Artistic culture of Indonesia from 13th to 17th century. Indonesian culture: everyday life, traditions. Behavioral culture and language

1,010rub.

Description

In the XVII-XVIII centuries. capitalism became the dominant mode of production already in two European countries - Holland and England, and after the liberation war of the North American colonies against British rule - in the United States. France has made significant progress in the development of capitalism. This circumstance was the main prerequisite for the broad colonial expansion of the named states, to which the main role in the colonial plunder of overseas countries passed from Spain and Portugal. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. the foundations of the world colonial system of imperialism were laid. The fierce struggle of European states for colonies took the form of trade wars at that time. The colonies continued to serve as one of the means of primary accumulation for the European bourgeoisie. At the same time, they became more and more important ...

Introduction 3
Chapter 1. History of Indonesia 4
1.1Indonesia before OIC penetration 4
1.2 History of Indonesia from the XVII to the Present 5
Chapter 2. The history of the OIC and its penetration into Nusantara 15
2.1 Establishment of the East India Company 15
2.2 List of Governor Generals representing the interests of the Government of the Netherlands in the Dutch East Indies from 1610 to the early 18th century 18
Chapter 3. History of the State Mataram-2 31
Conclusion 35
References 36

Introduction

The study of the history of the countries of the East is aimed at deepening the knowledge of students about the patterns, stages, trends and specifics of the historical development of the countries of the region in the 18th - 20th centuries. The program is focused on the development of the creative abilities of future specialists based on their independent work, active methods and forms of teaching, in order to properly respond to the changes made to the teaching of students by life, the needs of their practical activities. It provides for the comprehension of the theoretical problems of the countries of the East, through a deep study of factual history and awareness of the patterns of historical development, the relationship and interdependence of socio-economic and political events and phenomena.
The events of the 80s - 90s that took place in the countries of Asia and Africa showed that these countries are the most dynamically developing region of the Earth and will largely determine the vector of human development in the 21st century.
The program considers patterns and characteristics economic and political development of the largest empires of Asia in the second half of the XVIII - beginning. XIX centuries. (general characteristics of the history of the countries of the East: agrarian relations, the development of cities, handicraft and manufacturing production, trade, the importance of religious institutions and class / caste / system, the process of entry of the countries of the region into a period of protracted crises, the peculiarities of the development of antifeudal tendencies in the struggle of non-native masses by the time of penetration European states).
The purpose of this work is to study the Dutch penetration and establishment in Indonesia in the first half of the 17th century.
To do this, it is necessary to solve a number of tasks:
- to study the history of Indonesia before the penetration of the Dutch East India Company;
- to study the further history of the islands up to the present;
- to research the history of the Dutch East India Company and the history of its penetration into Nusantara;
- to study the activities of the governors-general and rulers of the Indonesian principalities in the 17th century;
- Explore Indonesia as a colony of the Netherlands.
To write this work, not only domestic and translated sources were used, but also literature in a foreign language.

