FEDERAL RAILWAY AGENCY
Federal state budget educational institution higher professional education
"MOSCOW STATE UNIVERSITY OF WAYS OF COMMUNICATION"
COURSE WORK
TOPIC: "Famous architectural monuments of Ancient Rome"
Completed by: Nepomniachtchi Valeria Alexandrovna
Checked by: Bavina L.G.
Moscow 2012
INTRODUCTION
CHAPTER 1. EARLY OR CYAL ROME (VIII-VI centuries BC)
1 Characteristics of the architecture of the period VIII-VI centuries. BC
2 Temple of Saturn
3 Roman Forum
CHAPTER 2. THE EPOCH OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC (V-I centuries BC)
1 Characteristics of the architecture of the period V-I centuries. BC
2 Construction features
CHAPTER 3. THE EPOCH OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE (1st century BC - 5th century AD)
1 Characteristics of the architecture of the 1st century BC. −V c. AD
2 Colosseum - an architectural masterpiece. 70-80 n. eh
3 Pantheon - temple of all gods 125 AD
CONCLUSION
INTRODUCTION
The history of the culture of Ancient Rome is the history of the formation, development and decline of a huge state stretching along the shores of the Mediterranean Sea and including Europe, North Africa and the Near East in its sphere of influence.
One of the most important art forms in ancient Rome was architecture. Vitruvius is probably the most important ancient Roman architect. It was he who formulated the three basic principles of ancient Roman architecture: benefit, strength, beauty.
In the Roman art of the heyday, the leading role was played by architecture, the monuments of which, even now, even in ruins, conquer with their power. The Romans laid the foundation for a new era of world architecture, in which the main place belonged to public buildings that embodied the ideas of the power of the state and designed for huge numbers of people. In the entire ancient world, Roman architecture has no equal in terms of the height of engineering, the variety of types of structures, the richness of compositional forms, and the scale of construction.
The history of architecture of Ancient Rome is divided into three stages. The first is the early or tsarist era, which began in the 8th-6th centuries. BC. The second stage is the era of the republic, which began at the end of the 6th century. BC, when the Etruscan kings were expelled from Rome, and lasted until the middle of the 1st century. BC. The third stage - the imperial one - began with the reign of Octavian Augustus, who went over to autocracy, and lasted until the 5th century. AD
The purpose of this work is to study the originality of the architecture of Ancient Rome
Research objective: to consider the features of the architecture of Ancient Rome and its characteristic features.
CHAPTER 1. EARLY OR CYAL ROME (VIII-VI centuries BC)
1 Characteristics of the Architecture of the period VIII-VI centuries. BC
The center of the future great power - the city of Rome - arose in Lazia, in central Italy, in the lower reaches of the Tiber River. The early history of Rome is shrouded in legend and a fog of legends. There are several versions of its origin, but the most widespread is the legend of Romulus and Remus, they were the sons of the god of war Mars and the vestal Rhea Silvia, daughter of the king of the city of Alba Longa. The cunning brother of the king, wishing to take possession of the throne, imprisoned him, and put the twins in a basket and threw them into the Tiber. However, the basket with the twins was nailed to the Capitol, a sacred hill where a she-wolf nursed the babies with her milk. When the boys grew up, they returned the throne to their grandfather, and they themselves decided to found a new city. They built his main temple on the Capitol Hill. Outlining the boundaries of the city, the brothers quarreled, and Romulus killed Remus, becoming the sole ruler of the city and giving him his name. It is believed that Rome was founded in 753 BC. e.
The development of Rome took place under the Etruscan influence. Many Etruscan achievements were borrowed, for example, in the field of construction, various crafts. Rome borrowed writing, Roman numerals, methods of interpretation and divination, and much more.
According to legend, in Rome in the VIII-VI centuries. ruled by 7 kings: Romulus, Numa Pomp Tullus Hostilius, Ankh Marcius, Tarcus the Ancient, Servius Tullius, Tarquim the Proud. Of particular importance in the history of early Rome and its culture is the reign of the last three Roman kings, who, as scientists believe, came from the Etruscans, but unlike the rest of the kings, were real historical figures.
The art of the Etruscans who lived in the first millennium BC e. end of VIII - I centuries BC e. on the territory of the Apennine Peninsula, left a significant mark in the history of world culture and strongly influenced the ancient Roman artistic activity. Having conquered the Etruscans, the Romans embraced their achievements and in their architecture, plasticity and painting continued what the Etruscans had begun.
Under the Etruscan dynasty, Rome began to transform. Work was carried out to drain the once swampy Forum, and shopping arcades and porticos were built there. On the Capitol Hill, a temple of Jupiter with a pediment decorated with a quadriga was erected by craftsmen from Etruria. Rome has turned into a large populous city with powerful fortified walls, beautiful temples and houses on stone foundations. Under the last king, Tarquinius Gordom, the main underground sewer pipe, the Great Cesspool, was built in Rome, which serves the "eternal city" to this day.
Etruscan art works were created mainly in the area bounded by the Arno River in the north and the Tiber in the south, but there were also significant art workshops in the Etruscan cities north of these borders Marzabotto, Spina and to the south Preneste, Velletri, Satric.
The Etruscans are known to modern man, perhaps, more for their art than for any other forms of activity, since much in their history, religion, culture, including not yet fully understood writing, remains mysterious.
The culture of the Etruscans testifies to their significant artistic talent. Their art is original, although traces of Asia Minor, later Greek influences can be distinguished in it. He is characterized by the desire for realism, so noticeable in the paintings of the tombs of the Etruscan nobility. Etruscan artists do not care about rendering details, but they pay all attention to the most essential features of the depicted. If the Roman portrait reached an unprecedented artistic perfection, then this was due to the assimilation of the Etruscan heritage by the Roman masters. The so-called false dome, gradually converging inside rows of stone beams or bricks, was used in architecture already in the Minoan and Mycenaean periods, but only the Etruscans began to erect vaults from wedge-shaped beams, thus creating a dome in the proper sense of the word. The largest number of surviving monuments of Etruscan art belongs to the 6th - early 5th century. BC e. During this time, Etruria was strongly influenced by Greek culture, and during the same period Etruscan art was flourishing.
An important place in Etruscan art was occupied by sculpture, the flowering of which dates back to the 6th century. BC e. The most famous Etruscan sculptor was the master Vulka who worked in Vey, he owns a monumental terracotta statue of Apollo of Vey.
One of these works of the VI century. BC e. is the famous statue of the Capitoline wolf. The she-wolf is depicted nursing Romulus and Remus. In this sculpture, the viewer is amazed not only by observation in the reproduction of nature. No wonder the statue of the Capitoline she-wolf in subsequent eras was perceived as a vivid symbol of the harsh and cruel Rome.
Etruria's artisans were famous for their works of gold, bronze and clay. Etruscan potters used a special technique of the so-called buckeronero - black earth: the clay was smoked, thus acquiring a black color.
After shaping and firing, the product was burnished - polished by friction. This technique was prompted by the desire to make earthen vessels look like more expensive metal vessels. Their walls were usually decorated with relief images, and sometimes a rooster or other figures were placed on the lids.
The main symbol of the power of Rome is the Forum. Even before the Etruscan invasion, the area between the Capitoline and Palatine hills became a kind of center of culture and civilization, which, both geographically and spiritually, united the Latin tribes who lived at the foot of the seven hills.
Having restored the Etruscan temple of Castor and Pollux in accordance with the canons of Hellenistic architecture, the republicans built the Basilica Emilia and Tabularia, where the tribunal and the State Archives, respectively, deployed their activities, paving the entire space of the Forum with slabs of travertine. The restructuring of the Roman Forum, begun by Julius Caesar and continued by Augustus, contributed to the ordering of a rather chaotic ensemble.
In accordance with the geometric layout of city squares surrounded by columns, adopted in the Hellenistic cities, the new development plan proceeded from the axial principle and rationalized the previously free drawing of the republican forum ensemble. Temples and basilicas, built in accordance with the new design, glorified the power of Rome throughout the world.
2 Temple of Saturn
The oldest part of the Roman Forum is the Temple of Saturn. The Temple of Saturn was preceded by a very ancient altar, which legend relates to a mythical city founded by Saturn himself on the Capitol. The possibility of the existence of a settlement on the hill since prehistoric times and the antiquity of the religious cult itself confirm to some extent this legend. The construction of the Temple of Saturn was a tribute to the god Saturn, whom the Romans identified with the Greek god Kronos and revered for his ability to save the city from disasters.
The construction of the temple may have been started already in the tsarist period. Its opening was carried out only in the first years of the Republic, possibly in 498 BC. e.
The building was completely rebuilt starting in 42 BC. BC, by Munatius Plank, and rebuilt after a fire that broke out during the reign of Karin 283 AD. e. Probably, it is to this restoration that the surviving part belongs - eight columns, six columns of gray granite on the facade and two of red on the sides, and the main pediment is largely built of restored material. The inscription, which is still visible on the frieze, reminds that this restoration was carried out due to the fire Senatus populusque romanus incendio consumptum restituit - the Senate and the people of Rome were rebuilt by fire.
It was the only temple in Rome where believers could enter with their heads open, and the first temple in which wax candles were burned. Here was kept a statue of the god Saturn, which was worn during processions on the occasion of triumphal celebrations.
3 Roman Forum
One of the main attractions of Rome. Since ancient times, the Roman Forum has been the place where people came to learn political news, exchange impressions, and conclude a successful trade deal.
The Roman Forum arose during the time of the first Roman kings, around the 7th century BC, when local residents began to gather in the space between the hills of the Capitol, Palatine and Quirinal.
The Forum, located in a valley between three hills - the Palatine, the Capitol and the Esquiline, in ancient times was a desolate swampy area that was drained during the reign of King Tarquinius the Ancient thanks to large-scale work on the construction of sewers and the laying of a stone Large cesspool connected to the drainage system. After the area was drained, the construction of the Forum began, one part of which was intended for shops, the other for public ceremonies, religious holidays, elections in the chancellery and magistrates, for oratorical stands and sentencing of convicts.
In the center of the Forum stands a tall memorial column, the Phocas Column, which is a Corinthian column erected in front of the Rostra in the Roman Forum and in 608 dedicated to the Byzantine emperor Phocas.
The column, 13.6 m high, was erected on a white marble quadrangular pedestal, originally used in the monument in honor of Diocletian. At the top of the column there used to be a statue of the emperor made of gilded bronze - until Phoca was overthrown in 610, after which the place began to slowly desolate.
CHAPTER 2. THE EPOCH OF THE ROMAN REPUBLIC (V-I centuries BC)
1 Characteristics of the architecture of the period V-I centuries. BC
From the republican period of the history of Ancient Rome, only a few architectural monuments have survived. In construction, the Romans used mainly four architectural orders: Tuscan, borrowed from the Etruscans, Doric, Ionic and Corinthian. Roman temples resemble Greek architecture in their rectangular shape and use of porticoes, but, unlike the Greek ones, they were grander and, as a rule, were erected on high podiums. In the V-IV centuries. BC. in Roman construction, mainly soft volcanic tuff was used. Fired brick and marble were widely used later in the republican period. In the II century. BC. Roman builders invented concrete, which caused the widespread distribution of arched-vaulted structures that transformed all ancient architecture.
