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Topic: Culturology as a science. The main stages of the formation of cultural knowledge

Introduction

Chapter 1. Culturology as a science. Definition of basic concepts

Chapter 2. Stages of formation of cultural knowledge

2.1 Antique stage

2.2 The Middle Ages

2.3 Renaissance

2.4 The era of modern times

2.5 Development of cultural knowledge in the 19th century

2.6 Cultural thought of the 20th century

2.7 Modern trends in culture

Conclusion

List of references

Introduction

Culture is a significant phenomenon in the life of mankind. Researchers from various fields of knowledge are engaged in the study of culture: psychology, sociology, philosophy, etc. But the multidimensionality of this category, its complex content structure contributed to the emergence of a separate science, the subject of which is culture - culturology.

Culturology as a science has a well-built methodological apparatus, it is constantly updated thanks to the many studies of cultural studies, psychologists, philosophers, anthropologists, etc.

The purpose of this work is to determine the history of the development of culturological knowledge as the basis of the content of the science of cultural studies.

The main tool for achieving the goal is analytical work with literary sources.

In this work, two types of sources were used: textbooks containing the general structure of the history of the development of culturological knowledge, and theoretical studies devoted to a certain stage in the development of culturological knowledge. The latter were used to clarify certain historical periods that were poorly sanctified in the first kind. Among them are works by A.F. Loseva, P. Sorokina, A.V. Volkova.

The work consists of an introduction, two chapters and a conclusion. The first chapter examines the main theoretical issues: the definition of culture and cultural studies, the goals and objectives of the new science, its methods. The second chapter provides a detailed analysis of the main historical periods in the development of culturological knowledge. In conclusion, the results of the work are summarized.

Chapter1. Culturology as a science. Definition of basic concepts

Determining the essence of science, culturologists, it is necessary to turn to the structure of the concept itself. It consists of two words: culture and logos. In the aggregate, "the science of culture" is obtained. Analyzing the definitions of the term "cultural studies" given by various authors, we find confirmation of the literal translation. So, for example, A.S. Neverova defines culturology as "a humanitarian science about the essence, laws of existence and development of culture, human meaning and ways of comprehending it."

If this or that field of knowledge claims to be a science, then it must have a well-built methodological apparatus and, first of all, a clearly formulated object and subject of research. What is the object and subject of cultural studies?

A.S. Neverova believes that the object of culturology is "the cultural aspects of various aspects of the social life of people, the identification of features and achievements, the main cultural and historical types, the analysis of trends and processes occurring in the modern socio-cultural environment."

A.P. Sadokhin believes that the subject of cultural studies is "a set of issues of the origin, functioning and development of culture as a specifically human way of life, different from the world of living nature."

The origin of the term "cultural studies" is usually associated with the name of the American cultural anthropologist L.A. White, who proposed a name for the new cultural science. It was he who, in his works "The Science of Culture", "The Evolution of Culture", "The Concept of Culture", substantiated the need to separate this area of \u200b\u200bknowledge into a separate science and laid its general theoretical foundations. Insisting on the need for a science of culture, White attempted to isolate the subject of her research, separating it from the subjects of related sciences, to which he attributed psychology and sociology. If psychology, as White argued, studies the psychological reaction of the human body to external factors, and sociology - the laws of the relationship between the individual and society, then the subject of cultural studies should be the understanding of the relationship between such cultural phenomena as custom, tradition, ideology. He predicted a great future for culturology, believing that it represents a new, qualitatively higher level in the comprehension of man and the world.

Despite the fact that culturology gradually took its place among other social and humanitarian sciences, disputes about its scientific status continue to this day. Even in the West, the term "culturology" was not immediately adopted, and culture there continued to be studied by disciplines such as social and cultural anthropology, sociology, psychology, linguistics, etc. In our country, this term was established only from the early 1990s. culturology replaced historical materialism and scientific communism, removed from the curriculum. At the same time, culturology was introduced into the nomenclature of specialties, became an academic discipline in universities, and corresponding departments and faculties were created. However, the process of self-determination of cultural studies as a scientific and educational discipline is still not completed.

Cultural science is in the process of formation today, its content and structure have not yet acquired clear scientific boundaries, research within its framework is contradictory, there are many methodological approaches to defining the subject of this science. And in our time, the point of view is quite widespread that cultural studies do not have their own subject of research, it "spreads" over other scientific disciplines - history, psychology, sociology, anthropology, art history, etc. Only on one of the few points, of course, everyone agrees - the subject of cultural studies is culture.

It can be noted that the key concept in cultural studies as a science is "culture". There are various approaches to defining this concept:

Descriptive - simply lists (obviously incomplete) individual elements and manifestations of culture, for example, customs, beliefs, activities;

Anthropological - culture is a set of products of human activity, the world of things, contrary to nature, artificially created by man (second nature);

Valuable (axiological) - culture - a set of spiritual and material values \u200b\u200bcreated by people;

Normative - the content of culture is made up of norms and rules that govern the life of people;

Adaptive - culture is a way of satisfying needs characteristic of people, a special kind of activity through which they adapt to natural conditions;

Historical - culture is a product of the history of society and develops through the transfer of the experience acquired by a person from generation to generation;

Functional - characterizes culture through the functions that it performs in society, and considers the unity and interrelation of these functions in it;

Semiotic - culture - a system of signs used by society;

Symbolic - focuses on the use of symbols in culture;

Hermeneutic - culture - a set of texts that are interpreted and comprehended by people;

Ideational - culture - the spiritual life of society, the flow of ideas and other products of spiritual creativity that accumulate in social memory;

Psychological - indicates the connection between culture and the psychology of human behavior;

Sociological - culture is a factor in the organization of public life; a set of ideas, principles, social institutions that ensure the collective activity of people.

The following definition of culture is widely used: “Culture is a specific way of organizing human life, represented in the products of material and spiritual labor, in the system of social norms and institutions, in spiritual values, in the aggregate attitude of people to nature, among themselves and to themselves, and also to cultural artifacts (products of culture creation) ”.

Culture is a multifunctional system:

Mastering and transforming the surrounding world is one of the main functions;

Cognitive;

Storage and transfer of human experience, knowledge, culture, information;

Educational;

Educational;

Communicative (communication);

Normative (regulatory);

Psychological relaxation.

The methodological apparatus of science, in addition to the subject and object, includes the definition of goals and objectives and research methods.

The main tasks of cultural studies are:

A deep, complete and holistic explanation of culture, its essence, content, features and functions;

Study of the genesis (origin and development) of culture as a whole, as well as individual phenomena and processes in culture;

Determination of the place and role of a person in cultural processes;

Interaction with other sciences studying culture;

Study of information about culture, which came from art, philosophy, religion and other areas related to the unscientific knowledge of culture;

Study of the development of individual cultures.

The goal of cultural studies is such a study of culture, on the basis of which its understanding is formed. To do this, it is necessary to identify and analyze:

The facts of culture, which together constitute a system of cultural phenomena;

Links between elements of culture;

The dynamics of cultural systems;

Methods of production and assimilation of cultural phenomena;

Types of cultures and their underlying norms, values \u200b\u200band symbols (cultural codes);

Cultural codes and communication between them.

Cultural studies methods:

1) general scientific methods:

Observation,

Experiment,

Analogy,

Modeling,

Analysis and synthesis,

Induction and deduction,

Making hypotheses,

Analysis of texts;

2) specialized methods:

Genetic - allows us to understand the phenomenon of interest to us from the point of view of its occurrence and development,

Comparative - requires a comparative historical analysis of different cultures or any specific areas of culture in a certain time interval,

A systematic approach allows you to comprehend culture, showing it at the present moment in time in the fullness of its connections and relations,

Structural and functional - considers culture as a subsystem of an integral socio-cultural system, each element of which acts as a carrier of value relations and performs a service role in the general system of regulation of social life,

Sociological - studies culture and its phenomena as a social institution that gives society a systemic quality and allows one to consider culture from the point of view of specific expediency for certain social strata or social groups,

Activity - understands culture as a specific way of creative human activity, which is realized in the creation of various cultural objects and in the development of the person himself,

Axiological (value) - consists in identifying that sphere of human life, which can be called the world of values, understood as ideals, to which a given society seeks to achieve,

Semiotic - proceeds from the understanding of culture as a non-biological sign mechanism for the transfer of experience from generation to generation, as a symbolic system that ensures social inheritance,

Hermeneutic is characteristic of most of the humanities, since it reflects the need not so much for knowledge about some phenomenon as for understanding it, since knowledge and understanding differ from each other.