Fragment of work for review

The settled villages gave the Dutch a monopoly on the purchase of nutmeg and nutmeg, but not forever, as in the previous agreements between the Bandans and the Dutch Company, but only for five years. In September 1611, on the Macian and Bachan islands, Bot was able to expand and strengthen the Dutch fortresses and strengthen their garrisons. At the same time, on the island of Molukk-Halmahere, the Bot ordered to organize a strong point. With some of the villages of the island, Bot concluded an agreement that the local population would fight the Dutch against the Spaniards and Portuguese. For this, the Dutch were garrisoned in several places on the coast of Halmahera. On the island of Ternate, another fortress was erected - under the name "Fort Holland". January 1613 was marked for Bot by another diplomatic success. The Governor General was able to conclude a treaty of friendship with the Rajah of Butung Island. Under this agreement, the Dutch had the right not only to duty-free trade on the island, but they were also given permission to build a fortress there. Then, in January, the Butunga wars took part in a Dutch raid against the East Indonesian islands of Solori Timor, which were under Portuguese control. The Dutch failed to capture Timor. On April 20, 1613, the Dutch commander Schote, who was fighting on the island of Solore, after the siege of the fortress, which lasted three months, still forced the Portuguese to surrender it. The garrison of the fortress, which consisted of 30 Portuguese and 250 Indonesians, was able to leave the fortress with the permission of the Dutch, while maintaining the dignity of the losers - they left the fortress with weapons and banners. The commanders Schote even gave them food for the journey. But after the Portuguese capitulated, a couple of days later reinforcements in the form of 50 Portuguese and 450 Indonesians arrived to their aid. But the reinforcements were late, and Solor stayed with the Dutch. The Portuguese monopoly on the Timor archipelago's sandalwood trade with China and Japan was undermined. Another victory for Botha was the long-planned attack against the center of Spanish possessions in the Moluccas, Fort Mariko on Tidor. The battle did not last long, the Spaniards were put to flight, and the Dutch's Terante allies burned the fortress. The bot could not prevent the destruction of Fort Mariko, but immediately he gave the order to build a new, more powerful fortress nearby. By September, the Bot was finally able to gain a foothold and consolidate his success in the Moluccas, and after a two-year absence he returned to Java. On September 14, Botha's squadron arrived at Gresik. In this city, hostilities were fought, which by this time had just ended. But the Dutch trading post founded, one of the first, completely burned down. The troops of Mataram, after Gresik was captured, could not hold out in it, suffering greatly from epidemics, and they had to again retreat inland. Agung's representatives nevertheless decided to contact Bot, they made it clear to him that Agung was ready to cooperate with the East India Company, but only if the conditions were favorable for both parties. This influenced Bot's decision to move the trading post to another place, from Gresica the trading post moved to Japarta, a port that Mataram had long and firmly held. A lot of cheap rice, needed in the Spice Islands, could be purchased here. In April 1614, Bot sent an embassy to Agungu. Bot put Caspar van Zurk at the head of the embassy. The embassy arrived in the capital of Mataram, where the young ruler received the representatives with honors. From him, permission was obtained not only to build a trading post in Japarta, but also a small fortification. Free export of rice was allowed, and the ruler of Matarama promised the Company assistance in its conflict with Bantam. Thus, the reign of the first Governor-General Botha was conditioned by significant success in the colonization of Indonesia and the fight against competitors. The company began its consolidation in Indonesia. The second governor-general was Gerard Reinst, who ruled in the colonized territories for only a year, from 1614 to 1615. Peter Bot was replaced by Reinst, who came from Holland. The new Governor-General had instructions from the Council of Seventeen to subdue Banda Island as soon as possible, since the British invasion of the archipelago caused fear among the Dutch East India Company that the Bandanians would fall under the protectorate of England. In March 1615, Rainst found himself on the Spice Islands. And here it turned out that the British were able to deploy a vigorous activity not only on the Banda Islands, but also on South Seram, and even on Ambon. Here, the British bought carnations from the local population, despite the fact that the Dutch governor Adrian Blok expressed protests. Arriving Reinst tried to restore order and protect the interests of Holland, so he began to demand from the British to leave the sphere of Dutch interests. The British did not resist, they left the island, and the inhabitants of Seram were left to punish the Dutch. On the island of Banda, Naira Reinst again encountered an English squadron under the command of George Ball. The Governor General ordered his ships to launch a convoy of English ships outside the Spice Isles, but Ball managed to elude the convoy and reach Pulo I Island. On the island, he collected a full load of spices, for which the islanders got weapons. Upon learning of this, Reinst with all his might proceeded to the island of Pulo Ai and began a siege of the fortress built here by local residents. On May 13, 1615, the assault on the fortress was completed, the fortress was taken. The next step of the Dutch was the construction of their own fort on the island, which received the eloquent name "Retribution". But as soon as Reinst left Pulo Ai, the Dutch who remained on the island were driven out by the rebellious local residents. The Dutch were expelled "with shame and the loss of many killed and wounded," as one contemporary wrote. In December 1615, Reinst died. For six months, the post of governor-general remained vacant. The actual power of the Dutch East India Company at this time passed into the hands of Kuhn, the most energetic and influential member of the Council of India. If we talk about the year of Reinst's rule, it was not very successful. There were no particular successes, but there were failures with the local population and the British. And the next governor-general had to solve the problems that arose. The next, the third governor-general was Lirens Real, who held this position for three years, from 1616 to 1619. He arrived on the Banda Islands in April 1617. The first thing he had to do was negotiate with Kurthuop. He offered to return both ships and pay damages if he left the Banda Islands. But Real was turned down by Kurthope. I had to act by military methods - Real decided to organize a tight blockade of the Banda Islands. When the population was deprived of food, which was brought in from the outside, people began to die of hunger. In this situation, the island of Lontor was especially affected, this was due to the fact that he fought the Dutch for the longest time. The elders eventually went to negotiate with the Governor General. Representatives of the rest of the Banda Islands followed this example and entered into negotiations with Real. A peace treaty was signed with the Dutch, which repeated the terms of the treaty of May 3, 1616. But two more points were added - on the creation of a Dutch trading post at Lontor and the obligation of the parties to the treaty not to enter into any contacts with Pullo Rune. On September 18, 1617, Real's squadron arrived in Japara. Here the Governor General received news that the mission of Ambassador Gerrit Druyff, which was to obtain permission to turn the Dutch trading post into a fortress, had failed. But Real, with threats and coaxing, managed to get permission to build it. But this fortification did not last long. The following year, the Mataramians, outraged by the violence against the local population by the staff of the fortress trading post, seized it, and the Dutch who were in it were imprisoned.In 1617, the English East India Company settled in Japar, which founded a trading post there. But the British did not stay here for long, a Dutch squadron under the command of Kuhn arrived in Japara. In retaliation for the arrest of the staff of the Dutch trading post, the city was burned. An English trading post was also destroyed in the fire, and the Dutch also had a difficult relationship with the French. On December 28, 1617, Real's squadron, on the way to Bantam, stopped two French ships - Saint-Michel and Saint-Louis. Ten Dutch sailors and Captain Hans Decker, who was also Dutch, were removed from the ships. The captain replaced the French admiral who had died on the way. When the Dutch squadron arrived in Bantam, Dekker did not want to stay with his compatriots, he jumped overboard and got on the British ship. Soon the British handed it over to the regent Ranamangale. Kuhn began to demand his extradition, but was refused. For this, he seized the flagship of the French fleet "Saint-Michel", the response was the decisive measures of the regent, who freed the French ship and prohibited the export of pepper on Dutch ships. And even if the pepper was already purchased, it was also banned. Kuhn had to give the order to rescue the Dutch trading post and evacuate. The Bantam government was completely unprepared for immediate military action with the Dutch company. If Bantam fell into a naval blockade, he would lose most of his income. The Regent entered into negotiations with Kuhn and lifted his ban. At the end of March 1618, Real was joined by Van der Hagen's squadron near Banda Island, which came from Molucca, where the squadron fought the Spaniards. By this time, Dutch control over the Banda Islands was practically lost. Most of the created garrisons died out from disease, and the surviving soldiers were demoralized and did not want to fight anymore. The conquest of the Banda Islands had to start