In addition to the peripter, the type of rotunda, that is, a round temple, was also used in Roman temple architecture. This was one of the oldest Roman temples - the temple of Vesta or Hercules, located at the Forum.
A variety of arches and arched structures were a characteristic feature of Roman architecture. But the Romans did not abandon the columns either - they decorated public buildings, for example, the huge theater of Pompey, the first stone theater in Rome in the 1st century. BC. Freestanding columns, erected, for example, in honor of military victories, were very popular in Roman architecture.
A very characteristic type of Roman structure was arcades - a series of arches resting on pillars or columns.
Arcades were used in the construction of open galleries running along the wall of a building, for example a theater, as well as in aqueducts - multi-tiered stone bridges, inside which were hidden lead and clay pipes that supply water to the city. A specifically Roman type of construction was the triumphal arch, which was most widespread in the era of the Empire as a monument to military and imperial glory.
In the middle of the 1st century. BC. the first majestic marble buildings appeared in Rome. Julius Caesar ordered the construction of a new Forum in Rome, worthy of the capital of a great power. The Basilica of Caesar was built there - a rectangular building intended for court hearings, trade operations and popular gatherings, Christian churches were built like the Roman basilica in the Middle Ages. A temple was also erected at the Forum in honor of Venus, the patroness of the Julian clan.
The main streets and squares of the city of Rome later in the Republican period were adorned with magnificent marble statues, mostly copies of Greek masters. Thanks to this, the works of famous Greek sculptors have come down to us: Miron, Polycletus, Praxiteles, Lysippos.
The central trade and public square of the city - the Roman Forum, where popular meetings, fairs were held, and the court was held, is being improved. It is expanding, new public buildings and temples are being built around it, porticos are paved with tiles. It was the center of the political life of the capital of the world, decorated for centuries with assembly basilicas, temples and memorials.
By the II century. BC e. developed building on a plain bounded by three hills (Capitol, Palatine and Quirinal). Subsequently, five more forums joined the Roman Forum: Caesar, Augustus, Vespasian, Nerva and Trajan. Now it is a field of ruins of a huge complex of Roman forums from the times of the republic and early empire.
As a result of the Roman conquests, various kinds of wealth flowed to Rome and the Italian cities. This sparked the rise of Roman architecture. The Romans sought to emphasize in their buildings and architectural structures the idea of \u200b\u200bstrength, power and greatness that suppress a person. From here was born the love of Roman architects for the monumentality and scale of their buildings, which amaze the imagination with their size. Another feature of Roman architecture is the desire for a magnificent decoration of buildings, rich decorative decoration, a lot of decorations, a greater interest in the utilitarian aspects of architecture, in the creation of mainly not temple complexes, but buildings and structures for practical needs - bridges, aqueducts, theaters, amphitheaters, baths ...
2 Construction features
The most important public building in ancient Rome was the basilica, where the court sat and trade deals were concluded. The rectangular volumes of the basilicas of the republican period at the forum in Pompeii and the imperial at the forum of Graiana in Rome consisted of five aisles, separated by columns: a very wide central one and four narrower ones that carried galleries of the second tier. The tribunal, where the court was held, had the shape of a huge semicircle, the diameter of which occupied one of the narrow sides and was separated from the rest of the basilica by a portico. The entrance was a passage, probably, it had no overlap, remaining in the open air. The basilicas were always crowded and lively: the court sat, speakers spoke, trade deals were concluded. The atmosphere that reigned there is evidenced, for example, by such an inscription preserved on the wall of the Pompeian basilica.
Circuses were built on the model that was the grandiose Roman circus Massimo, built during the era of the republic. The stone stands, arranged in tiers, had the shape of an ellipse. The entrance was at its curvature and was marked by massive triumphal arches. The center of the field along the length was occupied by a high podium decorated with statues, obelisks and columns. Stone pillars standing at the ends - metas - served as a guide for the drivers.
The amphitheaters were circular in plan. Massive semicircular arches of cut stone, the so-called Roman cells, arranged in two or three tiers, surrounded the open arena.
Stone seats rose in tiers from the arena. An exceptional place among such structures was occupied by the four-story Flavian amphitheater in Rome (Colosseum), the construction of which began in 75 AD. e. under Emperor Vespasian of the Flavian dynasty. The performance in the Colosseum could be watched simultaneously by 50 thousand spectators. Through the open arcade of the first floor, they evenly penetrated inside and fell into place along 60 stairs. The seats in the first, lower tier were intended for the privileged class - senators, priests, vestals and judges, and here was the emperor's tribune; in the second - for citizens; in the third - for the plebs; the fourth floor was reserved for standing places for slaves. The dungeon under the arena housed chambers for gladiators, cages for animals, rooms where the corpses of the dead were carried. For the battle of gladiators, the arena was covered with sand, for a naval battle, it was filled with water using an aqueduct sleeve that approached the building. Inside the building was faced with marble, outside - with limestone tuff and decorated with columns - one at a time on the plane of the wall between the arched openings. On the ground floor, these are the columns of the Tuska order, squat and massive. The second floor is surrounded by graceful, slender columns of the Ionic order, the third - even higher Corinthian ones, the fourth - the Corinthian pilasters. This arrangement of columns provides a visual effect in which a building, massive from below, appears less heavy and taller. The arches were once filled with magnificent marble statues of Roman gods and senators. The pompous look was completed by a silk awning, which was stretched over the arena on hot or rainy days.
3 Famous monuments of the republican period
ancient roman architecture monument road
From most of the republican temples, and there were several dozen of them in Rome, not even the ruins have survived. The most famous are the grandiose structures, the ancient defensive walls of Rome, which arose back in the VIII century. BC. on three hills: Capitol, Palatine and Quiripale, laid out of stone early - VI century. BC. and the so-called Servian wall - 378-352. BC.
Roman roads were of great strategic importance, they united different parts of the country. The Appian Way of the 6th-3rd centuries leading to Rome. BC. for the movement of cohorts and messengers was the first of the network of roads that later covered all of Italy. Near the valley of Aricci, a road paved with a thick layer of concrete, rubble, lava and tuff slabs, because of the terrain, ran along a massive wall 197 m long, 11 m high, dissected in the lower part by three through arched spans for mountain waters.
Gradually in the following centuries Rome became the richest city in the world with water. Powerful bridges and aqueducts Appius Claudius aqueduct, 311 BC, Marcius aqueduct, 144 BC, running tens of kilometers, took a prominent place in the architecture of the city, in the form of its picturesque surroundings, being an integral part of landscape of the Roman Campagna.
The most ancient vaulted structures include the sewage channel of the Maximus cesspool in Rome, which has survived to this day. Public life took place in the market square. The Romans had a forum. All the main city events took place here: meetings, councils, important decisions were announced here, children were taught, traded, it served as an arena for political activity, popular gatherings, military triumphs.
The architectural ensemble included temples, basilicas, merchants' shops, markets. The squares were decorated with statues of famous citizens, political figures and were surrounded by columns and porticoes.
The oldest forum in Rome is the Republican Forum Romanum, VI century BC. to which all roads converged. Now only the foundations of the buildings are left of the Forum Romanum; its initial appearance is a reconstruction.
In the last centuries of the republic, the forum acquired a complete architectural appearance. On one side it was adjoined by the imposing building of the state archive - Tabularius, which stood on vaulted underground floors. It was a completely new type of public building, and the fact that it first appeared among the Romans speaks of their exceptional respect for history.
Outside, Tabularia was decorated with a Greek order, but inside it consisted of a system of vaulted rooms. A long staircase of Tabularia of 67 steps led from the forum to the Capitol. Such corridors and staircases are often found in republican buildings. They create the impression of the vastness of the space covered by the architecture. But at the same time, all forms are clearly visible in their perspective reduction: the smallest arch or step is clearly visible, the farthest goal is achievable.
Temples rose on the square, among them the temple of Vesta, the virgin goddess, in which an inextinguishable fire burned, symbolizing the life of the Roman people. There were also columns to which rostras were attached - the prows of the defeated enemy ships, hence the name - rostral column, and there was a "sacred road" along which stood taberns - shops of jewelers and goldsmiths. During the era of the republic, especially in the V-II centuries. BC, the temple is the main type of public building. It developed gradually as a result of the interbreeding of the prevailing local Italic-Etruscan traditions with the Greek, adapted to local conditions. Round and quadrangular pseudo-peripters were built with an entrance only from the main facade. The round temple - monopter consisted of a cylindrical base surrounded by a colonnade. The entrance was, according to Etruscan custom, from one, end, side.
Round temple of Sibyl or Vesta in Tivoli, 1st century BC, near Rome, surrounded by Corinthian columns. The frieze is decorated with reliefs depicting the traditional Roman motif - bull skulls, "bucrania", from which hang heavy garlands. It was a symbol of sacrifice and memory. The order in such temples was distinguished by the rigidity of the drawing and dryness: the columns lost their plasticity inherent in them in Greece.
The Greek round peripter usually had a stepped base and was designed for all-round viewing. The Temple of Sibylla in Tivoli, like the Etruscan temples, combines a frontal strictly symmetrical longitudinal axial composition and a round one. The axis of the temple is emphasized by the main entrance with steps, door and windows located in front of it. The massive, vaulted base of the temple in Tivoli creates a transition from the stone cliff, which it painfully completes, to an elegant round Corinthian rotunda with a light frieze of garlands. Raised on a high foundation, harmonious in proportions, with a slender and austere colonnade filled with light, the temple dominates the landscape. Its calm harmonious forms contrast with the rugged cascade of the waterfall.
Rectangular Roman temples also differed from Greek order ones, as the well-preserved Temple of Fortuna Virilis at the Forum Bull in Rome (1st century BC) shows - a unique example of an early completed Roman temple of the pseudo-peripter type with a closed frontal axial composition. The Greek peripter in it is dismembered into a deep front portico open on all sides and a cella, surrounded by semi-columns that merge with the wall. Accentuating the main facade with a portico with free-standing columns and a main staircase of the entrance, the architect combined it with a closed cell of the Ionic order. It also has an entrance only on one side, the Ionic columns end with capitals of a modest design. The pediment is completely "non-Greek", without sculptures inside its tympanum and with rich, strictly drawn profiles.
The Roman bridges of the 1st century are magnificent. BC. So, the Mulvia bridge, in addition to its practical advantages (it stood for more than two thousand years, is distinguished by the expressiveness of the image. The bridge visually, as it were, rests on the water with semicircles of arches, the supports between which are cut by high and narrow openings to ease the weight. The bridge seems to walk from coast to coast in continuous arches: it is dynamic and at the same time stable.
The originality of Roman architecture was reflected in the creation of a new type of private dwelling house for wealthy landowners, merchants, and artisans. Roman mansions are mostly one-story houses, in which the comfort of family life was combined with adaptability to business life.
Part of the appearance of the Roman city can be seen in the example of Pompeii, an Italian city that died in 79 AD. as a result of the eruption of Mount Vesuvius.
The city buried under ash was accidentally discovered during the construction of a water supply system in the 17th century. From 1748 to the present day, excavations have continued. The city had a regular layout. Straight streets were framed by the facades of houses, at the bottom of which there were tabern shops. The vast forum was surrounded by a beautiful two-story colonnade. There were the sanctuary of Isis, the temple of Apollo, the temple of Jupiter, a large amphitheater, built, like the Greeks, in a natural depression. Designed for twenty thousand spectators, it significantly exceeded the needs of the city's residents and was also intended for visitors. There were two theaters in the city.
