsiy, where they chose the head of the Union. The chosen head of the union, judging by all did not possess real power. In general, Etruscan twelve-grade was only a religious union. Unity In his actions, members of the Union sought extremely rarely. Basically, they fought, put up and concluded their contracts independently of each other.

It is thugged Etruscans. Their cities could not give a unified energies. And they were waiting for sad fate. In the 4th century BC, the Union of Etruscan cities in the valley of Pad was destroyed by the Celts, and the Union of Cups in the campaign was conquered by the Greeks. Finally, Etruscan civilization was destroyed by the Romans about the middle of the III century BC.