all over again. On June 25, 1618, Realm signed a treaty with the elders of the eastern part of Lontor Island and Rosengain Island. Under the contract, he pledged to supply the nutmeg to Fort Nassau. The Real had to rush to Molluk, and at the end of 1617 the local population on Moluccas was on the verge of rebellion. Ternatsy suddenly attacked the Dutch fort of Orange and nearly captured it. The reason for the general dissatisfaction was the expulsion of all Asian merchants from the Moluccas, thus it can be concluded that the reign of Real was not very successful. The captured territories were lost, the local population raised uprisings, competitors outplayed the Dutch Company in one way or another. The Dutch needed to re-establish their influence and reclaim territory. The next, fourth, Governor-General was Jan Peterszon Kuhn, who held this post for five years, that is, more than all the previous ones. Kuhn entered the service in April 1618, having received a notice of this. He quickly suppressed the opposition. He said that the inhabitants of the Spice Islands are now deprived of the right to freely sail and trade. The reason for this was that the inhabitants supplied spices to the British and other foreigners, contrary to agreements with the Dutch East India Company. And as Kuhn commented on this situation: Yes, and in general there is nothing to stand on ceremony with them, because "Muslims or pagans, members of the accursed family of Ham, as enemies of God and the Christian faith, were born for slavery." And thus, the new governor-general believed that the local population should be grateful for what the Dutch gave them. And even if it happens that the natives die of hunger, it will be a small disaster. Their place can easily be taken by Dutch colonists, who can grow spices with the help of slaves, "and slaves in Indonesia are not difficult to get." In October 1618, Kuhn ordered the construction of a large fortress in Jakarta, which he intended to build on the basis of small Dutch fortifications, which existed at this place earlier. Shortly thereafter, he fulfilled a long-standing threat to the Bantam regent by transferring his Bantam trading post to Jakarta. In November, Pangeran Galang, who was the brother of the Bantam regent, arrived in Jakarta on a visit. He arrived with a request to inspect the Dutch trading post, for which he received permission. In the evening, he arrived at the trading post, accompanied by the pangeran Virakrama and an escort of 500 soldiers. It was unclear if there was a secret intent, but Kuhn decided to foresee different situations, and he placed musketeers at each window. Goods and valuables were transported aboard the ships in the roadstead, and the visit was peaceful. In early 1619, there was a fierce struggle for the Dutch fortress in Jakarta. In the same year in February, Kuhn arrived at Ambon, which at that time was the main base of the Dutch East India Company. From there, orders were sent to all areas of the South Seas to all ships to go to the connection to the western end of Madura. On May 17, 1619, 17 ships gathered at this point. This fleet, led by Kun, moved to Jakarta, where on the way he plundered and burned Japara for the second time in retaliation for the defeat of the local Dutch trading post by the Mataram authorities in 1617. The fleet reached Jakarta only by the end of May 1619. A landing of 1200 soldiers landed on the shore, which, with the support of the ship's artillery and the fort's guns, attacked the enemy. The Bantam and Jakarta soldiers, who were in a fivefold minority, were able to hold back the onslaught of the Dutch musketeers for a very long time. But the battle on the streets of the city went on all day. And only in the evening the last defenders of the city surrendered. Jakarta was burned, stone walls and earthen fortifications were destroyed. On May 31, Kun with his army marched into the peripheral areas of the Jakarta principality. Here he was able to storm two fortifications, the rest of the points were fairly easy prey, since the villages were unprotected. Jakarta ceased to exist. "By the right of the conqueror" Kuhn announced that henceforth the Dutch East India Company was becoming "Lord of the Kingdom of Jakarta", which, in his opinion, reached the southern coast of Java. Kuhn decided on the site of the destroyed capital to rebuild a new one, to build a new Dutch city of Batavia. The city was built, and for several centuries, until 1945, it remained the center of the Dutch possessions in Indonesia. On June 7, 1619, the squadron landed on the Bantam roadstead. Kuhn to the regent Ranamangale issued an ultimatum demanding the immediate release of all Dutch prisoners. At that time, there was no support for the British fleet, since the squadron was in Masulipatam, and the regent had to agree to the extradition of prisoners. But the ultimatum contained other demands, which were that Kun wanted to receive exclusive privileges in Bantam. But this was rejected, and the Dutch ships began a long-term blockade of the Bantam coast. And the Asian merchants had to bring their goods to Jakarta instead of Bantam. And thus, trade flourished in Batavia, which became a trading center, and in Bantam, on the contrary, trade fell into decay. During the first decade of Batavia's existence, its population increased almost two and a half times, but not due to demographics, but due to the influx of Chinese settlers. In addition, Kun had to solve another difficult and important task. In addition to the fact that Bantama was already blocked, it was necessary to deal with the only remaining strong rivals - the British, who dominated the Southeast region. August 1619 was marked for Kuhn by the capture of the ship "Star", which had just arrived from England in the Sound Strait. At the same time, three Dutch ships, which were sent to Malaya, met at the port of Pattani with two British ships, commanded by John Jurden, head of the British East India Company in Southeast Asia. Despite the protests of Queen Pattani (later reinforced by the protest of her overlord, the King of Siam), the Dutch attacked the British in the territorial waters of Pattani. The British lost a huge number of people in this battle, the losses were so huge that Jurden had to surrender. In the course of negotiations, he went on deck and at the same instant was killed by a shot from one of the Dutch. The Dutch claimed that the shot was fired by accident, but an English contemporary of the events confidently stated that "the Flemings, after tracking him down, shot him with a musket in the most treacherous and cruel manner." In September 1619, the Dutch inflicted on the English East India Company another swipe - they managed to capture in the port of Tiku, on the west coast of Sumatra, four English ships that went there to buy pepper.In the spring of 1620, the British managed to assemble an impressive fleet, which was led by Admiral Pring, but when he was already approaching Bantam, news came from Europe that there was a signing of agreements on joint actions of England and Holland in Southeast Asia. In June 1620, the first fleet of the Defense Council, which was made up of an equal number of English and Dutch ships, sailed towards the Philippines. The purpose of this retreat was to hunt for Spanish ships in the area; from March to July 1621, a massacre took place on the island of Banda. At that time, there were 15 thousand inhabitants on the island, of which only 300 were able to survive. They eluded the Dutch patrol ships and were able to reach Seram by boat. An entire nation has ceased to exist. The island's lands were divided among the employees of the Dutch Company. Slaves, bought in different parts of Indonesia to work on nutmeg plantations, became the ancestors of the current population of the Banda archipelago. Later in Holland, the Council condemned Kuhn for these actions, but limited itself to only a reprimand. On February 2, 1623, that short period of Anglo-Dutch cooperation ended in Indonesia. Kuhn returned to Holland and was absent from Indonesia for four years, while his protege, former general director of trade Peter de Carpentier, who continued Kuhn's policy, performed his functions. Generally speaking, Kuhn's policy was tough, but for the Dutch East India Company it was quite effective. Lands were seized, colonial politics gained momentum, and rivals were methodically eliminated. Therefore, judging by Kuhn's predecessors, his policy was the most effective. The next governor-general was Peter de Carpenter, who lasted four years. This was the protege of the previous governor. And during his reign in 1624, a new anti-Dutch uprising began on Seram. A sudden uprising began with the three communities of South Seram - Lusisala, Luhu and Kambela. They united and suddenly attacked the Dutch fort of Hardewijk. The Dutch managed to keep the fortress with great difficulty. This lasted until 1625, and only when reinforcements came from Holland in the form of a fleet of 13 ships, the governor of Ambon launched an offensive. The Dutch took Luha and other small fortifications on the South Seram by storm, and burned all the local ships they could meet. Then the felling of clove trees began, at least 65 thousand of them were destroyed. The Ternat government, which was the overlord of South Seram, protested against this barbaric massacre. After lengthy negotiations, the Ternate governor of South Seram, Kimelakha Leliato, signed an agreement with the Dutch to end hostilities. He had to make a promise that the Seramis would henceforth supply only the Dutch OIC with cloves. In October 1624, Kuhn succeeded in obtaining from the Council of Seventeen the approval of an instruction on the allocation of land to the colonists and that the Vreyburger (free citizens) would be able to obtain permission for free trade in the East. Dutch families who wanted to settle in the colonies could get free travel on the ships of the East India Company. In December of the same year, a meeting of shareholders took place, at which this instruction was canceled. Supporters and opponents of private initiative continued the confrontation until March 1626.