Remarkable Pompeian houses - "domus". These were rectangular structures that stretched along the courtyard, and out into the street with blank end walls. The main room was an atrium from lat. atrium - "smoked", "black", i.e. a room blackened with soot that served a sacred function. At its founding, Rome had in the very center a cult pit - "mundus", where all the inhabitants threw fruits and a handful of earth from their old homeland. It opened only once a year - on the day of the Underground Goddess or did not open at all. Each house repeated this model: in the atrium there was often a hole in the center of the roof - a compluvium. Under it was a pool for collecting water, akin to the mundus - impluvium.
In general, the atrium served as a "pillar of the world" connecting every Roman house with heaven and the underworld. It is no coincidence that all the most important things were in the atrium: a heavy chest with family values, an altar-type table and a cabinet for storing wax masks of ancestors and images of good patron spirits - lars and penates.
CHAPTER 3. THE EPOCH OF THE ROMAN EMPIRE (1st century BC - 5th century AD)
1 Characteristics of the architecture of the 1st century BC. −V c. AD
The imperial period came at the end of the 1st century. BC e., when the Roman state from an aristocratic republic turned into the Roman Empire. The development of architecture during the imperial period can be divided into three stages.
The architecture of the first stage of the imperial period (1st century BC - 1st century AD), characterized by the strengthening of the imperial power, was distinguished by the simplicity of compositional solutions. The works of Greek classical architecture served as a model for her. Among the main monuments is the Forum of Augustus with the temple of Mars Ultor (the Avenger). The Corinthian columns of the temple are placed closely, with an intercolumnium (distance between the columns) of 1.5 column diameters. A constructive system based on the combination of fired bricks with so-called Roman lime concrete in the walls and ceilings is becoming widespread. Brick was introduced in the form of arches or layers, alternating with concrete layers, which made it possible to erect vaults and domes of a large span. The outside of the building was faced with travertine or marble, inside the walls were plastered and painted. The second stage of the imperial period (II century AD) is called the golden age of the Roman Empire. During this period, the architect Apollodorus of Damascus built the largest architectural ensemble of Ancient Rome - the Forum of the Roman Emperor Trajan, which was distinguished not only by its size and variety of compositional solutions, but also by the richness of decoration. The five-nave basilica of Ulpia stretches parallel to the transverse axis of the Forum. The huge 38-meter column is entwined with a continuous belt of reliefs depicting Trajan's victorious campaigns. A new type of public building for the court, commercial transactions appeared - the Greek basilica. basilike is the royal house. The rectangular building in plan was divided into three to five naves by rows of columns, with the middle nave being higher than the lateral ones. Another outstanding work of Apollodorus of Damascus is the Pantheon (125 AD) - "The Temple of All Gods", rebuilt from a circular pool: a giant cylindrical volume covered by a spherical dome with a diameter of 43.2 m with a light hole in the center. The interior is finished with polychrome marble At the third stage of the imperial period (III century AD), architecture was characterized by an increased interest in the decorative principle, on a grandiose scale. So, the baths of Caracalla were built - a complex complex of public baths for 1800 people, including pools, baths, libraries, shops, etc., the grandiose baths of Diocletian - a huge rectangular building with rooms covered with domes. In the Alpine and Danube provinces from the 1st century. n. e. many cities of the Roman type grew up - with arches, temples, amphitheaters. In the II century. n. e. the Syrian city of Palmyra is gaining importance. Its architectural structures were distinguished by the ancient oriental splendor of decorative elements. Not far from Palmyra was the Baalbek cultural center - the sanctuary of the Roman local gods (I-III centuries AD) - colossal in size. Thus, the height of the Corinthian columns of the Temple of Jupiter is about 20 m. It should be noted that in the principles of constructing the Parthenon plan, which were identified by architectural historians, there are not only features of ancient traditions, but also some innovations that can be considered the birth of new traditions. The Greeks used ancient methods of proportioning, but gave them their own proportionality. The square, which was the basis of the Parthenon plan, had absolute dimensions, already calculated in Greek measures of length. This is one hundred Greek feet, which in modern terms is 30.86 meters. This fact has a special, truly epochal significance. From this time until the end of the period of Antiquity, all the main structures of their time and their state system were built on the basis of a square with a side of one hundred attic feet. This proportionality can be revealed in the composition of the plans of the Pantheon in Rome and the temple of St. Sophia of Constantinople. The Roman Pantheon (118-128) is a construction of the period when the Roman Empire was moving towards the apogee of its development. It was conceived and built as a unique, one-of-a-kind building. Emperor Hadrian himself was directly related to the idea of \u200b\u200berecting the Pantheon (this information is legendary and, of course, not conclusive, but even in this form it is very eloquent). The Pantheon became the architectural embodiment of the core religious idea of \u200b\u200bimperial Rome about uniting together the beliefs and deities of different peoples. The volumetric-spatial composition of the Pantheon building is very simple. The volume is extremely close to a simple geometric shape, or, one might say, consists of simple geometric elements. The main volume of the temple can be imagined as a thick-walled cylinder with an internal diameter of 43.2 m and a wall thickness of about six meters. The cylindrical volume is covered with a hemispherical dome. The dome has a hemispherical outline only in the interior, from the outside it looks completely different. The height of the cylindrical part is calculated so that if you extend the generatrix of the dome hemisphere downwards, then it should touch the ground. Figuratively, the hemisphere of the dome of the Pantheon symbolizes the sky, and the entire interior is the universe, because pagan deities exist not only in heaven, but also on earth. The impression made by this structure on the viewer is truly stunning. Of course, and geometric construction, and the effect of the impact on a person, all this happened not by chance, but was originally laid in the ideological and artistic "program" of the temple by the architect Apollodorus of Damascus. The ideological background is also read in the application of some architectural techniques. As you know, the supreme god of the host of Latin gods is Jupiter, an analogue of the Greek Zeus. But there were serious differences in the ideas of the supreme deity among the Greeks and Romans. The views of the Romans were influenced by the heritage of the Etruscans, whose deities did not have an anthropomorphic image. Jupiter was identified with the light of the sky. Therefore, the main element of the dome was the opion - a round hole at the zenith of the dome. When on a sunny day a column of blinding light burst into the twilight of the temple, believers imagined that this was Jupiter, who entered the temple. The image of the interior space of the Pantheon, created by Roman architects, is one of the strongest in world architecture throughout its existence. Strictly speaking, round temples (folos) were built earlier, already in classical Greece. Round temples dedicated to all gods were created in the Hellenistic era, and in Rome the first cylindrical Pantheon was built at the end of the 1st century. by order of Agripa. All these structures were not so impressive in size, and, apparently, not so impressive in their architectural design. However, the fact that the idea itself was already in the air should be remembered. The fact that the Pantheon plan is based on a hundred-foot square, the inner circle of the Pantheon plan is described around this square, is also not accidental. This is a continuation of tradition, a declaration of inextricable ties with the culture of the preceding era. It should not be forgotten that until the early period of the Empire, Rome was not at all a leader in the field of culture and art, following the paths paved by the Etruscans, the Hellenized peoples of the Italian peninsula (for example, the Samnites, whose cities the Romans eventually rebuilt and turned into their own). In fact, the proportions of the Pantheon are not limited to just one hundred feet square. The entire Pantheon is strictly proportional, almost all of its elements can be calculated and built in a geometric way. However, these proportional laws are less important for us, since they are of a secondary, auxiliary character. The Roman Pantheon was conceived and built as a unique temple. There were other unique structures in Rome: the Colosseum, Tabularia, the giant baths of Diocletian, Caracalla. But all these structures are unique in a completely different way. The functional diagram of the Colosseum differs little from those used in other large circuses. The volumetric-spatial structure of all amphitheaters was based on a typical element - an arched-order cell. From such cells, as from the constructor, many Roman public buildings, circuses, theaters, and some administrative buildings, such as Tabularius, were "assembled". In other words, the uniqueness of the Colosseum is only in its extraordinary size. The Colosseum is the largest among many large amphitheaters, the first among equals comparable to it. The provinces were flourishing. The Roman Empire became the slave-owning empire of the Mediterranean. Rome itself took on the appearance of a world power. End I and early II century. n. e. the period of the reign of the Flavians and Trajan - the time of the creation of grandiose architectural complexes, structures of a large spatial scope. Until now, the ruins of the giant palaces of the Caesars on the Palatine (1st century AD) amaze with their harsh grandeur. The epitome of the power and historical significance of Imperial Rome were triumphal structures that celebrated the military victories of Rome. Triumphal arches and columns were erected not only in Italy, but also in the provinces for the glory of Rome. Roman buildings were active conductors of Roman culture and ideology there. The arches were erected for various reasons - both in honor of victories and as a sign of the consecration of new cities. However, their primary meaning is associated with triumph - a solemn procession in honor of the victory over the enemy. Passing through the arch, the emperor returned to his hometown in a new capacity. The arch was the border of one's own and another's world. At the entrance to the Roman Forum, in commemoration of the victory of the Romans in the Jewish War, the marble Arch of Triumph of Titus (81 AD) was erected to suppress the uprising in Judea. Titus, considered a sane and noble emperor, ruled for a relatively short time (79-81). Perfect in form, sparkling white single-span arch 15.4 m high, 5.33 m wide served as the basis for the sculptural group of the emperor on a chariot. 2 Colosseum - an architectural masterpiece. 70-80 n. eh The Colosseum is the largest of the ancient Roman amphitheaters, a famous monument of ancient Rome and one of the most remarkable structures in the world. For a long time, the Colosseum was for the inhabitants of Rome and visitors the main place for entertainment, such as gladiator fights, animal baiting, naval battles (naumachia). It is located in the hollow between the Esquiline, Palatine and Celievsky hills, in the place where there was a pond that belonged to the Golden House of Nero. The Colosseum was originally called the Flavian Amphitheater because it was a collective edifice of the emperors of the Flavian dynasty. Like other Roman amphitheaters, the Flavian Amphitheater presents an ellipse in plan, the middle of which is occupied by an arena and the concentric rings of spectator seats surrounding it. The Colosseum differs from all structures of this kind in its size. This is the most grandiose antique amphitheater: the length of its outer ellipse is 524 m, the length of the arena is 85.75 m, its width is 53.62 m, the height of its walls is from 48 to 50 meters. With this size, it could accommodate about 50 thousand spectators. The walls of the Colosseum are built from large pieces or blocks of travertine stone or travertine marble quarried in the nearby town of Tivoli. The blocks were interconnected by steel ties with a total weight of about 300 tons; local tuff and bricks were also used for the internal parts. The Flavian Amphitheater was built on a 13-meter-thick concrete foundation. An architectural and logistic solution used in the Colosseum and named vomitoria from lat. vomere "spew", is still used in the construction of stadiums: many entrances are evenly distributed around the entire perimeter of the building. Thanks to this, the public could fill the Colosseum in 15 minutes and leave in 5. The Colosseum in Rome had 80 entrances, of which 4 were intended for the highest nobility. These seats were arranged around the entire arena in the form of rows of stone benches, rising one above the other. The bottom row, or podium, was assigned exclusively to the emperor, his family, senators and vestals, and the emperor had a special, exalted seat. The podium was separated from the arena by a parapet high enough to protect spectators from the attack of animals released on it. This was followed by seats for the public, forming three tiers, corresponding to the tiers of the facade of the building. In the first tier, which contained 20 rows of benches, sat the city authorities and persons belonging to the class of equestrians, the second tier, which consisted of 16 rows of benches, was intended for people with the rights of Roman citizenship. The wall separating the second tier