Chapter2. Stages of formation of cultural knowledge

2.1 Antique stage

The term "culture" goes back to the Latin cultura, which means "cultivation", "care". It was originally used in relation to the cultivation of the land, the breeding of plants and animals, therefore cultor is a cultivator, tiller, pastoralist, that is, a peasant and a farmer. The connection with agriculture has remained with this word today. For example, we say "agriculture", "cultivator". Plant growth and development are analogous to human upbringing and development. Hence the term cultor received another meaning - educator, mentor. The transformation of this term in Roman antiquity testifies to its fullness with anthropological (universal) content. A person (homo), if he is a well-mannered person (humanus), achieves this state not only due to his natural disposition (natura), but also on the basis of a theoretical attitude, speculation (ratio) and special education (disciplina). Here the Romans, as in their understanding of the goals of educating civil and personal virtues, followed the Greeks, recognizing their civilizing role in the development of mankind.

In the ancient Greek polis, culture was at the same time "education", "cultivation" and "cult". The Greek term "paideia" (pais - child) designates both direct upbringing, training, and education, enlightenment, culture. The Greeks created a unique educational system in which a person is formed as a person with definite value orientations. This appeal to man is the enduring humanitarian significance of the ancient understanding of culture, which is based on the ideal of man, the ideal that is the goal of the cultural process.

2.2 The Middle Ages

The death of ancient civilization and culture at the same time meant the victory of Christianity over paganism (although the victory was far from complete, and the conflict between Christianity and the pagan heritage passed through the entire Middle Ages) "and turned it into a spiritual force that influenced all aspects of human life, on his spiritual In the conditions of the general decline of culture in the early Middle Ages, only the church for many centuries remained the only social institution common to all countries, tribes and states of Europe.

The ancient understanding of culture, based on the recognition of rational search as a path to virtue (perfection in any area, including ethical), turned out to be completely helpless when a person came to the conclusion that in addition to the material-bodily world, his earthly homeland, there is heavenly homeland, spiritual worldwhere true bliss is found. The human soul is immortal and is the property of the heavenly world, while his body belongs to the earthly world, and the surrounding world, nature have lost their sovereignty, and their sensory-anthropomorphic characteristics have lost their significance. Having faced the boundless world, a person saw that laws and norms that were beyond the control of the human mind were operating in him, but with all the more joy and hope he realized that there was a Higher Reason and Higher Justice in him.

Culture again appeared before man as the need to "cultivate" his own abilities, including reason, but "natural reason", naturally unspoiled and supplemented by faith. A previously invisible world was revealed to man: God cares about him and loves him. To save man, he sent his consubstantial son to torment. An area of \u200b\u200ba different vision of the world opened up before a person - through love, love for one's neighbor. As it turned out, rationality is far from being the main thing in a person; such dimensions as faith, hope, love were revealed.

Man reveals his weakness. Man is a weak, helpless creature worthy of pity and participation. But in his weakness he reveals tremendous strength. Trusting in faith, he can say yes to a chaotic and scary world. A new understanding of culture allowed man to realize his uniqueness: God created man, his immortal soul. Happiness is not in knowing yourself, but in knowing God. It is impossible to cognize oneself, the depths of the human soul, the uniqueness of man are revealed (there is no universal universal that fills the entire content of ancient man). The happiness and freedom of a person is not in his “autonomization” (independence), but in the awareness of the spiritual kinship in which he is with the Almighty - then a person will learn to overcome himself, to achieve the unattainable. Culture begins to be understood not as the upbringing of a measure of harmony and order, but as overcoming limitations, as cultivating the inexhaustibility, bottomlessness of the personality, as its constant spiritual improvement.

2.3 Renaissance

In the culture of each historical era, sooner or later, idealized images of previous eras arise, which are most often called the "golden age". This kind of appeal to the past and its high assessment is an attempt to recreate and rethink the past achievements of culture in new historical conditions. This widespread approach in culture means its revival, i.e. renewal of the cultural heritage of past eras in modern socio-historical conditions.

In European culture, this kind of revival process began in the first half of the 14th century, when the process of reviving elements of ancient culture began to develop as a renewal of the content of European culture. This renewal continued until the end of the 16th century. and received the name of the Renaissance.

During the Renaissance there is a return to the ancient meaning of the word "culture" as a harmonious and sublime development of man, containing his active, creative principle. The Renaissance put forward the idea of \u200b\u200ba humane man as opposed to the "barbarian" man of the Middle Ages. Humanism recognizes itself as anthropocentrism (focus on man), and a new place of man - in the center of the cosmos - also gives rise to special sciences about man. Traditional university education is complemented by the humanities: poetics, rhetoric and moral philosophy.

2.4 The era of modern times

culturology revival antique

The culturological thought of modern times was characterized by a variety of approaches to the definition of culture.

The French philosopher, physicist and mathematician René Descartes (1596-1650) admitted that a lonely sane person who grew up in the desert, through his own efforts, without training and education, is able to discover all the necessary truths and all the knowledge that humanity can have. There is no need for historical transmission and accumulation of knowledge, or for cooperation with contemporaries and even reading books, even if they contain all the truths.

Descartes demanded to free the imagination from all imperfect ideas imprinted in it, to question all previous knowledge, in order to destroy the building of existing sciences to the ground and erect a new one.

Through culture (artificial nature), a person conquers natural nature, at the same time separating from it and feeling some hostility towards it. This allowed the French educator and philosopher, writer Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778) to conclude that the so-called cultural peoples (Europeans) in comparison with primitive peoples, who have certain taboos. Rousseau, in fact, blamed science for the fact that she, by destroying the world of religious values, contributed to the development of skepticism and cynicism. In addition, he believed that at all times and among all peoples, with the rise of sciences and arts, morality degraded, luxury and perversion of morals spread.

A different understanding of culture is offered by the German philosopher, critic, esthetician Johann Herbar (1744-1803), who considers it as a certain stage of historical development, closely related to the level of achievements of science and education, and is the first to draw attention to the polycentricity of culture. Herbar named language, science, education and training system, crafts, art, state building, religion as components of culture. Herbar's works stimulated the development of comparative linguistics, folklore studies, and ethnography.

Blaise Pascal (1623-1662) stated the fact that the successes of science cannot make people happy, since this concept of the spiritual plan, and science does not deal with spiritual problems, therefore he saw salvation only in faith. Many scientists of that time (Newton, La Bruyere, Leibniz, Rousseau, Diderot) were in solidarity with him. But this was fundamentally expressed in the philosophy of the German idealists, among whom Immanuel Kant (1724 - 1804) stands out.

Kant distinguished qualitatively two worlds: the natural world and the world of freedom. Only the second of them, Kant believed, is the truly human world, that is, the world of culture. As a natural being, man is not free - he is entirely at the mercy of the laws of zoology, where the source of evil lies. But evil is not fatal, it can be overcome through culture, the core of which is morality. The world of nature (cruelty and evil) and the world of freedom (culture, morality) are connected only by the great power of Beauty (the power of art). The highest manifestation of culture is its aesthetic manifestation - this conclusion of Kant was enthusiastically accepted and laid the foundation for the general idea of \u200b\u200bthe essence and purpose of culture by all European romanticism of the late 18th - early 19th centuries.