List of references

1. Bandilenko G.G., Gnevusheva E.I., Deopik D.V., Tsyganov V.A. History of Indonesia: In 2 hours - M., 1992-1993
2. Bandilenko G.G. and other History of Indonesia. Vol.1, M., 1998
3. World history: In 13 volumes / EM Zhukov (editor-in-chief). - M .: State Publishing House of Political Literature (vol. I-III); Publishing house of socio-economic literature (vol. IV-IX); Thought (v. X-XIII), 1956-1983
4. Demin LM, Drugov A. Yu., Chufrin GI Indonesia. Patterns, trends, development prospects. - M., 1987
5. Drugov A. Yu. Indonesia: political culture and political regime. - M., 1997
6. Drugov A. Yu. Political power and evolution of the political system of Indonesia. - M., 1988
7. Drugov A. Yu., Reznikov AB Indonesia in the period of "directed democracy". - M., 1969
8. Indonesia // Great Soviet Encyclopedia. - 3rd edition. - M .: Soviet Encyclopedia, 1972. - T. 10: Willow - Italiki. - S. 539-556
9. Kapitsa M.S., Maletin N.P. Sukarno: A Political Biography. - M., 1980
10. Koloskov BT Malaysia yesterday and today. - M., 1984
11. Plekhanov Yu. A. Social and political reform in Indonesia (1945-1975). - M., 1980
12. Countries of the world: a short political and economic reference. M., 1993.
13. Tyurin V.A. History of Indonesia. M., 2004 .-- 286 p.
14. Shaub A. K. "Nagarakertagama" as a source on the history of the early Majapahit (1293-1365). - M., 1992.
15. E.O. Berzin Southeast Asia and the expansion of the West in the 17th - early 18th centuries, Science M. 1987
16. Yuryev A. Yu. Indonesia after the events of 1965. - M., 1973