from the third was rather high, while the benches of the third tier were located on a steeper inclined surface, this device was intended to give visitors of the third tier the opportunity to better see the arena and everything that happens on it. The spectators of the third tier belonged to the lower classes. On the roof of the Colosseum, during the performances, the sailors of the Imperial Navy were placed, sent to stretch a huge awning over the amphitheater to protect the audience from the scorching rays of the sun or from bad weather. This awning was attached with ropes to the masts placed along the upper edge of the wall. All arched spans of the second and third floors were decorated with statues that have survived to this day. On the platform in front of the amphitheater, there was a thirty-meter bronze statue of Nero, called the Colossus. It is believed that the name Colosseum - colossal - originated just from this colossus. The construction of the amphitheater was started by Emperor Vespasian after his victories in Judea. The construction was completed in 80 by the emperor Titus. The Colosseum has long been considered a symbol of the greatness of Rome. The Colosseum was a theater of splendor, where many animals were killed. But already in 405, the emperor Honorius banned gladiatorial fights, and later animal persecution was also prohibited. The Colosseum ceased to be the main arena of Rome. At the end of the 13th century, the Colosseum in Rome was turned into a quarry. Houses and churches were built from it, in 1495 the office of the Pope was built from the material of the Colosseum, and in the 16th century bridges were built from the squares of the "giant". Subsequently, the arena of the legendary Roman amphitheater has long been associated with the torture of early Christians. Thus, in 1744, the Colosseum was consecrated in memory of the Christian martyrs who died here in battle with wild animals in front of the raging Roman crowds. A cross still stands in the center of the Colosseum. In the 21st century, the Colosseum in Rome was among the contenders for the title of one of the seven New Wonders of the World, and according to the results of the vote, which were announced on July 7, 2007, it was recognized as one of the 7 New Wonders of the World. 3 Pantheon - temple of all gods 125 AD An outstanding structure with a centric circular plan is the Roman "temple of all gods" of the Roman Empire, the Pantheon (125 AD), the finest and best preserved monument of ancient Rome. This most perfect example of a grandiose rotunda temple under the Emperor Hadrian was rebuilt from a circular pool by Apollodorus of Damascus, the author of the largest architectural ensemble of Ancient Rome - the Trajan Forum. The Pantheon accommodates over two thousand people. Its space is covered with a dome of a bold design with a diameter of 43 m, which remained unsurpassed until the second half of the 19th century. and served as a model for domed construction for all subsequent centuries. The construction of the Pantheon testifies to the flourishing of architectural thought in Ancient Rome. Its beauty is in the harmonious combination of clear volumes: the cylinder of the rotunda, the hemisphere of the dome and the parallelepiped of the portico. The walls of the rotunda rest on a concrete foundation 4.5 m deep and 7.3 m thick. The walls are 6.3 m thick. The rotunda wall consists of eight pylons - pylons connected by arches. The portico with two rows of columns of eight looks like the entrance to the temple - pronaos. The imposing fluted monolithic columns are carved out of red Egyptian granite, and their capitals and bases are from Greek marble. With its splendor, the portico disguises the heavy cylinder of the temple. Protruding strongly into the small square in front of the Pantheon, it seems especially large and hides behind it a colossal massive rotunda of the temple. The artistic image of the Pantheon is based on strict calculation. The diameter of the rotunda is equal to the total height of the inner space of the temple, 43 m, so if a ball is inscribed in its space, half of it forms a dome. In perfect harmonious forms of a circle and a ball, the architect embodies the idea of \u200b\u200bcomplete rest, creates the impression of a special, sublime grandeur. The interior decoration of the temple - marble facings and knocking decorations - is unusually solemn. Outside, the first tier of the rotunda is faced with marble, the two upper tiers are plastered. The dome of the Pantheon reaches 43 m in diameter, and its thickness is about 1 m, it was not surpassed by the domes of the temples of the Middle Ages, Renaissance, Modern times, until the end of the XIX century. The upper area of \u200b\u200bthe dome is made of pumice concrete to reduce the weight of the dome. A round hole 9 m in diameter was left in the center of the dome for illumination. The outside of the building is unusually massive. A continuous ring of blank walls, fifty-six meters in diameter, closes it. The dome appears to be pressed into these walls, passing to them in rows of flat ledges. The structure forms a monolithic block, under the weight of which the earth seems to bend. The deep portico does nothing to soften this powerful gravity effect. Its columns rise to almost fifteen meters in height. Their solid trunks are hewn from deep red Egyptian granite. Their Corinthian marble capitals have turned black with age, giving the structure a somewhat gloomy splendor. The inner space of the ancient temple is huge, solemn, but filled with soft, pacifying light. The diameter of the round hall is just over forty-three meters. The walls faced with marble are cut with deep niches, sometimes rectangular, sometimes semicircular. The colonnades separating them from the main part of the hall form openwork curtains that allow this space to preserve ideally round borders, but at the same time not be geometrically closed. The annular overhead entablature and the attic tier dissected by panels above it smoothly describe the circumference of the hall, interrupted, however, by the entrance arch and the conch of the main exedra in the depths. The verticals of the columns, pilasters, panels attract the eye to the hemispherical dome crowning the hall, in which the entire space of the temple is brought to an unprecedented harmonious unity. The Pantheon Dome is a true marvel of engineering and fine artistic taste. This is a regular hemisphere with a diameter of 43.2 meters; the dimensions of its span were surpassed only in the 20th century. Its height is equal to the height of the walls on which it rests. Heavy and massive on the outside, it rests on the retaining walls inside with extraordinary calmness and lightness. Visually lightening it, five rows of escaping caissons gather a soft twilight in their recesses, and one can imagine that the gilded rosettes that once adorned them glittered like stars For a long time, the Pantheon remained a model for many architects; it won over with its simplicity and integrity of design. Repeatedly famous architects tried to design and build a building surpassing the Pantheon in size and perfection of embodiment. However, as a true masterpiece, he remained unique. The Pantheon still stands in the center of Rome. This is the only monument of ancient Roman architecture, not destroyed or rebuilt in the Middle Ages. Many Christian churches were built in imitation of the Pantheon. The most famous of them is the Parisian Pantheon. The architecture of Ancient Rome left a huge legacy to mankind, the significance of which is difficult to overestimate. The great organizer and creator of modern norms of civilized life, Ancient Rome decisively transformed the cultural appearance of a huge part of the world. The art of the Roman period has left many remarkable monuments in a wide variety of areas. Each ancient Roman monument embodies a tradition compressed by time and brought to its logical conclusion. It carries information about faith and rituals, the meaning of life and creative skills of the people to which it belonged, the place that this people occupied in the grand empire. The Roman state is very difficult. He was the only one who had the mission of parting with the millennial world of paganism and creating those principles that formed the basis of Christian art of the modern era. The Romans learned how to build arches from stone, simple vaults and domes to cover buildings, they also began to use lime mortar to hold stones together. This was a huge step forward in construction engineering. Now it was possible to build structures of more varied layout and to overlap large interior rooms. For example, the circular interior of the Roman pantheon — the temple of all the gods — was 40 meters across. It was covered with a giant dome, which then became a model for architects and builders for centuries. The Romans adopted the Greek columns. They preferred the Corinthian style as the most opulent. In Roman buildings, columns began to lose their original purpose of being a support for any part of the building. They turned into decoration, since the arches and vaults were held even without them. Semi-columns and rectangular pilasters were often used. LIST OF USED LITERATURE 1.Alferova M.A. History and legends of Ancient Rome M., 2006. .Blavatsky V.D. Architecture of Ancient Rome M., 1938. .V.A. Golovashin Culturology M., 2004 .Dozhdev D.V. Roman private law. Uch. for universities. -M., 1996 .Kirillin V.A. Ancient Rome M., 1986 .Kolpinsky Yu.D. Monuments of world art M., 1970 .Kuzishchin V.I., Gvozdeva I.A.History of Ancient Rome M., 2008 .Mironov V.B. Ancient Rome M., 2007 .Nikolaev D.V. Culture of the Ancient World. - SPb, 2010 .Yarkho V.N. Ancient culture - M., 1995. In this photo story I will introduce you to Rome, the most beautiful and ancient city in the world, which is called "Eternal". And if you have already been to Rome, I hope you will remember your trip and your favorite places with pleasure. "As long as the Colosseum is unshakable, The closer I got to the center of Rome, the more interesting it became. Suddenly I thought that here you can easily get confused and lost. As it turned out, you even need to get lost in Rome. Historical sights are located almost at every step of this unique city. And in order to see more than the organized excursion programs give us, it is imperative to walk around the city on your own without excursions (taking, of course, a map of Rome with you). And I was convinced of this. Rome is a museum city. Monuments of the history of ancient Rome The main pride and symbol of Rome is the Colosseum (Flavian amphitheater), a monument of ancient Roman architecture. It was here that gladiator fights, athletic competitions and other spectacles took place. In many countries of the world there are similar Roman amphitheaters, but the Colosseum is the most grandiose and majestic. He has no equal. Next to the Colosseum is the Arc de Triomphe of Constantine. It was built in 315 to commemorate the victory of the Roman emperor Constantine in the civil war. You can look at the Roman Forums - the most important archaeological excavations of objects dating back to the era of Ancient Rome. Here are dilapidated buildings, arches, ruins of ancient temples. "Gladiators" walk the streets. You can take a picture with them for 1 euro. From the Colosseum and the Forums we head towards the Capitol, one of the seven hills on which Ancient Rome arose. Climbing the stairs, we find ourselves on the Capitoline Square near an ensemble of three beautiful palaces. These are the New Palace, the Palace of the Senators and the Palace of the Conservatives. Previously, it was the political center of Ancient Rome. In the center of the square is a copy of the bronze equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius. The original, created in the 2nd century, is kept in the Museum of the Palace of the Conservatives. Museums are located in the building of the New Palace (Palazzo Nuovo) and the Palazzo dei Conservatory (Palazzo dei Conservatoire). The building of the Palace of the Senators (Palazzo Senatorio) houses the City Hall: At the top of the Capitoline Hill stands the Basilica of Santa Maria in Araceli (Church of the Virgin Mary). Among the treasures of the basilica are the relics of Saint Helena, mother of the Roman emperor Constantine I. She became famous for her activities in spreading Christianity and carrying out excavations in Jerusalem, during which, according to Christian chroniclers, the Holy Sepulcher, the Life-giving Cross and other relics were found. A staircase of 122 steps leads to the main entrance: There is another entrance to the basilica - from the side of the Senatorial Palace. Among the monuments of ancient Rome, a special place is occupied by the Pantheon - "Temple of all the gods" (2nd century AD). This great engineering achievement of antiquity is located in the Piazza della Rotonda. Everything inside the Pantheon is monumental and majestic: the floor is paved with marble, the walls are also faced with multicolored marble, granite columns, marble capitals, frescoes, paintings and sculptures in niches and altars. The great Renaissance painter Raphael Santi is buried in the Pantheon. One of the features of the Pantheon is the opening in the dome through which the strongest light pole penetrates at noon. The light "does not spread", but remains in the form of a giant light beam and is almost perceptible. Famous squares of Rome Plunging into the history of Rome, enjoying the masterpieces of architecture and sculpture, you should pay special attention to the city squares. Roman squares are a kind of works of art. Each square is unique, interesting and keeps a piece of history. I have already mentioned some of the squares above - the Capitoline and Piazza della Rotonda, on which the Pantheon stands. And now I'll tell you about other areas. Venice Square (Piazza Venezia). The square is located in the center of Rome near the Roman Forums at the foot of the Capitoline Hill. There is a monumental building with columns, bas-reliefs and statues - Vittoriano. This is a monument that differs from all other similar buildings in Rome. The monument was built in honor of the first king of the united Italy, Victor Emmanuel II Piazza Navona This square was a favorite place for fairs, holidays and recreation of the Romans. From the 15th to the 19th century, there was a city marketoK. The area is rectangular. The buildings overlooking it are very