In the philosophical system of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (1770-1831), culture is associated with the self-development of the world mind or the Absolute Idea. It is embodied in humanity, in peoples, in individuals, manifests itself through their activities and cognizes itself, expressed in culture - in the products of people's spiritual creativity. In individuals, it appears as a subjective spirit, in society - as an objective spirit, and, finally, in spiritual culture - as an absolute spirit. The absolute spirit realizes itself in human culture, first in the field of art, then in religion, and, ultimately, most adequately - in the field of philosophy.

2.5 Development of cultural knowledgein19th centurye

The 19th century became the time of the birth of cultural concepts proper, which from new methodological positions turned to the study of man and his problems. At the same time, the destruction of the classical concept of culture occurred, caused by disappointment in the possibilities of reason. Enlightenment illusions about the possible overcoming of contradictions in social life and human nature were dispelled.

Philosophers and scientists of the second half of the 19th century approached the analysis of problems of history and culture in different ways. Among these approaches should be called Marxism, which provided a materialistic interpretation of history and culture; positivism, which reduces research to the collection and systematization of empirical facts; and also a very powerful stream of irrationalism, which tried to explain culture in terms of the preconscious or subconscious.

The Marxist concept of culture was developed by German thinkers Karl Marx (1818-1883) and his colleague Friedrich Engels (1820-1895). It is based on a materialistic understanding of history, considering culture in direct connection with human labor and the production of material goods.

Culture in Marxist theory is one of the components of the superstructure, together with the state, ideology, thinking. It is understood as a process and a set of results of a person's activity in all spheres of being and consciousness, aimed at the development of his substantial, essential forces. The paradox of culture lies in the fact that it is created by a person, for whom nature does not genetically lay his life program. Therefore, a person as a social being is formed under the influence of the culture of the society in which he is, that is, the culture that he himself creates. In each socio-economic formation, a person can realize himself and his qualities, abilities in different ways, since social institutions change historically and impose other requirements on members of society in the process of its development.

Thus, for Marxism, culture becomes not only the problem of spiritual self-improvement, but also the problem of creating all the conditions for the development of culture by man. However, culture as a process of material and spiritual production, development and use of accumulated experience and knowledge always takes place in specific socio-historical conditions, the direction of change in which is set by the economic basis.

The economic basis and its inalienable element - the relations of ownership of the means of production - form social reality. Owning or not owning property divides society, leads to its social stratification. Each social stratum and class defends its right to take ownership of the means of production, one - defending itself as an owner, the other - intending to get it on the basis of the redistribution of property in society using their convictions. Systems of beliefs, ideas, perceptions are called ideologies and, from the point of view of Marxism, they are always conditioned by the social-class order. Ideology reflects the aspirations, goals and social interests of the class in power, and, most importantly, its cultural level. The rest of the "oppressed", exploited social strata, supporting the state structures of power and administration, state ideology, thereby express agreement with this social reality and its class structure.

In the middle of the 19th century in European science - biology, ethnography, anthropology, history of culture - the ideas of evolutionism were widely spread. The central concept of this direction is "evolution" - a smooth accumulation of changes that gradually lead to the complication of any object of the development process.

The ideas of evolutionism made it possible to show the dependence of the current state of culture on the past. Based on numerous facts from the life of peoples and using comparative historical and historical genetic methods in the analysis of culture, evolutionists sought to identify the basic laws of the cultural process.

In the late 19th - early 20th century. evolutionism was replaced by the theory of the historical typology of cultures, which subjected to justified criticism the idea of \u200b\u200bone-line and stage-by-stage sequence of the historical development of culture. According to the new theory, there is an endless variety of unique, dissimilar and inimitable cultures in the world. Each nation has its own special appearance, contributes to the development of the culture of all mankind. All cultures are autonomous, and the unity of mankind is made up of the diversity of local civilizations.

In an effort to discover the origins of culture, to determine its essence, to identify the most general patterns of development, many representatives of the European creative elite of the late 19th century. began to create their own concepts of the general theory of culture, thereby expanding the subject of culturological knowledge. Scientific schools emerged with a focus that reflected the specific interests of a particular scientist. In the mainstream of this process in Europe at that time a new direction in philosophy took shape, decisively breaking with the rational European values \u200b\u200bof reason, science and enlightenment, as well as with traditional Christian morality. This direction is called the philosophy of life. The main representative of this trend was F. Nietzsche.

Man, according to Nietzsche, is initially anticultural, he is a natural being, and culture was created to suppress and enslave man. Only thanks to cultural prohibitions created by society, moral legal norms and principles of art, social myths are formed and illusory dreams of humanism, freedom and justice are born. For Nietzsche, culture is a specific way of adapting a person who, being a sick being, is not able to independently survive in the stream of existence. Therefore, a person invents various devices to protect him from the flow of life. Thus, culture for Nietzsche is a kind of wall that separates a person from true reality.

2.6 Cultural thought of the 20th century

The development of cultural studies in the XX century. closely related to philosophy. The main problems of cultural studies were formed as part of philosophical knowledge or under its strong influence. At the same time, the methods and results of cultural studies were perceived by philosophy and used in solving purely philosophical issues. Such interaction and mutual influence is often found in the works of many representatives of cultural science.

Sociological thought at the beginning of the 20th century. was aimed at considering the causes of the crisis in society and its value systems. In this regard, sociologists turned to the study of various aspects of culture and religion. This, in turn, became the basis for the emergence of an axiological approach to the analysis of society and culture. For culturological thought, this was a fundamentally important moment, since it led to the emergence of a new concept of culture and the emergence of a sociological school in cultural studies, which united those researchers of Culture who were looking for its origins and explanation in the social nature of man and in the social organization of mankind.

The ideas of the sociological school are set forth, in particular, in the works of the American sociologist of Russian origin Pitirim Alexandrovich Sorokin (1889-1968).

According to Sorokin, culture, in the broadest sense of the word, is the totality of everything created by a given society at a certain stage of its development. In culture, two aspects should be distinguished: internal - meaning, value, spiritual content of cultural phenomena - and external - the material embodiment of meanings and values \u200b\u200bin things and phenomena. Thus, all cultural objects are signs and symbols, in this they differ from natural objects. Culture, on the other hand, is a phenomenon of a special kind, much more complex and perfect than a plant or animal organism. It is not determined by the economy, but acts as a system of values-values, with the help of which society integrates energy, maintains the interconnection of its cultural institutions. Culture determines the energy and direction of human activity.

The methodological approach that considers culture as the organization of ideas, knowledge, the ordering of signs and meanings, has its origins in neo-Kantianism, which continued the Kantian tradition of understanding culture as a purely human phenomenon.

In the 20th century. Kant's cultural ideas were developed in the Marburg school of neo-Kantianism, the founder and leading representative of which was Ernst Cassirer (1874-1945).

At the heart of his concept of culture, Cassirer lays a purely human capacity for mass, systematic and constant symbolization. He finds the origins of culture not in human instincts, not in the social organization of society, not in the depths of the divine spirit, but in the ability of a person to create an artificial world, where reality is indicated by certain symbols. Man can and must cognize these symbols, which he himself creates. The essence of culture is symbolic activity.

Plato also spoke about the play space, Kant - about the theory of the aesthetic state of play, Schiller - about play as a substitute for culture. Such attention to play is not accidental, because play, along with work and study, is one of the main types of human activity. In childhood, play is in the first place, but adults continue to play - cards, chess, lottery, football, stock exchange, theater and cinema, etc. Therefore, play is a cultural activity of a person, in which he transforms nature and the social world, forms himself as a person.

Dutch cultural scientist Johan Heizinga (1872-1945) dedicated his book "Homo Ludens" - "The Playing Man" (1938) to play. Its main leitmotif was the statement - the game older than culture, play precedes culture, play creates culture.

The culture-forming properties of the game are manifested in several aspects:

1. First of all, play is a relaxed, non-profit-oriented behavior that gives a person freedom of action, stimulates the imagination and brings to life meanings not related to everyday material needs. This leads to the emergence of spiritual culture.