Literature in Western languages
17. Crouch, Harold. The Army and Politics in Indonesia. - Revised edition. - L .: Equinox Publishing, 2007 .-- 388 p.
18. Delhaise, Philippe F. Asia in Crisis: The Implosion of the Banking and Finance Systems. - Hoboken: Wiley, 1999 .-- 292 p.
19. Evans, Kevin Raymond. The History of Political Parties & General Elections in Indonesia. - Jakarta: Arise Consultancies, 2003.
20. Fatah, Eep Saefuloh. Bangsa Saya Yang Mengyebalkan. Catatan tentang Kekuasaan yang Pongah. - Jakarta, 1998.
21. Friend, Theodore. Indonesian Destinies. - Belknap Press, 2005 .-- 640 p.
22. Hughes, John. The End of Sukarno - A Coup that Misfired: A Purge that Ran Wild. - Archipelago Press, 2002.
23. Indrayana, Denny. Indonesian Constitutional Reform 1999-2002: An Evaluation of Constitution-Making in Transition. - Jakarta: Kompas, 2008.
24 Jenkins, David. Suharto and his Generals. Indonesian Military Politics 1975-1983. - Ithaca and New York, 2010 .-- 332 p.
25. Kahin, George McTurnan. The End of Sukarno - A Coup that Misfired: A Purge that Ran Wild. - Didier Millet, 2003. - 312 p ..
26. Mulyana, Slamet. A Story of Majapahit. - Singapore: Singapore University Press, 1976 .-- 301 p.
27. Panduan Parlemen Indonesia. - Jakarta: Yayasan API, 2001 .-- 1418 p.
28. Poerwokoeoemo, Soedarisman. Daerah Istimewa Yogyakarta. - Gadjah Mada University Press, 1984.
29. Ricklefs, Merle Calvin. A History of Modern Indonesia since c. 1200. - 3rd edition. - Stanford University Press, 2002 .-- 495 p.
30. Schwarz, Adam. A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s. - 2nd edition. - Allen & Unwin, 1994 .-- 384 p.
31. Sonata, Thamrin. Undang-Undang Politik. Buah Reformasi Setengah Hati. - Jakarta: Yayasan Pariba, 1999
32. Taylor, Jean Gelman. Indonesia: Peoples and Histories. - New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2003
33. Vickers, Adrian. A History of Modern Indonesia. - Cambridge University Press, 2005
34. Whitten, Tony; Soeriaatmadja, Roehayat Emon; Suraya A. Ariff. The Ecology of Java and Bali. - Hong Kong: Periplus Editions, 1996 .-- 791 p.
35. Yumarma, Andreas. Unity in Diversity: A Philosophical and Ethical Study of the Javanese Concept of Keselarasan. - Rome: Editrice Pontificia Universita Gregoriana, 1996 .-- 236 p.
36. Ziegenhain, Patrick. The Indonesian Parliament and Democratization. - Singapore: Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2008 .-- 239 p.
37. Zoetmulder P. J. Kalangwan: A Survey of Old Javanese Literature. - The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff Equinox Publishing, 1974 .-- 588 p.
38. Conboy, Kenneth; Morrison James. Feet to the Fire: CIA Covert Operations in Indonesia, 1957-1958. - Annapolis: US Naval Institute Press, 1999 .-- 232 p.

Please carefully study the content and fragments of the work. Money for the purchased finished work due to the non-compliance of this work with your requirements or its uniqueness will not be returned.

* The category of work is of an evaluative nature in accordance with the qualitative and quantitative parameters of the material provided. This material, either in its entirety or any of its parts, is not a ready-made scientific work, final qualifying work, scientific report or other work provided for by the state system of scientific certification or necessary for passing the intermediate or final certification. This material is a subjective result of processing, structuring and formatting the information collected by its author and is intended, first of all, to be used as a source for self-preparation of work on this topic.

It is believed that the very first inhabitants of the Indonesian archipelago came from India or Burma. In 1890, fossils of a Pithecanthropus (Homo erectus), approximately 500,000 years old, were found in East Java. Later migrants ("Malays") came from southern China and Indochina, and began to inhabit the archipelago around 3000 BC. Powerful groups such as the Sriwijaya Buddhist empire and the Mataram Hindu kingdom emerged in Java and Sumatra by the end of the 7th century. The last significant kingdom founded by the Indians was Majapahit in the 13th century. The subsequent spread of Islam in the archipelago in the 14th century forced the Majapahits to retreat to Bali in the 15th century.

Indonesia encompasses the full range of diverse societies and cultures. However, education, the media, and the government's nationalist policies have created a distinct Indonesian national culture. Distinctive Indonesian cuisine and her crafts, immediately brought her to the international arena.

Batik, the art of waxing fabrics and then creating colorful and dramatic paintings, is produced throughout Indonesia, with the focus of this activity in Jakarta, Java. Other forms of handicraft are represented by such types as ikat - a fabric of special weaving made of dyed threads; songket - silk fabric with gold or silver threads; and kris are artwork, often bejeweled. Javanese wayang - puppet pieces and gamelan - hypnotic music composed mostly of percussion instruments - are also popular artistic forms.

Most of the Indonesian cuisine is influenced by the Chinese, but some of the dishes in Padang, Sumatra, are truly native Indonesian. Wherever you travel in Indonesia, you will see vendors of snacks such as potatoes, sweet nuts, biscuits or fruit. Rice is the basis of every dish, it is put in soup or served as a side dish, it is used in salads and marinades. The variety of tropical fruits would swoon any greenery seller from Europe. These are apples with the taste of cream, durio, guava, jac-fruit, mango, papaya, star-fruit and rambutans.

Social and religious responsibilities, over time, have formed a special code of conduct called adat or traditional law. Islam is the predominant religion of the archipelago, slightly diluted with elements of Hindu Buddhism, adat and animism. There are hundreds of places in Java where spiritual energy is concentrated, which, according to beliefs, can be absorbed by followers. Despite the long colonial period, the missionaries' attempts to convert the Indonesian population to Christians came to nothing.