beautiful. Here you can see churches, several palaces, residential buildings with neat balconies. There are shops and cafes here. Three beautiful fountains adorn the square. One of them is the Moor Fountain. The sculpture of the Moor is the work of the great Italian sculptor Bernini. Another fountain is the Fountain of the Four Rivers. This is also Bernini's work. The fountain statues symbolize the main rivers of the four parts of the world - Nile, Ganges, Danube and La Plata. And this is an Egyptian obelisk surrounded by statues of the Fountain of the Four Rivers. It has a height of 16.54 meters. An obelisk was made in Egypt from Aswan granite by order of Domitian, the last Roman emperor from the Flavian dynasty. In Rome, hieroglyphs were applied to the obelisk - a hymn to Emperor Domitian. Artists show their talents right on the square. There was also a place for musicians. Republic Square (Piazza della Repubblica). From the square starts one of the main streets of Rome with many shops - Via Nazionale. The Naiad Fountain, located in the very center of the square, is considered one of the most beautiful fountains in Rome. The Romans themselves call the Naiad fountain erotic. Having looked closely at the beautiful sculptures, I understood why this fountain acquired such a second name. Republic Square is very easy to find. It is located in the center of Rome next to the Baths of Diocletian. Nearby - Termini station (Rome's main train station) and the Repubblica-Teatro del Opera metro station, line A of the Rome metro. The square is remarkable not only for its beautiful fountain. Here is the Basilica of Santa Maria degli Angeli (16th century), dedicated to the Virgin, angels and martyrs in Rome, built on the site of the baths of Diocletian. This was the second Basilica in Italy, in which I heard wonderful Catholic music. Before that, in Perugia, I was at the liturgy of the sixth hour (at noon). The live choral singing during the service made a huge impression on me. Here I was lucky to hear an organist and a completely different music. At first, the church was very quiet and not crowded. The organ broke the silence, and all the visitors gathered closer to the musician to admire his playing. For some reason I wanted to go to this church again, but there was very little free time, and there was a lot of what I had not seen in Rome. Piazza Colonna The square is named after the column of Marcus Aurelius located on it. Nearby is an elegant marble fountain in the shape of a bowl. Beautiful buildings - palaces - overlook the square. The Council of Ministers is sitting in one of the palaces. Piazza Colonna is located on the western side of the most important shopping street in Rome - Via del Corso, where there are many shops of various levels, offering clothes, shoes, leather goods, and perfumery. There are also many palazzo, hotels, restaurants and cafes in Via del Corso and the surrounding streets. Walking along Via del Corso, I looked into different stores - both in chains like Zara, and in boutiques of Italian firms. Was in the Disney Store - a children's toy store. Good store. There is a large selection of both toys and clothing. Later, I went to a Disney store in Florence and regretted not shopping in Rome. In Rome, the assortment was much wider and more interesting. Spain Square (Piazza di Spagna) As you know, the square got its name from the Spanish embassy located on it. It was already evening. The night lights came on. There are no less people walking in the evening than during the day. This is especially true of the Spanish Steps - the main attraction of the square. There are students, tourists, and Italian families here. A staircase leads to the top of the Pincio hill to the Trinita dei Monti church. At the foot of the stairs there is a boat-shaped "Barcaccia" fountain. It is unusually beautiful here late in the evening. The first part about Rome has come to an end. I conclude it with the words of Byron from the poem Childe Harold's Pilgrimage: "And then you, Italy! The ancient culture of Rome, which existed from the 8th century. BC. and before the collapse of the Holy Roman Empire in 476 AD, gave the world its own vision of a system of ideals and values. For this civilization, love for the Motherland, dignity and honor, reverence for the gods and faith in their uniqueness were paramount. This article presents main aspects, able to describe such a unique phenomenon as the culture of Ancient Rome, briefly. In contact with According to chronological data, the cultural history of Ancient Rome can be divided into three main periods: The royal period of Ancient Rome is considered the most primitive in terms of Roman culture. However, at that time, the Romans already had own alphabet... At the end of the 6th century, the first ancient schools began to appear, in which children were taught for 4–5 years Latin and Greek, writing and arithmetic. Attention! During that short period of ancient history, which lasted from 753 to 509. BC, seven kings managed to ascend to the Roman throne: Romulus, Numa Pompilius, Tullus Hostilius, Ancus Marcius, Lucius Tarquinius Priscus, Servius Tullius, Lucius Tarquinius the Proud. The republican period is characterized by the penetration of ancient Greek culture into the life of Ancient Rome. At this time they begin to develop philosophy and law. The most prominent Roman philosopher of that time was Lucretius (98–55), who in his work "On the Nature of Things" urged people to stop being afraid of superstition and God's punishment. He gave a completely logical explanation for the appearance of man and the universe. An innovation in the system of Roman law was the introduction of the concept of "legal entity", thereby strengthening the position of private owners. In the imperial period of the development of ancient culture, everything Greek was abandoned. Roman uniqueness develops. This is clearly seen in the culture and architecture of that time: the Colosseum and the Pantheon. For the first time, attempts are being made to study the activity of the brain. The experiments were carried out by the physician Galen, known in ancient times. Created schools for training doctors... There have also been changes in religion. The Roman emperor was now recognized as a deity, who after death ascended to heaven. Many achievements of Ancient Rome in the field of civilization and culture, created in the antique period, are still popular all over the world: Sculptures acquired emotions from the Romans. Their faces reflected the state of mind, thanks to which the sculpture came to life. It was in Ancient Rome that such a literary trend as the novel appeared. The common Greco-Roman culture of the ancient period gave rise to many writers, playwrights and poets. A new direction in literature was born - the novel. Among the famous satirists of that time, it is worth noting Plautus and Terence. Their comedies have been preserved to this day. Livy Andronicus became the first tragedian in Rome and translated Homer's Odyssey into Latin. Among the poets, it is worth noting Lucilius, who wrote poems on everyday topics. Most often in his works, he ridiculed the obsession with wealth. During the time of Cicero in ancient Rome philosophy is gaining popularity. Such directions as Roman Stoicism, the main idea of \u200b\u200bwhich was the achievement of a moral and spiritual ideal by man, and Roman Neoplatonism, which preached the ascent of the human soul to unity with a kind of ecstasy, appeared. In the field of astronomy, the ancient scientist Ptolemy is famous, who created the geocentric system of the world. He also wrote a number of works on optics, mathematics and geography. The Roman era left majestic monuments of ancient architecture that can be seen today. Coliseum. A huge amphitheater, construction of which began in 72 AD. and ended only after 8 years. Its second name, the Flavian amphitheater, is associated with the ruling dynasty, whose representatives were the initiators of the construction. The total capacity of the Roman Colosseum was more than 50 thousand people. Note!Most often, prisoners of war participated in gladiatorial battles. Their life depended on how colorfully they were able to demonstrate their capabilities and to what extent they won the public. If the gladiator made a strong impression, the spectators of Rome let him live and thumbs up. If the audience wanted death, then the thumb would coolly drop down. Arch of Titus... The initiator of the construction of the monument was the Roman emperor Domitian, shortly after the death of his predecessor Titus. This antique monument was built in 81 AD. to commemorate the conquest of Jerusalem in 70 A.D. The arch is known for its convex relief within the span. It depicts a procession of Roman soldiers with trophies captured in Jerusalem. Pantheon. A majestic structure built by Emperor Hadrian in 126 AD. The Pantheon is a temple dedicated to all the gods. Perfectly preserved to this day in its original form, this cultural monument of the ancient period is unique in its proportionality and visual lightness. Above, the Roman temple is decorated with a dome with a hole in the center for the supply of sunlight. On the eve of the wedding, the girl, as if saying goodbye to her childhood, had to donate her toys and clothes. The head was tied with a red shawl, the bride was dressed in a white tunic, which was tied with a belt made of sheep's wool. A wedding dress in ancient Rome was red, which was worn over a tunic. A bright yellow coverlet was thrown over the head, which matched the color of the shoes. The very same the ceremony was accompanied by the sacrifice of the pig. By her insides, it was determined whether the marriage would be happy. And if so, then the person conducting the fortune-telling gave his permission. Already during the ancient period, marriage contracts were drawn up, which prescribed the bride's dowry and the procedure for dividing property in the event of a divorce. The contract was read out loud in front of ten witnesses, after which these witnesses put their signatures. Despite the fact that ancient Rome imitated Greece in many ways, it possessed characteristic distinctive features in culture. If the Greeks occupied territories by distributing their goods, then Rome led war activities, completely depriving the conquered territory of independence. Every five years, a survey of the population was carried out - qualification. The activity of the population was appreciated both in wartime and in peacetime. The toga was considered the national dress in Rome. That is why the Romans were called "togatus". The eternal companion of Ancient Rome was the army, which stood outside the state. The peculiarities of the culture of Ancient Rome allowed it to become the basis for the subsequent flourishing of Europe. From Greece, singers, musicians, dancers were invited. There was a popular performance of the odes of Horace, the poems of Ovid, accompanied by the music of the cithara and tibia. However, later in ancient Rome, musical performances lost their original form and acquired an extremely spectacular character. The musicians' performances were accompanied by theatrical performances. Even gladiatorial fights were accompanied by the sounds of trumpets and horns. During the ancient period, were very popular music teachers... A letter from the poet Marcial to his friend has survived to this day, in which he says that if he becomes a music teacher, then a career is guaranteed for him. Pantomime has become a new trend in art. It was performed by a solo dancer to the sounds of a choir and a large number of musical instruments. The last emperor of Rome, Domitian at the end of the 1st century. AD arranged a "Capitoline Competition" between soloists, poets and musicians. The winners were crowned with laurel wreaths. The contribution of Ancient Rome to the development of modern European civilization is undeniable. The Romans in the ancient period created the Latin alphabet, in which all medieval Europe wrote. In Rome was created civil law system, civic values \u200b\u200bare defined: patriotism, belief in one's own identity and greatness. Christianity was also historically formed there, which strongly influenced the subsequent stages of human development. Concrete was introduced by the Romans. They taught the world to build bridges and water pipes. Sculpture and art as part of the culture of Ancient Rome Culture and history of Ancient Rome in brief The greatest people in history praised ancient Rome and its culture in their quotes. So, Napoleon said: "The history of Rome is the history of the whole world." It is obvious that if the Roman Empire had been able to withstand the onslaught of the "barbarian" tribes in 476, the Renaissance would have appeared to the world much earlier. The contribution of Ancient Rome to world culture is so great that it remains to be studied for a long time. Until the 20th century, the history of ancient sculpture was lined up in chronological order - first Greece (the flowering of art in the 5th – 4th centuries BC), then Rome (the peak of the rise of the 1st – 2nd centuries AD). Art (Roma) was considered a late expression of the Greek cultural traditions, the completion of the work of the period of antiquity. After the publication of the works of art critics Ranuccio Bianchi-Bandinelli, Otto Brendel, antique scholars recognized Roman art as a distinctive and unique phenomenon. The sculpture of ancient Rome came to be regarded as a school of classical craftsmanship, the history of which has not yet been written. In the VIII century. BC e. ancient Roman craftsmen pushed away from the traditions of Hellenic sculptors and began to master independent creativity. The history of ancient Roman art is divided into four stages: The origins of ancient Roman sculpture are the art of Italics and Etruscans, who created a kind of cultural monuments. The most famous artifact is the warrior from Capestrano (Guerriero di Capestrano). Sculptors of the most ancient era created portraits, stone bas-reliefs, which differed from Greek works by the average quality of work. Temple terracotta sculpture with decorative and cult functions was developed. Large statues of gods appeared, surpassing the size of the Greek statues. In 1916, on the territory of the ancient Etruscan city Veii, magnificent terracotta statues of Apollo, Hermes, Venus were found, which were created for the external decoration of the temple of Apollo (550 - 520 BC).