2. The game presupposes the observance of certain rules, which are offered by the person himself, and are not dictated by objective conditions. This gives rise to the idea of \u200b\u200bthe need to limit existing freedom for the sake of living among other people, which is impossible without a certain order.

3. The result of the game is the emergence of morality, as well as other norms that regulate human life.

4. Play promotes the development of society and various forms of communication between people.

Ethological theory of culture. This is a new direction in culturology, which appeared in the second half of the 20th century. It absorbed the rich experience of its predecessors, among which should be called psychoanalytic, game theory of culture, as well as anthropological research. The founders of this trend - Konrad Lorenz (1903-1989), Nicholas Tinbergen (1907-1988) and others - founded ethology, the science of animal behavior. Starting with the study of the animal kingdom, scientists gradually extended their research to humans.

Drawing parallels between the animal kingdom and the world of human culture, ethologists have developed a theory of the "instinctive foundations of human culture." The instincts of animals, reflected in their stable behavior ("wedding" dances, building houses, caring for offspring, etc.), are identified here with the natural origins of human culture. According to Lorenz, stereotypes of animal behavior correspond to cultural rituals and norms of human behavior created as a result of natural selection.

Biosphere concepts of culture were an attempt to explain the emergence and development of culture through natural science. Supporters of these concepts consider culture to be a natural stage in the development of the biosphere of the Earth and the Universe as a whole.The Russian encyclopedic scientist, creator of the science of biogeochemistry, as well as the doctrine of living matter and the biosphere, Vladimir Ivanovich Vernadsky (1863-1945), can rightfully be considered the founder of this approach.

A new direction in the theory of culture of the early XX century. became psychoanalysis, which put before western culture the problem of the individual and collective unconscious. The initiative to use psychological science to explain cultural phenomena belonged to the Austrian neuropathologist and psychiatrist Sigmund Freud (1856 - 1939), the creator of psychoanalysis. The starting point of his concept, he makes the hypothesis of the three-level structure of the human psyche. 1. Unconscious It - instincts, unaccountable drives, desires, mental movements. 2. Conscious I - the mediator between the unconscious and the outside world, reason. 3. Super-I - what personifies prohibitions, norms of social behavior, conscience.

The human problem is that there is an irreconcilable contradiction between the natural principle and the norms of culture. If, according to Freud, man "by nature" strives only to satisfy "wild and unbridled" desires, then this goal is impracticable. Culture is a means of forcing a person to social order, a tool for suppressing primary social urges.

If culture requires more from a person than he can, then this causes a revolt or neurosis in the individual, or makes him unhappy, dissatisfied with himself and his life. Culture makes life safer by blocking human instincts, but this damages the mental health of a person who is torn between natural drives and cultural norms, between sexuality and sociality, aggressiveness and morality.

2.7 Modern trends in culture

IN modern world coexist, sometimes interacting, and sometimes, practically not intersecting with each other, different cultures. Millions of people are guided by a variety of value systems, are sometimes guided by mutually exclusive principles, stereotypes, and rules. However, in the 21st century. the trend towards the historical formation of a universal world civilization is gaining strength. The processes taking place in the sphere of culture in the 21st century have acquired a global character, affecting all peoples and civilizations. The assessments of these processes in cultural studies are ambiguous.

Supporters of one point of view are convinced that all peoples, nations and ethnic groups develop according to common laws. At the same time, some are pulling ahead in their economic, social, cultural development, while others are lagging behind, even experiencing periods of reverse movement. Each culture also has significant regional and national characteristics. But, ultimately, humanity is moving in one direction, and this circumstance was decisive in the development of world culture in the 21st century, it was in the mainstream of this single global movement that nations and peoples were converging and gradually merging, national cultures converging, merging into a single global culture ...

Supporters of a different point of view proceed from directly opposite beliefs. In their opinion, it is generally impossible to speak of a single human civilization or a single human culture. In the history of mankind, there have been and remain many different civilizations, and each of them, being unique in its own way, moves along its own path, only borrowing some elements of culture from others. But all the same, it is not these borrowings that are decisive, but that special thing that lies at the basis of universal human, or world, culture.

On the other hand, this situation of artistic pluralism activates the creative freedom of a person who can now combine rationality and mythology in his artistic practice. It also allows a person to be more receptive to new things, expands the horizons of artistic creativity. But, on the other hand, unlimited pluralism makes modern culture unstable, fragile, creates certain zones of tension that can plunge culture into the chaos of general discord. The situation when heterogeneous, contradictory attitudes and ways of relating to the world coexist can be resolved in two ways: culture will not be able to get out of chaos and uncertainty, which is fraught with an apocalypse; there will be a smooth adaptation of all phenomena to each other, which will ensure the transition of culture to some kind of new state, which means a change in the cultural paradigm.

Conclusion

In this work, in the first chapter, it was possible to analyze the definitions of the concepts of culture and cultural studies, to identify the connection between these concepts, which lies in the fact that culture as a result of human labor and creative activity, at the same time, a resource for human development is the subject of study of cultural studies. In addition, the main tasks of the study of culture by the new science, its methodological arsenal were identified.

The second chapter presents the results of a theoretical analysis of the development of culturological knowledge in the era of antiquity, the Middle Ages, Renaissance, New and Modern times.

In antiquity (ancient Romans), the concept of "culture" meant the cultivation of the land (its cultivation). Until now, this meaning has been preserved (cereals, etc.).

The ancient Greeks meant this as a difference from the savage barbarian tribes.

In the Middle Ages, the concept of "culture" meant the pursuit of the divine ideal.

Enlighteners of the 16th and 17th centuries had in mind the rationality of human society.

In the 18th century, the concept of "Culture" meant good breeding, adherence to ethical standards, a certain degree of education.

In the 19th century, 4 basic understandings of the word "Culture" were established;

Level general condition mind;

The level of intellectual development of the whole society;

The totality of artistic and creative activities;

The way of life is material and spiritual.

In the 20th and 21st centuries, there is a revision of the essence of the concept of culture, the demarcation of various scientific directions and schools that look at this issue in different ways.

List of references

1. Gurevich PS Culturology. M., 1998.

2. Culturology / Paul ed. A.S. Neverovoy, Minsk: Higher School, 2004 .-- 187 p.

3. Culturology: Foundations of Theory and History of Culture / ed. A.V. Volkova. SPb., 1996.

4. Losev A.F. Renaissance aesthetics. M., 1982.

5. Mamontov S.P. Fundamentals of cultural studies. M., 1996.

6. Sadokhin A.P. Culturology. - M .: EKSMO, 2006 .-- 154 p.

7. Silichev D.A. Culturology. M., 2000.

8. Sorokin P. Man and society in a disaster // Issues of sociology. 1993. No. 3.

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1.3. The main stages of the formation of cultural studies

The development of culture was accompanied by the formation of its self-awareness. Thinkers have always sought to understand and evaluate cultural phenomena, thereby influencing the cultural processes taking place in society. "The process of development and expression of spiritual, intellectual and emotional attitude to culture can be called the formation of cultural studies."

The periodization of the stages of the formation of cultural studies can be carried out for various reasons. Allocate pre-classical (antiquity, Middle Ages); classic (XIV - late XIX century); non-classical (first half of the 20th century); postnonclassical (late XX century) stages. Other authors cite a different periodization: pre-scientific, scientific-historical and scientific-philosophical stages. V. Rozin distinguishes the following periods of the formation of cultural studies: philosophical (here the very idea of \u200b\u200bculture is constituted); empirical study of cultural phenomena; building cultural studies as a scientific discipline; deployment of applied research.

At the same time, many researchers believe that the periodization of cultural studies can, to a certain extent, be based on the chronology of historical types of culture: antiquity and antiquity, the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, New time, modernity.

Consider the formation of cultural studies, based on the last of the above periodization schemes.