The locals belong to the Malay community, but with a wide variety of local ethnic groups flocking here from all over Indonesia in search of work and a better life.
Even though Batam is a multi-ethnic island, it is still Muslim with Malay culture.
Both in life and in ceremonies, religious and mystical elements are used, expressed in music and other forms of culture. Some of the most popular traditional dances are: Jogi Dance, the unique dance of Batam, Zapin Dance, which has a strong Arab influence, Persembahan Dance, which welcomes dear guests, and Ronggeng Dance, where guests are invited to join in the dance and song.
The Mak Yong drama is a dance and song performance about the country called "Riuh". The country was ruled by a wise and famous king who, to his surprise and horror, once confessed that his princess had given birth to an animal called "Siput Gondang" (Gondang Snail). Very upset by this, he ordered to carry the newborn into the jungle. A few years later, he found out that the animal has grown up and asks to be taken to the royal palace. To his surprise and joy, he saw a beautiful princess whom he named Putri Siput Gondang (Princess Siput Gondang). And the celebrations of this event lasted 7 days and 7 nights.
But also other cultures became part of the Batam Union, and at the Padepokan Seni Arts Center in Sekupang, you can see canvases and handicrafts collected from all over Indonesia, as well as different kinds performances that take place every day especially for tourists and visitors. Another art center in Sekupang is called "Desa Seni". The art of the Indonesian countryside is presented here, the main goal of which is to maintain, revive and support the culture of Indonesia, as well as to create the Institute of Culture, where qualified instructors will organize various shows and courses.

Indonesia encompasses a full range of diverse societies and cultures. However, education, the media, and the government's nationalist policies have created a distinct Indonesian national culture. Indonesia's distinctive cuisine and handicrafts immediately brought it to the international stage.
Batik, the art of waxing fabrics and the subsequent creation of colorful and dramatic paintings, is produced throughout Indonesia, and the center of this activity is Jakarta, Java. Other forms of handicraft are represented by such types as ikat - fabric of special weaving made of dyed threads; songket - silk fabric with gold or silver threads; and kris are artwork, often bejeweled. Javanese wayang - puppet pieces and gamelan - hypnotic music composed mainly of percussion instruments - are also popular artistic forms.

Indonesian culture is distinctive and diverse; numerous peoples of the country keep traditions rooted in hoary antiquity. These traditions have been developed and enriched over the centuries thanks to meetings with carriers of other cultures: Indians and Arabs, Persians and Chinese, Portuguese, Dutch, English and other peoples. New cultural values \u200b\u200bhave been organically processed and synthetically incorporated into the complex of cultures of many Indonesian peoples. And although Indonesia is characterized by a very significant cultural diversity, the cultures of individual peoples have many common features, explained by a common origin and similar conditions of development.

In Indonesia, there are two large ethno-cultural regions - western and eastern. The first covers the Great Indian Islands and the island of Bali. It is inhabited by representatives of the South Asian racial group and has a significantly higher level of development than the eastern one. Usually, when scholars speak of “indigenous Indonesian culture,” they mean a set of common features common to the inhabitants of the western region, where the vast majority of the population is concentrated. This area is characterized by the early development of irrigated agriculture (rice growing), breeding of bulls and buffaloes, and among non-Muslim peoples - also pigs, a number of common features both in material culture (pile dwellings, boats with a balance beam, similar types of tools), and in social and spiritual (the presence of a clan and community organization, animation

Artistic performances and ancestor cult, shadow theater, gamelan orchestra, batikation).

The eastern region is occupied by the Moluccas, Lesser Sunda Islands and Irianjaya. It is inhabited by peoples belonging to the East Indonesian and Papuan-Melanesian racial groups. The population of the eastern region grows tubers and harvests sago; it differs markedly in its social organization and spiritual culture from the population in the west of the country. However, western Indonesia has enclaves representing the culture of the eastern region, and vice versa.

The peoples of Java and Madura.

Java is called "the heart AND brain of the country." Much of Javanese life is typical of any Indonesian. The culture of the Javanese, the largest people not only in Java, but throughout Indonesia, reached a high development already in the middle of the 1st millennium. Javanese is the country's oldest written language. Its peculiarity is the existence of several styles, or forms, of appeal. These styles developed during the Middle Ages and reflected the deep feudal stratification of society. The most common style is ngoko, that is, "simple language" with the richest vocabulary; it is spoken by persons of equal social status and age, as well as older people when referring to younger ones. The whiter, polite cromo style is used by the younger when addressing the older. There are other styles of the language as well.

The Javanese is a primordial farmer. The main agricultural crop is rice. All Java is a huge rice field, divided by dams by transitions into countless squares, triangles, stripes. The field is plowed with a light wooden plow with a metal opener and without a blade. The draft force is buffalo or bulls. Sometimes a herd of buffaloes are driven out onto the field, and they "plow" the ground with their feet. The most common tool is the hoe. The stalks of the rice are cut with a special knife called ani-ani: it is a palm-sized wooden plate with a small metal blade inserted into its edge. In Java, 9/10 of the fields are occupied by food crops and only 1/10 by technical crops.

Phlegmatic buffaloes and lazy bulls, leisurely pulling a plow or sleeping sleepily in some shallow body of water, whitish humpbacked zebu harnessed to carts are a common sight in the countryside. In some areas, small horses, slightly larger than ponies, are bred to transport goods. Almost every farm has chickens, ducks, geese.