The authors of scientific research (Oscar Waldgauer, Grant Michael, V.D. Blavatsky) believe that the sculpture of ancient Rome cannot be called a blind imitation of Hellenic images, because cultural monuments are distinguished by features characteristic of each era of development. Roman masters moved away from the traditions of Greek sculptors and did not create images of the ideal person. Individuality runs through the history of Roman portraiture, which is based on the religious custom of creating death masks. Patricians had the right to keep the appearance of a deceased ancestor in their homes. The more portraits, the more noble the family. This explains the characteristic features of Roman sculpture: realism, concreteness, knowledge of facial expressions and musculature.
The Greek sculptor, inspired by the ideas of humanism, sang his gods in marble in the image of the perfect human body. Ancient Roman craftsmen preferred to work with stone, clay and bronze. Their gods had an unpredictable nature, inspired fear of becoming a victim of the wrath of higher powers. Allegory and symbolism prevail in sculpture. Only in the 1st century BC. in Rome began to use marble. The works are distinguished by emotional coldness and detachment. The open plasticity of Greek sculptures is contrasted with the image of a Roman who covered his head with the hem of his clothes during prayer. The Hellenic masters saw the type of person: an athlete, a philosopher, a commander. Roman sculptors created portraits in the spirit of extreme naturalism, concretized the qualities of a person's character, his individual characteristics. The sculptors of Rome add a new form of portrait images to the Greek models of plastic art (statue, herme) - a bust. The Hellenic sculptor associated creativity with a poetic myth. The Roman sculptor perceives the world in distinct forms. Unlike the Greeks, during the Late Republic (264 - 27 BC), the Romans did little to do with monumental sculpture. Preference was given to bronze figurines of prominent figures and gods. Senate decrees regulated the size, material, character of the statue. Equestrian and armor portrait could be installed only in case of a military triumph. The task of the sculptors was the need to capture the family, generic traits, social rank and status of the Roman. Many works are identified or have an inscription on a pedestal with information about the model, but the names of the ancient Roman portrait painters have not survived. The sculpture of ancient Rome consists of two types: Scientists of the complex science of antiquity identified the main genres of Roman sculpture: One of the main types of visual art in Rome is relief. Masters are inclined towards analysis, detailed depiction of images, and reliably record historical events. The main fence of the Altar of Peace in Rome (13 - 9 BC), the reliefs of the imperial period - Trajan's Arch in Benevento (114 - 117) are recognized as a masterpiece of the time of the early principate. The change of imperial dynasties influenced the stylistic features of ancient Roman sculpture. Antiquities call the time of the reign, nicknamed Augustus (Octavianus Augustus), the "golden age" of the Roman state (27 BC - 14 AD). Greek sculpture of the classical period with strict forms serves as an example for the ruler in the creation of a magnificent empire. In portrait sculpture, individual features are smoothed out. The general appearance, pleasing to the principate, becomes a typical standard.
The established norm is manifested in portrait busts of Octavian himself, who demanded to portray himself as a young, athletic ruler. The idealization of the image is clearly visible in the statues installed on the forum, in front of (Panthevm), the Roman temple of Mars the avenger (Tempio di Marte Ultore nel Foro di Roma). In 1863, a two-meter high bronze statue was found at Prima Porta, made by order of the Roman Senate. August is represented as a majestic descendant of the gods, at whose feet Cupid is sitting on a dolphin. The relief on the shell tells the people about the emperor's victories in numerous battles. (Chiaramonti Museum - Museo Chiaramonti - Vatican). Masters create independent female portraits. Sculptural images of children appear for the first time. Depicted on the left relief of the Altar of Peace (Ara Pacis), the beautiful Earth Goddess Tellus (Tellus) holds two babies on her knees, surrounded by figures of well-fed animals. Art is meant to magnify the prosperity of Rome under the first emperor. During the reign of Juliev - Klavdiev and Flaviev, monumental sculpture came to the fore. The glorification of power led to the fact that the masters gave even the gods the characteristic features of emperors. For the first time, realism appears in portraits. For example, the statue of Claudius (Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus) consists of two different parts: the head with a realistic depiction of the aging face of the great pontiff and the ideal figure of the Greek god Jupiter. The appearance of the ruler is shown using volumetric sculpting: a wide forehead with wrinkles, a flabby face, protruding ears. The new style replaced the smoothness of the individual features of the portrait busts with realistic depictions of Roman emperors. In marble portraits, paints are used to tint the lips, the eyeballs are tinted with ivory. In bronze busts, to make the eyes shine, semiprecious stones are inserted into the pupils (a portrait of the cunning usurer of Pompeii Cecilius Yukunda). The genre of female portrait is developing in two directions: classicistic and “veristic”. Merciless truthfulness is reflected in the portrait of an elderly Roman woman (Vatican Museums, Gregorian Secular Museum - Museo Gregoriano Profano). A thin restless face, wrinkled forehead, bags under watery eyes speak of impending old age. The female image is presented in a different way in the statue of a stranger found at the antique gate of St. Sebastian (Porta San Sebastiano). A half-naked Roman woman is depicted by Aphrodite. The woman proudly bent her waist, put her hips on her hips, put her leg forward, covered with a fixed cloth. The portrait head of a middle-aged domineering Roman woman hardly matches the ideal figure of the goddess (Vatican. Capitoline Museums - Musei Capitolini). During the reigns of Emperor Trajan and Hadrian, the sculpture continues to express the greatness of the Empire. The use of different forms determined two stages of artistic development: Trajan and Adrian. The marble sculptural composition depicts the mortal struggle of Laocoon, priest of the god Apollo, and his sons with snakes. The work was created in 50 I century BC. e., is a copy of a non-preserved bronze monument of Greek sculptors (Pergamum, 200 BC). (Michelangelo Buonarroti), sent by Pope Julius II to evaluate the find, confirmed the reliability of the work and noted the incredible dynamism and plasticity of the creation of the ancient Roman sculptor. One of the most famous sculptures of ancient Rome is kept at (Museo Pio-Clementino), Vatican. Clay urn of the 6th century BC is an example of burial cult monuments. The lid is made in the form of a human head, decorated with a bronze mask (Canopus Chiusi). The Etruscan master tried to preserve the appearance of the deceased: large facial features, a big nose, narrow lips, straight hair drawn in clay. Portrait resemblance was a guarantee of otherworldly immortality. The handles of the ritual vessel are made in the form of human hands. The desire to create a reliable image became the basis for the appearance of the Etruscan portrait (Paris, Louvre Museum - Musee du Louvre). Antique statue of the 6th century BC (found 1934) depicts a quietly standing warrior (Guerriero di Capestrano) of the Piceno tribe. The author departs from a typical example of ancient Greek plastic - a kouros (statue of a young athlete), making a step with his left foot. The unknown sculptor, differently than the Greeks, depicts a figure with exaggerated massive hips, broad shoulders, a mask on the face, and a helmet with incredible brims. The construction of a three-dimensional shape with side columns, gaps between the calves and the waist convinces that the statue of a warrior on a pedestal belongs to a round sculpture. The ancient artifact is on display at the National Archaeological Museum (Chieti). The decoration of the temple of Ara della Regina (Dell'Ara della Regina) in Tarquinia was made in the 4th century BC. The figures of horses mounted on the pediment of the cult building have arched their necks, spread their wings, and move their legs in readiness to carry the divine rider up. Fairy-tale creatures are close to real images due to muscle tension and nervousness of movements. Winged horses can be seen at the Tarquinia National Archaeological Museum. The Chimera of Arezzo, made in the 5th century BC, is considered the pinnacle of ancient bronze casting. The fantastic figure of a lion with a goat's head and a snake-shaped tail is an example of symbolism in sculpture. The animal embodies the triune image of the Great Mother of the Gods: the Goat is the symbol of birth and feeding; the symbol of life is Leo; death - Snake. A 79 cm high bronze sculpture found in the 16th century is on display at the Florence Archaeological Museum (Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Firenze). The head of a sullen man ("Malvolta"), 16.2 cm high, was made in the second half of the 5th century. BC e. Eyes, both old and young, capricious mouth give an unapproachable look to the sculptural image. Art critics find striking similarities between the Malvolta and the head of St. George sculpture (Donatello), created by the master after millennia. The sculpture found in Veii is kept in the Roman Museum of the Villa Giulia (Museo Villa Giulia). Part of the bronze sculpture (the head of a man), discovered during excavations in Rome in 1564, made a splash with its preservation. Work done in the years 300 - 275. BC, is considered a masterpiece of Etruscan art in terms of the power of expressiveness of the image and the technique of execution. One of the oldest sculptures found is believed to be a portrait of the founder of the Roman Republic, Lucius Iunius Brutus, Bruto Capitolino. The face seems alive thanks to the inlay with ivory plates and a colored stone inserted into the pupils. The sculptor conveys the character of an extraordinary person. The fighter against tyranny does not give up in the face of difficulties. (Capitoline Museums, Palace of the Conservatives). A bronze statue of the orator Aulus Metellus (Arringatore), created around 100 BC, was found in 1566 at the bottom of Lake Trasimene. The orator, the Roman master Aulus Metellus, stretched out his hand and called for attention. The portrait image is devoid of idealization, frankly reproduces nature: a plump figure, a face with wrinkles, a crooked mouth. The work is the first example of an early Roman portrait. The inscription on the border of the toga informs in honor of whom the statue was erected. (National Archaeological Museum, Florence - Museo archeologico nazionale di Firenze). Marble statue of the end of the 1st century BC. presents the heroic figure of the Roman military leader and statesman Germanicus. The adopted nephew of Tiberius (the second Roman emperor) was a man of rare beauty and courage. At the age of 34, he became a victim of palace intrigue and was poisoned with a slow-acting poison. The eloquent commander, capable of science, enjoyed the well-deserved love of the people. The unknown sculptor conveys the youthful grace of the figure and the idealized image of Germanicus, whose death caused the general grief of the Romans. (Paris, Louvre Museum - Musee du Louvre). In the 15th century, a gilded bronze sculpture of Hercules was found during the excavations of the oldest trading square in Rome (Forum Bull). The 241 cm high figure represents the Greek mythological hero Hercules. The work was done in the 2nd century BC. The slender, muscular athlete defeated Kaka, who stole the cows from him. In the right hand of the hero is a lowered club, in the left - the golden apples of the Hesperides. The statue stood in the Temple of Hercules the Victorious, built on the Forum Bull, where cattle were previously sold. (Rome, Capitoline Museums −Musei Capitolini). The marble portrait of a young Roman woman (1st century AD) reflects the desire of the wives of emperors, their daughters