In antiquity and antiquity, mythological ideas about the laws of the cultural and historical process prevailed. However, already in myths, an attitude towards culture as a mediator between nature and man, as a manifestation of man's creative powers given to him from the gods, was developed. Homer and Hesiod were the first systematizers of ancient mythological ideas about the laws of the cultural and historical process. So, in the poems of Hesiod, a clear line is drawn between the kingdom of nature and the kingdom of people. This line is in morality. Thus, Hesiod laid the foundation for the understanding of culture as a manifestation of morality in society.

At the same time, in antiquity and antiquity, the concept of "culture" was often interpreted as a purposeful human impact on nature (for example, cultivating the land, planting gardens, etc.), although there was a different understanding of it - education and training of the person himself. In ancient consciousness, the concept of culture is identified with paideia, that is, education. Paideia, according to Plato, meant a guide to change the whole person in his being.

The problematic of the philosophy of culture was first recognized by the sophists, who formulated the antinomy of the natural and the moral (identified with culture).

As already noted, the scientific term “culture” appeared only in the 17th century, but at the early stages of historical development there were concepts similar to it (for example, ren - in the Chinese tradition, dharma - in the Indian tradition). In Latin, the word "culture" appears. For example, Marcus Porcius Cato wrote a treatise on agriculture, the translation of the title of which is "agriculture". It was not only about the cultivation of the soil, but also about a special emotional attitude towards it. Therefore, “culture” here also meant reverence, worship. The Romans used the word "culture" in the genitive case: culture of speech, culture of thought, etc.

In the late Roman era, another interpretation of the concept of "culture" was born, close to the concept of "civilization". Culture was associated with a positively assessed urban lifestyle.

In the Middle Ages, the word "cult" was used more often than the word "culture". In the writings of thinkers of that time, culture was associated with signs of personal excellence. This is, for example, the religious interpretation of culture in Christianity. In the works of Augustine the Blessed, a providential understanding of the history of culture was given, that is, its gradual path to the kingdom of God through the inner revelation of God in man.

During the Renaissance there is a return to the ancient meaning of the word "culture" as a harmonious and sublime development of man, containing his active, creative principle. Accordingly, the improvement of culture began to be understood as the embodiment of the humanistic ideal of man.

In modern times, there is a big change in the interpretation of the phenomenon of "culture". Culture begins to be understood as an independent phenomenon and means the results of the activity of a social person. Culture is opposed to nature, with its spontaneous and unbridled principles. It more and more coincides with such phenomena as enlightenment, education, upbringing. This understanding of culture during this period is no coincidence. The formation of machine production, the great geographical discoveries, the formation of scientific knowledge and its rapid growth - all this spoke of the determining role of man and society in the processes of their life. Therefore, culture was also thought of as the cumulative result of what mankind has achieved.

The French enlighteners of the 18th century (Voltaire, Turgot, Condorcet) reduced the content of the cultural and historical process to the development of the human mind. Culture itself was identified with the forms of spiritual and political development of society, and its manifestations were associated with the movement of science, morality, art, government, religion. The goals of culture were considered by authors in different ways. So, in the eudemonic conceptions of culture, its goal was determined from the higher purpose of reason - to make all people happy; in naturalistic - to live in harmony with the demands and needs of their natural nature.

During this period, the main approaches to understanding the development of culture were formed. Thus, D. Vico puts forward the idea of \u200b\u200ba cyclical development of culture, considering that all peoples at different times go through three stages: the era of the gods - the childhood of mankind; the era of heroes - his youth; the era of people - its maturity. Moreover, each era ends with a general crisis and disintegration. The philosophy of history by Voltaire and Condorcet was based on the idea of \u200b\u200bthe progressive development of culture. They thought of progress as a forward movement on the basis of the boundless development of the human mind.

Thus, it is typical for the figures of the Enlightenment to search for the meaning of history precisely in connection with the development of culture.

At the same time, the concept of "civilization" appeared, the essence of which was urbanization and the growing role of material and technical culture. At the same time, already within the framework of the Enlightenment, a “criticism” of culture and civilization is formed, opposing the depravity and moral depravity of “cultural” nations with the simplicity and purity of the customs of peoples who were at the patriarchal stage of development. Rousseau wrote that the development of the sciences and arts contributed not to an improvement, but to a deterioration in morals, and the evil associated with social inequality absorbed all the good that the development of culture gave. Rousseau idealized the patriarchal way of life, the natural simplicity of morals.

Criticism of civilization and culture was adopted by German classical philosophy, which gave it the character of general theoretical comprehension. However, philosophers saw the resolution of the contradictions of culture in different ways. Kant believed that a person experiences a strong influence of culture, it is she who determines his boundaries of knowledge, makes him deviate from his natural state. But through moral self-awareness, a person can break out of the clutches of culture and preserve his I... It is moral consciousness that is the means of liberating the spirit. Other philosophers, such as Schiller, romantics saw such a means in the aesthetic consciousness.

Hegel gave the most complete and deep analysis of culture and its development at that time. The development of culture was associated with the gradual self-realization of the spirit. Each stage of culture differs from another, in his opinion, the fullness of the presence of mind. In the philosophical consciousness, he is presented to the maximum. Culture, thus, acts as an area of \u200b\u200bhuman spiritual freedom, which lies outside the boundaries of his natural and social existence. Culture is one, but at the same time it is multiple, since it is realized through the spirit of the peoples. Hence the variety of types and forms of cultural development, located in a certain historical sequence and forming in the aggregate a single line of spiritual evolution of mankind.

The ideas of the German philosopher and educator I. Herder played an important role in the development of cultural studies. His understanding of the development of culture is based on the principle of the organic unity of the world. He viewed culture as the progressive development of the faculties of the human mind. Accordingly, culture as a part of the world develops progressively and leads humanity to goodness, reason and justice. According to Herder, there are several approaches to the interpretation of culture: as a progressive development of a person's spiritual life, as a certain stage in the development of mankind, as a characteristic of the values \u200b\u200bof enlightenment. Herder's ideas were later embodied in several directions of the study of culture: they created the tradition of comparative historical research of culture (W. Humboldt); laid the foundation for the view of culture as a particular anthropological problem; led to the emergence of a specific analysis of customs and ethnic characteristics of culture.

In the 19th and early 20th centuries, in many philosophical, sociological and other concepts, problems related to culture are comprehended. So, in the "philosophy of life" an irrational interpretation of culture is formed. First of all, the theory of a single linear evolution of culture was criticized. It was opposed to the concept of "local civilizations" - closed and self-sufficient, unique cultural organisms going through the stages of growth, maturation and death (O. Spengler). A. Toynbee developed similar ideas. At the same time, they were opposed to civilization and culture.

Sometimes this opposition took on extreme forms of expression. For example, F. Nietzsche put forward the idea of \u200b\u200b"natural anticulturalism" of man, while any culture was considered as suppression of his natural, perfect state. Within the framework of this direction, special ways of cognizing culture have also been formed. V. Dilthey believed that the life of culture cannot be explained, but can only be felt through empathy, empathic vision. A. Bergson, one of the representatives of the philosophy of life, proposed to divide all cultures into two types: closed, in which life is determined by instincts, and open, built on active interaction with other cultures.

By the end of the 19th century, a belief was formed that a special science was needed to study culture. Moreover, the idea is expressed that a special approach to the study of cultural phenomena is also needed. The neo-Kantians (V. Windelband, G. Rickert, and others) played an important role in solving the above problems. According to Rickert, culture has a value character, and its phenomena are unique, therefore its cognition consists in correlating cultural phenomena with a certain kind of values \u200b\u200b- moral, aesthetic, religious, etc. Neo-Kantians saw in culture, first of all, a specific system of values \u200b\u200band ideas that differ by their role in the life of a particular society.

Under the influence of the "philosophy of life" an existentialist understanding of culture arose. Its essence is in the analysis of a person's experience of his being or direct existence in culture. A person feels his presence in culture as "abandonment", expressed in belonging to a certain class, people, group. But he can overcome this state, revealing his true purpose in this world, his existence (K. Jaspers, M. Heidegger, H. Ortega y Gassett and others).