The population of the coastal areas is engaged in fishing. The boats are simple: most often it is a dugout for 2-4 people with one or two balancers located on the sides; there are also larger boats sewn from planks of about twenty people. Fish farming is widely developed.

The Javanese are excellent craftsmen in many types of crafts. Javanese fabrics - b tiki are world famous. The craftswoman applies a complex pattern to the white fabric. With the help of special tiny funnels filled with melted wax with tips of different diameters. Then the fabric is dipped in a dye, removed from it, dried, part of the wax is scraped off and immersed in another dye. The operation is repeated as many times as they want to receive tones. It takes about a month to make a piece of multi-colored batik. The ornament previously had a strictly canonized meaning. Recently, printed fabrics, and especially machine batik, imported in large quantities from Europe, are replacing this ancient art.

Balinese.

Bali is called “the pearl of pearls” in Indonesia. This small island (its area is 5 times smaller than that of Crimea) is famous for the beauty of nature and the unusually vibrant national culture of its two million population. The growth of the Balinese is slightly taller than the Javanese, his skin is slightly lighter; Balinese women are slimmer than Javanese, which is greatly facilitated by the ancient custom of wearing weights on the head, which is still widespread in Bali. The whole life of a Balinese peasant, like that of a Javanese, is associated with the cultivation of rice. Sawahi rice fields, descending on terraces along the mountain slopes, are the most remarkable feature of the Balinese landscape. In addition, the Balinese are engaged in animal husbandry, poultry farming, as well as the cultivation of flowers for secular and religious holidays.

The village is a green island among a multicolored sea of \u200b\u200brice fields. The estates are fenced with stone or adobe walls, so that the streets are a continuous line of fences, from behind which only the roofs of the buildings are visible. Each farm is a complex of buildings under gable thatched or palm roofs. On

"There are several residential buildings on the site: for the owner and mistress of the house, their children, parents; many household structures. All buildings are piled. The most revered place is a family temple dedicated to the spirits of ancestors and gods, in addition, there are several more sanctuaries and altars.

The Balinese wear batik kains and sarongs almost everywhere, although they themselves do not make batik, but import it from Java. Traditionally, the upper body of men and women is naked, but recently women have gradually abandoned this custom. Girls often wear their hair loose. Festive outfits are surprisingly solemn: there is brocade, batik, silk, precious jewelry, and traditional kris; women wear crowns and diadems of flowers. Magnolia flowers give a special charm to women's hairstyles.

The communal organization has been preserved much better in Bali than in Java; it is also called desa. It is characterized by the presence of many divisions performing strictly defined functions. The most important role is played by the subak, the traditional organization of the Savakh owners, who use water from one common source and jointly solve all issues of land use and irrigation.

Peoples of Sumatra.

A different cultural world in Sumatra; especially in areas that did not experience the influence of the Javanese and Sunda, that is, outside Palembang and its environs and outside the coastal regions of South Sumatra. The entire east of Sumatra and the islands off its east coast are inhabited by Malays. The Malaysian languages \u200b\u200bof Sumatra and Malaysia are practically identical both grammatically and lexically, the difference in vocabulary is less than 10% of the vocabulary; ethnographic differences between the two groups of the Malay ethnic group are also small; their political history is also closely intertwined.

Indonesian Malays are rice farmers. In contrast to the Javanese, they sow rice mainly on dry fields - ladanges. Irrigated fields are set up only along the banks and in the mouths of rivers. A fairly large place in their economy is occupied by plantation crops: rubber plants, coffee, tobacco, oil, coconut and sago palms, as well as gambir, from which tanning extract is obtained. In coastal areas, the main occupation of the population is fishing, which is especially developed on the shores of the Malacca Strait of this "fishing base" of Indonesia. All over the country, Palembang fabrics, especially brocade, are famous. Palembang and Jambian blacksmiths and jewelers rival Javanese in craftsmanship. Almost every village has its own carpenters, shipbuilders, making a variety of prau - boats.

The people of Kalimantan.

Over the past millennium, the western and eastern coasts of Kalimantan were gradually developed by the Malays, who drove the indigenous population - the Dayaks - into the interior of the island. On the southern coast, on a Malay-Javanese basis with an admixture of Dayak, Bug and Arab components, the Banjar people formed. Dayaks now inhabit the interior regions of Kalimantan and only in some places occupy coastal areas. Europeans began to get acquainted with the life of these warlike forest peoples only about 100 years ago. Dayaki is a collective name denoting many kindred peoples and tribes. They often call themselves by the name of the river near which they live. A special group is made up of the Punans - a few tribes of hunters and gatherers who roam in the interior regions of northeastern Kalimantan. In terms of socio-economic development, they are lower than the Dayaks, but higher than the Sumatran Cuba.

The basis of the Dayak economy is slash-and-burn farming (not counting a small group of hunters and gatherers). The forest is felled together, and this work begins from the top of the hill so that the falling trunks crush other trees growing below the slope with their weight. Then the vegetation is burned and rice is planted in the holes made with a planting stake after the fire. The field is weeded, protected from rodents and birds. The crop is harvested by cutting off the stems with Javanese-style knives. Fertilizers are not applied, so after 2-3 years the field is depleted; it is left for 3-4 years and new is burned out. After three to four cycles, the land becomes so scarce that they leave the site for 12-15 years. In addition to rice, Dayaki grow corn, millet, tubers, vegetables, legumes. However, unlike the rest of the completely agricultural peoples of Indonesia, the life of the Dayaks is entirely connected with the forest. And not only because here "they make their cuttings, hunt wild boars and deer. The forest also provides the Dayaks with products for exchange: rattan, resin, camphor, honey from wild bees, edible fruits, and various valuable timber. Separate areas of settlement of the Dayaks are connected between are mainly rivers, along which they move in dugout boats.