and noble Roman women to shine with beauty and fashion. A high complex hairstyle, almond-shaped eyes, fluffy eyebrows, a long neck, beautifully defined lips give the image a special poetry. The sculptor achieved a softening of the appearance due to the smoothing of the marble surface using the technique of execution with the use of a drill. The work, executed in a special artistic manner, is exhibited at the Capitoline Museums (Musei Capitolini), Rome. The poetic image of youth and beauty is represented by a marble bust made at the end of the 1st century AD. The individual features of the young man are emphasized by sad eyes, a strong chin, and a beautifully outlined mouth. The sculptor skillfully conveys thick hair, shine of eyes, elasticity of the skin, but does not idealize the image. The turn of the head, the flexible neck, the athletic turn of the shoulders correspond to the sculptures of Hellenic art. (London, British Museum - British Museum). The only surviving equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, the last of the five "good emperors" of Rome, was created in the II century. AD The monumental, originally gilded sculpture presents Marcus Aurelius as a thinker whom his contemporaries called the philosopher on the throne. The emperor, who does not have a warlike character, is dressed in a tunic and sandals on his bare feet. The idealized appearance of the ruler was identified in the 15th century by minted coins: thick curly hair, protruding cheekbones, bulging eyes. The monument of antiquity survived, because the Christian church took the guise of a horseman for the emperor Constantine. (Capitoline Museums - Musei Capitolini - Palace of the Conservatives). The Roman halls of the State Hermitage Museum display 120 works of ancient masters. One of the best collections in the world has no copies. All exhibits are genuine. The sculptures have kept the prototypes of images "alive" and have shown the essence of human nature. It is impossible to confuse the soldier emperor Philip the Arab (Marcus Iulius Philippus) with the self-righteous co-ruler of Marcus Aurelius - the handsome Lucius Verus. The halls display not only portraits of emperors and members of their families, but also sculptures of private persons. Unnamed masters perfectly conveyed the nature of the social type. The curator of the Roman portrait of the Hermitage, Candidate of Art History AA Trofimova calls the bronze bust of an unknown Roman a rare museum piece. The emotional, tragic image of a man with a clever ironic gaze still arouses controversy among specialists about the prototype of the hero. Figurines, busts, sculptures of ancient Rome amaze with the variety of plastic forms and richness of characters. ↘️🇮🇹 USEFUL ARTICLES AND SITES
🇮🇹↙️ SHARE WITH YOUR FRIENDS There are 2 main ways to see the sights of Rome - on your own and as part of an organized excursion. Both of these methods have their pros and cons. As a rule, most tourists explore the free sights of Rome on their own, and paid ones as part of an excursion. Free attractions in Rome include monuments, architecture, central streets, buildings, parks, bridges, the promenade and nature. Paid attractions in Rome include museums, performances, theaters, nightclubs, restaurants, bars, amusement parks, etc. The advantage of paid sightseeing in Rome is that if you take a sightseeing tour of Rome, you can see a large number of major attractions in one day, as you will be taken by bus from one attraction to another. For large groups, as a rule, there are discounts, and by taking an organized excursion, you can still save money. It is also very interesting to listen to a Russian-speaking guide who has been living in Italy for several years and knows the country like the back of his hand. Photos with names and descriptions of the sights of Rome. The most interesting places in Rome that a tourist must visit. The Colosseum is the central arena of ancient Rome, where gladiators fought, where prisoners were given up to be torn apart by animals, where water battles of ships were held, for which the arena was filled with water from the Tiber River, and where other atrocious performances took place. The Colosseum was opened in 80 after the birth of Christ and in honor of its opening, the Great Games were held, which lasted more than 90 days. Amphitheater Colosseum means "colossus", which indicates its big sizes... Also, the Colosseum had the name "Flavian Amphitheater", which were the ruling dynasty of Roman emperors. 2 thousand years ago, it was the largest building in the world, in the stands of which 55,000 spectators could sit. At the beginning of the fifth century, when Christianity gained real strength, gladiatorial battles ceased to be held and the premises began to be used as a stable, warehouse and shelter. Today, the Colosseum is a must in the program of every tourist. The Colosseum is located in Rome on the Piazza del Colosseo. Pantheon means "the temple of all gods" in Greek and was built in Rome in the second century AD. The Pantheon was built when ancient Roman architecture was just flourishing. Initially, the ancient Roman gods were sung here, but at the beginning of the 7th century, a Christian temple was made from the Pantheon. Throughout its existence, the Pantheon has undergone restoration and thanks to this, it has been well preserved to this day. The dome of the Pantheon weighs 5,000 tons and has not yet collapsed to this day. In the dome of the Pantheon there is a hole with a diameter of 9 meters, so rain and snow through it penetrate into the building. The remains of Raphael and other famous people were buried in the Pantheon. Pilgrims from all over the world flock to see this architectural masterpiece with their own eyes. The Pantheon is opened for tourists at 9 am and it is better to inspect it immediately after the opening, while there are still few tourists. The Pantheon is closed at 19.00. The entrance is free. The Vatican is a mini city-state, the seat of the Pope and the main center of the Catholic Church. There are only 8 hundred citizens of the Vatican, including the ministers of the church. The Vatican covers an area of \u200b\u200bonly 0.45 square kilometers. Tourists in the Vatican are most attracted by: St. Peter's Cathedral, museums that provide access to collections of paintings, sculptures and other art objects. The relics collected in the Vatican museums show the history of the development of this mini-state. Here are collected the clothes of the Pope, cars, carriages and other antiques. The Etruscan Vatican Museum will show you archaeological sites such as Roman art, Etruscan vases and bronze jewelry. In the Egyptian Vatican Museum you can see mummies and sarcophagi, a statue of Pharaoh Mentuhotep, stone masks and other items. The Apostolic Palace of the Vatican contains artistic masterpieces, which also include Raphael's Stanzas. The Pinakothek contains paintings of religious themes, paintings by Raphael, Leonardo da Vinci, Caravaggio and others. In the Belvedere Courtyard there are the palaces of Innocent VII and Nicholas. The centerpiece of the Vatican is the Sistine Chapel, decorated with frescoes by Michelangelo, Botticelli and Perugino. The Vatican Library houses a collection of printed and handwritten books that have been collected over the centuries. It is best to visit the Vatican Museums with a guide and wearing clothes that cover your chest, shoulders, elbows and knees. Some Vatican museums are accessible by appointment only. The Vatican Museums are open Monday through Saturday from 09.00 to 18.00, except Sundays and holidays. Vatican address: Viale Vaticano. How to get to the Vatican: Take the metro from Termini train station on line A to the S Pietro stop. St. Peter's Basilica in the Vatican is the spiritual heart of the Catholic Church. The Pope holds mass in it. St. Peter's Basilica was built in the 4th century on the site where the circus of Nero used to be. Initially, the holy relics of the Apostle Peter were kept in the basilica. Only in the 15th century, a huge temple building was created on the site of the basilica. St. Peter's Basilica is the brainchild of Raphael, Michelangelo, Maderno, Peruzzi and others. In front of the cathedral there is St. Peter's Square with 284 columns. There is an ancient Egyptian granite obelisk, magnificent fountains, sculptures of the holy apostles Paul and Peter, the residence of the Pope. How to get to St. Peter's Square: Take the metro line B to Ottaviano San-Pietro station. Vittoriano is an architectural complex built from 1885 to 1935 in honor of the first king of a unified Italy - Victor Emmanuel II. In front of the Vittoriano Palace is the Tomb of the Unknown Soldier, where the Eternal Flame burns and the guard of honor replaces each other. Not all Romans like this white marble palace, but tourists are happy to come here. The Vittoriano Monument is located in Rome on Piazza Venezia, near the Capitoline Hill. It was designed by Giuseppe Sacconi in the Empire style. The monument also includes a 12-meter statue of a king on a horse made of bronze. Building height: 70 meters. Castel Sant'Angelo, also called Hadrian's Mausoleum and Sad Castle, was built on the banks of the Tiber River in Adriano Park. The construction of the Castel Sant'Angelo began in 139 AD. Its height is 48 meters and at the time of construction it was the tallest building in Rome. Castel Sant'Angelo consists of the Donjon tomb, a square courtyard with a wall and a bridge over the river decorated with sculptures. The castle served as the Pope's home, warehouse, prison and burial vault. Now the castle houses the Military History Museum. The castle was named after an event that happened to Pope Gregory in the 4th century, when the Archangel Michael came to him. Under Emperor Hadrian, a bridge was built from the castle across the Tiber River, along which you can walk to the Champ de Mars. The Roman Forum was built in the center of Ancient Rome and at first a market functioned on it, but then political decisions were made there. The Roman Forum is located between the hills of Palatine, Velia, Capitol, Esquiline, Quirinal and Viminal. At the Roman Forum in ancient Rome, laws were passed, consuls were elected, and emperors were met after the war. After the fall of the Roman Empire, the forum was destroyed, and only fragments of its former grandeur have survived to our times, where an open-air museum is now operating. Address: Via della Salaria Vecchia, 5/6. The Roman Forum is open every day from 8.00 to 17.00, and from April to October until 17.30. Trajan's Forum was the last imperial forum built in Rome, designed by the architect Apollodorus of Damascus. Trajan's Forum was created in accordance with the order of the Emperor Trajan. He was adorned with trophies won in Dacia in 106. Trajan's Forum was opened in 112, and Trajan's Column was erected in 113. the forum was a large square surrounded by a marketplace, the temple of the emperor Trajan, Latin and Greek libraries. Trajan's 38-meter marble column, inside of which was made the tomb of the emperor and his wife, has survived to this day. Baths of Emperor Septimius Bassiane Caracalla in Rome, officially called the Baths of Antoninian. The Baths of Caracalla began construction in 212 AD and completed in 217 when the Emperor of Caracalla died. The courtyard of the baths of Caracalla was square and reached 400 meters in length and width; the dimensions of the building of the baths were 150 by 200 meters. In addition to baths and swimming pools, there was a library here. They came to the terms to communicate, negotiate and learn the news mixed with gossip. Today, the baths of Caracalla are what remains of the ancient Roman baths along the Appian Way. The Arc de Triomphe of Constantine was erected in 315 in Rome between the Colosseum and the Palatine on Via Triumphalis. The arch is timed to the victory of Emperor Constantine over rival Marcus Aurelius Valerius Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312. During the construction of the Arch of Constantine, decorative elements were used that were removed from older buildings. The Arc de Triomphe of Constantine is the only arch in Rome dedicated to the victory in the civil war. It is interesting that it was during the reign of Emperor Constantine that Christianity became the official religion in the Roman Empire and the capital was moved to Constantinople. The Basilica of San Giovanni in Laterano is a cathedral