Since the last third of the 19th century, the study of culture has developed within the framework of anthropology and ethnography. At the same time, different approaches to understanding culture were formed. E. Tylor laid the foundation for cultural anthropology, where the concept of "culture" was defined through the enumeration of its specific elements. F. Boas proposed a method of detailed study of primitive societies, namely their customs, language, etc. B. Malinovsky and A. Radcliffe-Brown laid the foundations of social anthropology, proceeding from the connection between culture and social institutions. At the same time, the function of culture was seen in the mutual correlation and ordering of elements of the social system.

In structural and functional analysis (T. Parsons, R. Merton), the concept of "culture" began to be used to denote a system of values \u200b\u200bthat determines the degree of orderliness and controllability of the entire life of society. In structural anthropology (K. Levi-Strauss), language was considered as the basis for the study of culture. The methodological basis was the use of some techniques of structural linguistics and information theory in the analysis of the culture of primitive societies. Idealization of the moral foundations of primitive societies was inherent in representatives of this trend. They characterized mythological thinking as the harmony of rational and sensual principles, destroyed by the further development of mankind.

Among other areas of modern cultural studies, we highlight the following:

Theological cultural studies. Culture is viewed in its relation to religious ideals. P. Teilhard de Chardin, one of the representatives of this trend, made a huge contribution not only to the development of the religious interpretation of culture, but also to comparative culturology, to the study of primitive societies (he was among the discoverers of Sinanthropus, the oldest type of fossil man);

Humanistic cultural studies (A. Schweitzer, T. Mann, G. Hesse and others). This direction proceeds from the close connection between culture and ethics, while the actual progress of culture is considered as inseparable from moral progress, and its criterion is set by the level of humanism in society;

Psychological direction in cultural studies (R. Benedict, M. Mead). Based on the concept of Z. Freud, who interpreted culture as a mechanism of social suppression and sublimation of unconscious mental processes, as well as on the concept of neo-Freudians (K. Horney) about culture as a symbolic consolidation of direct mental experiences, representatives of this trend interpret culture as an expression of the social universality of basic human mental states;

Marxist cultural studies. The interpretation of culture in Marxism is based on a materialistic understanding of history. Marxism establishes a genetic link between culture and human labor, with the production of material goods as a defining type of activity. At the same time, attention is drawn to the fact that labor is determined by social conditions, that economic relations between people play a decisive role in the development of culture. At the same time, the development of culture itself has a contradictory character, in connection with which two types of culture are distinguished in Marxism, each of which expresses the goals and interests of antagonistic classes.

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TOPIC 6 The main stages of the formation of cultural studies The development of culture was accompanied by the formation of its self-awareness. The myths and legends of peoples, the teachings of individual thinkers contain guesses and ideas that express the desire to understand, understand and evaluate culture as a single

Introduction

The phenomenon of culture is a historical category that absorbs many meanings and meanings that have been formed and transformed over the centuries. Due to the achievement by humanity of a certain level of awareness and reflection of the surrounding reality, there is a need not only for the knowledge of the world, but also for its transformation. Subsequently, all material and non-material transformations of the surrounding reality by man are tightly fixed in world history, acquiring the generalizing meaning of "culture". It is important to note that any culture must be perceived only in the unity of its components, which are not only interconnected, but also interdependent and complementary. Culture, being, first of all, a social category, has its own characteristics, structure and carries some social functions, which will be considered in this work.

Culturology as a science. The main stages of the formation of cultural studies

Culturology is the science of culture. Culturology studies the most general patterns of development of culture, its essential characteristics that are present in all known cultures of mankind. Culturology considers its task to be the study of all processes of human interaction with the natural world, the world of society and the world of physical and spiritual life of a person.

The term "cultural studies" itself has been used since the beginning of the 19th century. And at the beginning of the twentieth century, the prominent American culturologist Leslie White (1900 - 1975) made an attempt to substantiate the general theory of culture, introduced the concept of "culturology" into wide circulation.

A number of stages in the development of cultural studies as an independent discipline are outlined in the literature.

The first stage can be conditionally called philosophical. Here the "idea of \u200b\u200bculture" itself is constituted. Let us recall the statement of V. Mezhuev. The philosophers saw their task, he writes, in "developing a certain general" idea of \u200b\u200bculture "that explains the meaning and direction of world history as a whole." By the way, many sciences and disciplines go through this stage.

The second stage is an empirical study of the phenomenon of culture. "The very first paradigm of the cultural sciences;" writes L, Ionia, "can be called empirical. This is the collection of information about different peoples, their morals, customs, way of life, its description and attempts to systematize. In textbooks, this period is usually referred to as prehistory, or prehistory, science ". (Note that the empirical study of phenomena can hardly be considered a paradigm) It is clear that at this stage the idea of \u200b\u200bculture and ideas about culture are used, which are formed on its basis and as a result of empirical research.

The third stage is the construction of cultural studies as a scientific discipline. Here the principles and criteria of cultural truth (explanations) are developed, ideal objects are created, and cultural theories are built. It is at this stage that the dilemmas and paradigms of cultural studies develop. Empirical research is widely used in the construction of cultural science.

At the fourth stage, along with the continuing development of culturological science, applied culturological studies are taking shape, on which culturological knowledge is increasingly beginning to orient itself.

On the present stage philosophical and methodological reflection plays an important role in the development of cultural studies. And it's clear why. The presence of dilemmas, different paradigms and partially overlapping cultural concepts and theories makes it necessary to critically analyze the foundations and values \u200b\u200bof cultural studies.

One of the most important methodological principles of my approach is the transition from the discussion of individual concepts of culture to the analysis of practices, within the framework of which different concepts of culture are formed, as well as to the analysis of various scientific strategies and approaches to the study of culture, primarily philosophical, natural science, humanitarian, socio-cultural and historical ... Let me explain. Mezhuev, analyzing what the idea of \u200b\u200bculture was, writes that it was an evaluative concept of culture, which made it possible to "comprehend the meaning and direction of human history as a whole," based on the conviction that it is European history and culture that are "the highest achievement of the spiritual development of mankind ". According to Mezhuev, the idea of \u200b\u200bculture and the corresponding concept were a response (objectification) to the formation of a special practice - the self-consciousness of European humanity as a whole; further, on this basis, other practices were developed (enlightening the population, colonizing other, "less cultured" peoples, the practice of missionary work). Analyzing the concept of "culture" as "diversity of cultures" and the concept of "mass culture", K. Razlogov, in fact, applies the same method of explanation: as the most important prerequisite for the formation of these concepts, he considers the relevant practices (the formation of national states and individual nations, the creation the sphere of sustainable mass cultural services and social management based on the media, television, and today the Internet). M. Foucault and modern methodological research show that concepts of the "culture" type appear in the course of objectification of schemes that ensure the formation and functioning of certain social practices and associated power relations. In such a context, primarily organizational, culture acts as an object assumed by thought, and not an object of study; but then the culture thus singled out is studied.

On the contrary, in her latest works, E. Orlova comprehends different concepts of culture based on the analysis different strategies scientific knowledge (for me this position has always been the starting point). When, she writes, the establishment of fundamental normative orders that separate the human world from the rest of the world is considered fundamental in cognition, this can be done only by means of philosophy. If the emphasis in cognition is placed on the process of direct observation of artificial phenomena in the form in which they are given to people, in the specificity, uniqueness of their manifestations, or an attempt to discover something in common behind externally different phenomena, the humanitarian type of cognition becomes indispensable. In the case of sufficient accumulated experience in the practical treatment of certain cultural phenomena, the question arises about the possibility of their purposeful regulation, pragmatic use, etc. Accordingly, the scientific approach to these phenomena is being updated.

True, Orlova does not actually classify the humanitarian type of cognition as scientific, which is incorrect, but in this case something else is important, namely, the comparison of cognition strategies and their correlation with different concepts of culture; culture is then understood as an object of study, shaped by appropriate strategies.

In my research, I try to combine an approach to the analysis of culture through the analysis of relevant practices with an approach that involves the breeding of types of cognition strategies. The fact is that the concepts of culture carry the features of both.