built in Rome in 324. In the hierarchy of Catholic churches, she ranks first, and even St. Peter's Cathedral in the Vatican is below her. The Basilica of San Giovanni in Laterano is one of the 4 basilicas in Rome with the title "Basilica maior", which means "Elder Basilica". She was included in the list for pilgrims, which includes 7 basilicas of Rome. The Basilica of San Giovanni in Laterano was built during the reign of Emperor Constantine under Pope Sylvester I. The relics of six Popes and the apostles Paul and Peter are buried in the church. You can get to Bisilica San Giovanni in Laterano by metro, the nearest stations are Re Di Roma and Ponte Lungo. São Paulo Fuori le Mura is one of the 4 main basilicas in Rome. São Paolo Fuori le Mura was built in the southern part of Rome behind the Aurelian Walls and is one of the seven basilicas of Rome for pilgrims. The holy relics of the Apostle Paul are buried in the basilica, so the flow of pilgrims and tourists is huge. In 1980, the Basilica of San Paolo Fuori le Mura was inscribed on the World Heritage List. The basilica was built by the decree of the emperor Constantine on the burial place of the apostle Paul in the 4th century AD. The Basilica of San Paolo Fuori le Mura is located at Via Ostiense 186, Rome, Italy. The Church of Santa Maria Maggiore is one of the 4 main Catholic churches in Rome and is included in the list of seven pilgrimage basilicas for pilgrims. Address: St. Mary Maggiore Square 42. The Il-Gesu Church is the central temple of the Jesuits in Rome, and it is here that the remains of the Grand Master Ignatius Loyola are buried. Michelangelo worked on the initial design of the church, but he approached the head of the Jesuit order. In 1561, the architect Giacomo Barozzi began to implement his project. The Jesuit Order existed until the end of the 18th century and a large fortune was kept in the Il-Jezu temple. Then the temple of Il-Jezu was taken away from the Jesuits, but after 1814 the building was returned. The Church of Il-Gesu is located in the small square of Il-Gesu in the center of Rome. Piazza Navona is a Roman square, which was built in the shape of a rectangle on the site of the Domitian stadium (1st century). From the 15th century to 1869, the city market functioned here. Piazza Navona was built in the 17th century in the Baroque style. From the 16th century, houses for ambassadors, cardinals, bankers and other nobility began to be built in the area of \u200b\u200bthe square. Piazza Navona is overlooked by 2 churches, including the Church of St. Agnes, and several palaces, including the Palazzo Pamphilj. In the center of Piazza Navona is the Fountain of the Four Rivers with an obelisk that symbolizes the power of the Pope. Around the obelisk there are sculptures that symbolize the rivers of 4 continents. Piazza del Popolo in Rome has always been of strategic importance, as the road leading to the northern provinces departed from it. Translated from Italian "Piazza del Popolo" means "People's Square". On the square are the Egyptian obelisk of Ramses II and the temple of Santa Maria del Popolo. The architect Valadier worked on the appearance of the square in the 19th century. Piazza del Popolo is created in the form of an oval 100 by 165 meters. In the north of the square there is a gate - Porta del Popolo, which in ancient times was part of the Aurelian wall. Villa Borghese is a Roman landscape park located on the Pincio hill. It is the third largest public park in Rome and covers an area of \u200b\u200b80 hectares. The story goes that in the 17th century, Cardinal Scipione Borghese created a park on the site of vineyards, decorated with antique statues. In the 19th century, the park was decorated in an English style. The owner of the estate at that time was Elena Borghese. In 1903, the Villa Borghese park was bought by Italian government officials and donated to Rome. Later, children's attractions were installed in the park. You can climb to the Villa Borghese park along the famous Spanish steps, as well as from the Popolo square. In the Villa Borghese park there are: Borghese Gallery, Villa Giulia National Museum, National Gallery of Modern Art, Globus Theater, Pietro Canonica House Museum, Carlo Bilotti Museum. Villa Medici occupies the slope of the Roman hill of Pincio, just below the Villa Borghese. In ancient times, the gardens of Lucullus grew on this territory, and there was a villa where Empress Messalina passed away. In the Middle Ages, vineyards stretched in this area. In 1576, the Pincho slope was sold to Cardinal Ferdinando Medici, the future ruler of Florence. The Mannerist villa was designed by Bartolomeo Ammannati. When the last representative of the Medici family passed away, the villa was transferred to the House of Lorraine. Napoleon Bonaparte handed over the Villa Medici to the French Academy in Rome, and since then those who have been awarded the Rome Prize have lived there. On the territory of the garden, exhibits of ancient culture are exhibited. The cardinal bought 170 antique statues from the nobility of Rome and decorated the villa with them. The Catacombs of Rome are a grid of ancient catacombs that were used for burial during early Christianity. The total number of catacombs in Rome is more than 60 pieces, and most of them are located below the surface of the earth along the Appian Way. The Catacombs of Rome are labyrinthine underground passages. In the walls of the catacombs there are rectangular niches for the burial of the dead. Until now, only a few niches have remained closed, while the rest are empty. The first followers of Christ were hiding in the catacombs. Religious rituals and meetings of believers were held here. The Pyramid of Cestius is an ancient Roman mausoleum built on the Aventine in Rome in the shape of an irregular pyramid. Near the pyramid of Cestius there is the gate of San Paolo. It is believed that the Cestius pyramid was built in the 1st century BC. The mausoleum is intended for the burial of the praetor Gaius Cestius Epulus. The construction of the pyramid coincided with the period of the conquest of Egypt, and when "Egyptian style" was fashionable in Ancient Rome. At that time, obelisks and sculptures were taken out of the Nile Valley. Dimensions of the Cestius Pyramid: height - 37 meters, width - 30 meters. The Circus Maximus in Rome is an ancient racetrack located between the Palatine Hill and the Aventine Hill. During Roman times, chariot races were held here. Emperor Gaius Julius Caesar expanded the circus to an impressive size and this allowed more than 250,000 people to watch the races at a time. Standing places were intended for commoners, and lodges for patricians. The Circus Maximus in Rome is 600 meters long and 150 meters wide. The Appian Way was created by order of the censor Appius Cekus in 312 BC, and was supposed to complement the Latin road that connects Rome with the Cala colony near Capua. The Appian Way is the central antique public road in Rome. Later, the Appian Way was extended to Brundisium and connected Rome with Egypt, Greece and Asia Minor. On both sides of the Appian Way, there are historical monuments such as: tombs, villas, Christian catacombs, medieval towers, Jewish catacombs, Renaissance and Baroque buildings. The Trastevere area in Rome is a web of medieval streets on the west bank of the Tiber River, south of the Vatican. The Trastevere area is located on the eastern slope of the Janiculum hill. In ancient times, Etruscans lived on this bank of the Tiber, then Jews and Syrians settled it. Central to the Trastevere area is the Basilica of Santa Maria in Trastevere, built in the 3rd century. The Church of Santa Cecilia in Trastevere was built in the 5th century. Both churches house paintings and sculptures by renowned artists. Trastevere train station is located in the south of the Trastevere area. In the evening, the Trastevere area is popular with tourists and the residents of Rome themselves, as there are bars and restaurants. The Spanish Steps in Rome have 138 steps leading from the Spanish Square to the Trinita dei Monti temple, located at the top of the Pincio hill. The representation of the kings of Spain was located on the Spanish Square. French diplomat Etienne Geffier believed that it was necessary to connect the Trinità dei Monti church and the Spanish Square, and for this purpose he bequeathed his fortune. The architects of the project are Alessandro Specchi and Francesco de Sanctis. The construction of the Spanish Steps lasted from 1723 to 1725. On the Spanish Square there is a fountain in the form of a boat "Barcaccia". The Trevi Fountain is the largest fountain in Rome, reaching a height of 25.9 meters and a width of 49.8 meters. The Trevi Fountain was created in the Baroque style from 1732 to 1762. The project belongs to the architect Nikolo Salvi. The fountain is located next to the façade of Palazzo Poli. Legend has it that whoever throws a coin into the Trevi Fountain will return to Rome. If he throws two coins, then a love meeting awaits him. If three, then it's a wedding. If four, then - wealth. If five, then - separation. Every year the public utilities take out coins worth 1.4 million euros from the fountain. The second legend says that on the right side of the Trevi Fountain there are “lovers' tubes”, and those who drink water from them will love each other and live happily ever after. To see the free sights of Rome, download a map of Rome and Italy to your phone, where all the sights of Rome are already marked. Most often, experienced travelers use the Maps.me mobile application for this, where most of the sights of Rome are indicated with photos, names and descriptions in Russian. The sights of Italy are very popular among tourists from all over the world and the sights of Rome are especially popular.
Great Rome stands unwavering
But collapse the Colosseum - and Rome will collapse,
And the world will collapse when there is no Rome "..... (George Gordan Byron. From the poem" Childe Harold's Pilgrimage ")
For centuries you carry the light of your land -
From the wars that suppressed the audacity of Carthage,
To sages, poets and leaders,
Whose glory has become the glory of our day.
Empires throne, their living tomb,
Your key has not become weaker or dimmer.
And, feeding the eternal thirst for knowledge,
His holy stream runs from the Roman bowels ... "Ancient Roman culture
Ancient roman heritage
Art
Art culture Ancient Rome was very much like the Greek of the same period. But this also has its advantages. Thanks to the Romans managed to save many works of antique painting that were copied from Greek artists.Ancient Rome architecture
Cultural traditions
The brightest and most peculiar traditions of the Roman culture of the antique period are presented in marriage ceremony.Specificity
Musical culture
The musical culture of the ancient antique period was no different from the artistic in the sense that it also completely copied the Greek one.The contribution of ancient Rome to world culture
Conclusion
Features of ancient Roman sculpture
Types and genres
Features of sculpture of the heyday
Time of the August principate
The time of the Julians - Claudians (27 - 68 BC) and Flavians (69 - 96 BC)
Time of Trajan (98-117) and Hadrian (117-138)
Laocoon and sons
Warrior from Capestrano
Terracotta Winged Horses
Chimera of Arezzo
Head of a sullen man
Marble relief from the Altar of Peace Augustus
Capitoline Brutus
Statue of Aulus Metellus
Statue of Germanicus
Female sculptural portrait of the time of the Flavians
Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius
Hermitage collection
Where to go and what to see in Rome
You can get to the Colosseum by metro on line B, get off at the Colosseum station. 
Pantheon address: Piazza della Rotonda, Rome.
You can get to the Pantheon by metro on line A, get off at the Barberini station.
Nearest metro: Colosseo, Cavour. 
The architectural style of the church belongs to the Romanesque and Baroque styles.
The author of the project is Liberius, and the founder is Sixtus III.
The Temple of Santa Maria Maggiore was founded in 356 and construction lasted from 440 to 1750.
In the 14th century, a 75 meter high bell tower was completed.
You can walk to the temple from Termini train station along Cavour street.
It works every day from 7.00 to 19.00. 
The style of the church belongs to the Baroque.
Circus
Trastevere area
Spanish Steps
Attractions of Rome on the map
Rome sightseeing yourself