Culturology is closely related to a number of other sciences (philosophy, history, sociology, psychology, etc.) and is based on their achievements and experience. This is explained not only by the fact that it is a young, still emerging science, but also by the complex nature of culture itself as its subject.

As mentioned above, the subject of culturology is culture, and the object is the creators and carriers of culture - people, as well as various cultural phenomena occurring in society, institutions associated with culture, the activities of people and society as a whole.

Speaking about the structure of modern cultural studies, we can distinguish its semantic and structural parts: the theory of culture, history of culture, philosophy of culture, sociology of culture.

The theory of culture, first of all, introduces cultural studies into the circle of problems and gives an idea of \u200b\u200bits conceptual apparatus; it studies the content and development of the main cultural categories, general issues of determining cultural norms, traditions, etc. The theory of culture reveals the laws of man's assimilation of the surrounding world, covers the consideration of all aspects of his cultural life. Within the framework of the theory of culture, such problems as the relationship between culture and nature, culture and civilization, the correlation of cultures and their interaction, the typology of cultures are considered; criteria for understanding cultural phenomena are being developed.

The history of culture covers the origin and formation of culture, different historical periods of its development and their inherent ways of reading the content of culture and understanding cultural ideals and values \u200b\u200b(for example, beauty, truth, etc.) The history of culture helps to see the origins of the formation of many modern phenomena and problems, trace their causes, establish their forerunners and inspirers.

Philosophy of culture. Culturology, as already mentioned, is also a philosophical science. Since culture is a human creation and a human way of living in the world, cultural studies cannot bypass how the problems of meaning, purpose, and purpose of human existence are presented in culture. The philosophy of culture is essentially the ultimate version of human studies, when a person is taken in the ultimate meaning and expression of his human nature and essence. The philosophy of culture formulates the problems of the relationship between the culture of man, man and the world, man and society. A philosophical view of the relationship between man and the world is the axis of cultural analysis.

Sociology of culture is a direction of theoretical and empirical research of all links of the cultural process. Sociality is the initial characteristic of culture, for culture itself arises as a way of organizing a conflict-free human being in society. The sociology of culture studies and analyzes the processes of the spread of culture in a particular stratum of the population, in the country, in the world, the nature of the consumption of cultural products and the attitude towards them.

Culturology begins with the definition and explanation of culture, and first of all - the very category of "culture".

The first thing that focuses on when considering the concept of "culture" is its polysemy, application in various respects.

Turning to the history of the word “culture”, we find out that it has a Latin origin. The ancient Romans called it cultivation, processing, improvement. And in classical Latin, the word "cultura" was used in the meaning of agricultural labor - agricultura. Agricultura is protection, care, separation of one from the other (“grain from the chaff”), preservation of the selected, creation of conditions for its development. Not arbitrary, but purposeful. The main thing in this whole process is separation, preservation and systematic development. A plant or animal is removed from natural conditions, separated from others, as it has certain advantages discovered by man. Then this selected one is transplanted into another environment, where they are cared for, looked after, developing some qualities and cutting off others. A plant or animal is modified in the right direction, a product of purposeful human labor is obtained that has the required qualities. If you just transplant a wild apple tree into the garden, then its fruits will not become sweeter from this. Isolation from the natural environment is only the first step, the beginning of "cultivation", which is certainly followed by the long-term work of the gardener.

IN modern meaning the concept of culture has taken root in Germany. Already at the end of the 18th century, this word is found in German books, having two semantic shades: the first is dominion over nature with the help of knowledge and craft, and the second is the spiritual wealth of the individual. In these two meanings, it gradually entered almost all European languages. V. Dal in his "Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language" gives the following interpretation of this word: "... processing and care, cultivation, cultivation; mental and moral education ... ".

In modern cultural studies, there are more than 400 definitions of culture. This is explained both by the versatility and multidimensionality of the phenomenon of culture, and by the dependence of the results of the study of research attitudes. The main research approaches to explaining culture are:

• 1. Anthropological, in which culture is understood as an expression of human nature.
• 2. Another approach to culture can be called philosophical and historical. Another name for it is activity. "Action" is understood here as a prudent, planning change in reality, history. The most common is the idea of \u200b\u200bculture as a result of human activity. There is a point of view that culture includes only creative activity, other authors are convinced that all types of reproductive activity (reproduction, repetition of what has been achieved) should also be considered cultural.
• 3. Another approach in the interpretation of culture: sociological. Here culture is understood as a factor in the organization of society. Society creates cultural values, and they further determine the development of this society: language, beliefs, aesthetic tastes, professional skills and all kinds of customs.
• 4. In addition, another axiological (value) approach to the study of culture is very widespread, which defines culture as a complex of certain values \u200b\u200bthat form its semantic core. The role of values \u200b\u200bin the structure and functioning of culture is beyond doubt, since they streamline reality, bring evaluative moments into its understanding. They correspond to the idea of \u200b\u200bthe ideal and give meaning to human life.

Thus, in the axiological approach, culture is understood as a set of values \u200b\u200brecognized by humanity, which it purposefully creates, preserves and develops.

So, culture is a multifaceted concept. It cannot be given an unambiguous meaning. We can only talk about a more or less universal approach in search of the essence of the term. This inexhaustibility of cultural phenomena is a reflection of the nature of its bearer - man. If we single out the main thing in a person from the point of view of culture, this will be an active life position aimed at cognizing and transforming the world, as well as the spiritual and bodily improvement of himself.

The central concept of culturological knowledge is the concept of culture. The concept is extremely broad and abstract, including the entire spectrum of individual social life of a person. In fact, it unites both the life of the individual and the entire human existence, based on the understanding of the world and creative activity, inscribing the individual into the surrounding macrocosm.

The word culture comes from the Latin cultura, which originally meant the cultivation of the soil, gradually the meaning of this term expands, including such meanings as upbringing, education, development, veneration (culture acquires this meaning from the ancient author Cicero in the Tuskulan Manuscripts). A cultured person owes everything to upbringing and education, "cultivation" of the mind, which, according to the ancient Greek philosophers, largely corrects and even changes human nature. Thus, the ancient tradition offers an understanding of culture as the mastery of knowledge, skills, norms of human existence through education and cult (paideia? ).

The enduring value of the ancient perception of culture is its appeal to man (humanitas), the goal of the cultural process is education ideal person... At the same time, already the early Greek philosophers, analyzing the ancient representation of culture, faced the problems of the relationship between nature and culture, with the contradiction of the cultural and natural principles in the human being. Thus, the ancient Greek thinkers (Antisthenes, Diogenes, the sophists) assert that culture corrupts a person and society, “detaches” from natural institutions; man needs to return to the naturalness and simplicity of the primitive state. Hippias, for example, argued that "human institutions often rape us contrary to nature."

Following antiquity, all epochs of the historical development of mankind contributed to the development of ideas about culture, each time placing their accents in the understanding of culture, depending on the orientations, values \u200b\u200band aspirations of a particular cultural period.

In the views of early Christians, the opposition between nature and culture, which was outlined in antiquity (and at the same time attempts to eliminate this contradiction), was replaced by the opposition between God and culture. The divine spiritual principle of culture is emphasized, the latter is rethought exclusively as a cult. The cultural development of a person is seen as the elimination of original sin and an approach to the divine plan. In the Middle Ages, the interpretation of culture as the cultivation of reason reappears, however, here we are talking about "natural reason", by nature not corrupted and supplemented by faith, ie. culture is viewed as the spiritual and religious self-improvement of the individual. The cultural and historical process is perceived by medieval thinkers as a movement towards the kingdom of God (Aurelius Augustine, Thomas Aquinas).

In the Renaissance, again, by analogy with antiquity, there is an appeal to man as the creator and the meaning of culture. Here the "classical" concept of culture begins to form - the concept of secular culture, humanistic, addressed to a person and emanating from a person. In the Renaissance, culture finally loses its cult character, sanctified by legend and tradition, and becomes a "product" of man ("second nature" created by people). The humanists of the Renaissance affirm the idea that, thanks to creativity, man, as it were, rises above the limitations of his physical existence.

In modern times, cultural problems are considered mainly within the framework of philosophy and aesthetics (a philosophical discipline that studies the nature and laws of aesthetic assimilation of reality, “creativity according to the laws of beauty” 1). Developing the classical concept of culture, modern thinkers argue that human culture has a reason in itself, does not depend on the divine and natural world. The foundations of culture are humanism, rationalism and historicism (since man is an independent, rational, thinking and historically developing being). In modern times, the idea of cultural activities as human creativity itself, about the difference between human existence and natural existence (this point of view was held, for example, by the German lawyer and philosopher Pufendorf).

The French enlighteners assess the process of the development of the human mind and intelligent life forms (culture) as the opposition to savagery and barbarism. German classical philosophy, representatives of the German Enlightenment, romantics assert culture as the historical development of human spirituality (they consider the evolution of philosophical, scientific, political, legal consciousness, ensuring the progress of mankind).

Thus, culture has become an object of interest and research since antiquity, however, the isolation of culturological knowledge as a specific direction of humanities refers only to the 19th century, when culturological knowledge is separated from philosophy and history (D. Vico, I. Herder). In the works of Herder, Vico, and then, Cassirer, Danilevsky, Sorokin, a value consideration of various forms of cultural life (art, religion, law, myth, etc.) in their unity and interaction is developed, the emphasis is transferred from explaining the progressive development of universal human culture to study of its features in different types of societies, consideration of different cultures as autonomous value systems, comparison of the cultural and historical process with the individual life of a person.

In the late 19th - early 20th centuries. in the study of cultural issues, the achievements of anthropology, ethnography, systems theory, semiotics, psychoanalysis and other sciences (Taylor, Boas, Malinovsky, Radcliffe - Brown, Levi-Strauss, Foucault, as well as Freud, Jung, Lacan, etc.) ...

Modern culturology is an independent scientific discipline, which is a system of knowledge about culture. Subject culturology is the genesis, functioning and development of culture as a specifically human way of life, revealing itself historically as a process of cultural inheritance.

The goal of culturology is to build the “genetics” of culture, which would not only explain the historical and cultural process, but could predict it in the future, manage it. To achieve this goal, culturology is designed to solve quite complex problems:

to identify the genetic code of cultural phenomena (i.e. structures responsible for the storage, transfer of social experience of human activity), to comprehend and analyze the mechanisms of action of traditions and innovations, meaning formation, mutual transition of cultural values \u200b\u200band norms, mechanisms of creativity, etc .;

study the factors that, in the process of development, "shake" the genetic codes of culture;

consider the cumulative consequences of cultural development as the creation of a "second nature" and the humanization of history.

The methods used by cultural studies in the construction of cultural knowledge, in general, coincide with the general methods of humanities. A specific feature is the desire of cultural studies to combine many methods available in science, based on the understanding of culture as a systemic, developing phenomenon. Is observation, study of artifacts used for collecting and primary analysis of information in cultural studies? culture, work with texts and other manifestations of cultural activities. For the theoretical processing of the results obtained, methods such as psychological and anthropological reconstruction, the creation of idealized objects, and deciphering of sign systems are used. Perhaps the main method of culturological knowledge, which unites all the others, is hermeneutics as understanding, interpretation, combination of rational and non-rational approaches to comprehending the essence and meaning of each specific cultural phenomenon. The unity of explanation and understanding serves as a guarantee of gaining an intuitive and semantic involvement of a person in the subject under study, awareness of the unity of the individual with the entire human culture.

Culturology is an integrative discipline; it interacts with many sciences, often relying on their facts, research methods, and studied patterns. This is necessary, since the object of study of cultural studies - human culture - is extremely complex and is associated with virtually all aspects and aspects of the life of a person and society. In the study of culture, therefore, it is impossible to do without the involvement of data from anthropology, ethnography, medicine, psychology, sociology, economic theory, linguistics, history, art history and many other areas of knowledge. Philosophy has always been of particular importance for the development of cultural studies. Until the end of the 19th century, the problems of culturology were studied within the framework of the concepts of the philosophy of culture, based also on historical knowledge. Despite the fact that today culturology is an independent discipline, its connection with philosophy is by no means weakened. In fact, culturological knowledge itself has, first of all, a philosophical foundation and a philosophical character. World outlook, value foundations of culture, personality development in culture, understanding of the processes taking place in our time, etc. - all these questions can be considered equally significant for both philosophical and cultural knowledge.

Teacher Mikhailov Yuri Innokentievich

Literature

- * "Culturology" ed. Sadukina

Aud. 2405 - methodical office, 2402 - department

09/08/2011 Lecture 1 "Culturology as a system of knowledge"

Culturology - a discipline that studies all issues related to culture (Leslie White, “ Classification of kinship systems»1939)

The main sections of science

Philosophy of culture: issues related to the origin of culture as a universal form of human practice. Studying the conceptual apparatus of cultural studies. Culture is studied based on the general laws of human thinking.

"My world ends where my language ends" L. Wittgenstein

Sociology of culture: the role of culture and features of its functioning in the system of social relations, the role of culture in the organization of social relations. The immediate subject of study is the cultural characteristics of individual social groups and society as a whole.

Cultural history: the origin and historical development of cultural types. In general, culture is viewed as a sign system. It proceeds from the fundamental plurality of cultures, cultural diversity from the earliest moments of human existence.

Anthropology of culture ( cultural anthropology): Cultural anthropology as a new scientific direction was formed at the turn of the 19th and 20th centuries. The subject of her study is ways of receiving, storing and transferring information from generation to generation. Until the middle of the 19th century, the axiological method prevailed: the comparison of cultures was carried out on a scale of values. In practice, cultures were compared according to the highest achievements, and this created the basis for the concepts of cultural superiority (16-17 centuries, Europe - America, Asia, Africa). Therefore, cultural anthropology proceeds from the fundamental equivalence of all cultures, and compares cultures in terms of the way they handle information.

4 main directions of cultural studies:

Social: mechanisms of sociocultural organization.

Humanities: forms and processes of self-knowledge of culture, which are expressed in various "texts". In these "texts" the culture describes itself.

Fundamental: develops a categorical apparatus and research methods.

Applied: uses fundamental knowledge about culture to solve practical problems, and also deals with forecasting and regulating cultural processes.

Diatropics is the science of the complexity of the world.

The law of transitive polymorphism is a covert transmission of traits (in living organisms).

The subject of cultural studies - This is the content, structure and dynamics of the functioning of sociocultural experience. Based on this, the main method of cultural studies is unity of explanation and understanding... Culture is a hierarchically organized system. This system is based on logical principles of construction (otherwise the system is impossible), therefore, culture lends itself to understanding and logical explanation.

The main stages of the development of cultural knowledge.

Pre-scientific stage... It begins in the ancient period, continues until the emergence of European science of modern times. At this stage, there were intuitive ideas about the laws of cultural development. These representations were based on a cyclical model of time (recurrence of events in social and cultural life) at an early stage in the development of cultural representations.

At the next stage, ideas about culture began to be determined by a linear model of time, the spread of which is associated with Christianity.

World creation – Nativity – Apocalypse (Last Judgment)

Thanks to this model of time, the concept of history arose, i.e. each event is unique. The main method of cognizing culture at this stage is axiological. Each culture perceived itself in comparison with another, foreign culture, but used its own scale of values \u200b\u200bfor this. (For example: The Greeks refused to accept cultures in which there was no democracy, and the Romans considered all peoples to be barbaric if their lifestyle was different from the Roman.)

Scientific and historical... At this stage, they tried to find general laws in the development of nature, society and culture. European scholars, recognizing historical changes in society, associated cultural changes with them. The development of society and culture was synchronized.

Scientific and philosophical... It was recognized that the pace of development of society and culture may not coincide (e.g .: serfdom in Russia).