Peoples of Sulawesi.

Sulawesi is home to several relatively large nations that created their statehood many centuries ago, have a rich literature and profess Islam or Christianity. These are, first of all, Muslim peoples - Boogie and Makassar; they are approached by the level of socio-economic development of the Christianized peoples of North Sulawesi, especially the Minahasi. And here, in Sulawesi, there are tribes of hunters, gatherers, early farmers, standing at a very low level of economic and social development.

Of all the Sulawesi peoples in the history of Indonesia, the boogie and macacap have played the greatest role. Being engaged in agriculture and fishing, in the past they were also excellent sailors and held the spice trade in their hands: the way to Eastern Indonesia, to the "Spice Islands", lay through the Makassar Strait, past the states of the Bugs and Makassars. Feudal-type relations began to take shape here in the XU century. In the XVII-XVIII centuries. The Bug and Makassar leaders with their military squads often seized power for many years in the sultanates in eastern Sumatra, in Malay's Johor, and also in a number of regions of Eastern Indonesia. With the arrival of the Portuguese and Dutch, the trade and navigation of these peoples was irreparably damaged.

Bugs and Makassars have a rich literature, for which a special writing system was previously used. This literature includes historical chronicles, heroic poems, united in the cycle "La Galigo" named after the main character. Wedding customs that combine Muslim and traditional rituals are interesting. For example, during a wedding celebration, the clothes of the bride and groom are sewn with several stitches, as well as their hair is tied up and a scarf is put on top, which should symbolize unity; the official part of the ceremony is performed by a Muslim priest. Both boogie and makassar are very fond of cockfighting, arranged for any festive occasion.

The peoples of the Lesser Sunda and Moluccas.

These two regions of Indonesia are a veritable ethnographic kaleidoscope. Here, even on small islands, sometimes dozens of peoples live; some of them are numerous, others number only a few hundred. Once all the inhabitants of Moluccas were united under one name "alfura" (from the Arabic-Spanish words meaning "wild", "fierce"). Now all these peoples are called either by their ethnonyms, or by the island of their habitation. The level of socio-economic and cultural development of the peoples of Eastern Indonesia is very different. There are arable farmers, hunters and gatherers alike. Certain nationalities and tribes have been significantly influenced by the more developed peoples of Indonesia. For example, the Balinese influenced the Sasaks of Lom Bok Island; the peoples of Flores and Timor were influenced by the Bugs, Minangkabau, Malays. Other East Indonesian peoples, up to the present time, live in conditions of relative isolation. Bypassed many areas of Eastern Indonesia and the influence of the Europeans. Anthropologically, this territory is very variegated.

The peoples of Irian Jaya.

Irian Jaya, like the neighboring state of Papua New Guinea, is unique in modern era example, when a numerically significant population still lives for the most part in conditions close to the Stone Age. The main inhabitants of Irian Jaya are the Papuans divided into a large number of tribes; the number of their languages \u200b\u200band dialects is not less than 200.

Papuans are farmers and hunters. They grow taro and yams, and in the sweet potato mountains, in the marshy coastal regions, they get sago. They hunt mainly wild boars. They are also engaged in fishing. Their tools of labor are very primitive: the land is cultivated with pointed stakes, as well as with stone hoes, stone axes, adzes, and knives are widely used. Recently, however, metal tools imported from other islands of Indonesia have become more and more commonplace. Coastal Papuan tribes make excellent balancer boats, often carving and painting the hull of the boat. In addition to the sedentary Papuan agriculturalists, there are semi-sedentary Papuan tribes. A small number of Papuans work in 110 mining enterprises and as servants for Europeans and Indonesians living in Irianjaya. They are also employed in the service sector in the towns that have emerged here.

The Papuan village consists of a men's house, where all the men (except little boys) live, and several “family” huts, where their wives, as well as unmarried sisters and small children live. The huts are piled, rectangular in plan, their walls are made of bark, the floor is made of bamboo, and the roof is made of palm leaves. In dry areas where there are no dangerous reptiles nearby, huts are built right on the ground. In the interior, there are round huts with plank walls dug into the ground, as well as huts in spreading trees. The Papuans sleep on high bunks. It is cold at night, and fires are made in the huts.

All the clothes of the Papuans are a belt of bark and an apron or skirt made of plant fibers down to the knees; the coastal Papuans have a shell or a coconut shell instead of an apron. Women cut their hair short and even shave it; men, on the contrary, take great care of "their lush curly hair: comb their hair, lubricate it with palm oil, decorate it in every possible way. The decoration simultaneously pursues ritual goals. Men pierce their noses and ears and insert boar bones or bamboo plates into the holes." Initiation, many Papuans burn out or cut out scars on the body with a stone knife.

Architecture and sculpture.

The main monuments of Indonesian antiquity have been preserved mainly in Java. These are numerous Hindu and Buddhist temples called chandu. Most of them are characterized by small size, harmonious fusion of architecture and sculpture, skillful use of landscape features. Unnamed builders, not knowing lime and cement, tightly laid stone to stone, fastening them with the help of a "lock" - joining the ledge of one stone with the recess of another.

Most famous is the grandiose Buddha temple - Chandi Borobudur, built in the late 8th - early 9th centuries. Historical vicissitudes led to the fact that the temple was abandoned, partially covered with earth, lush tropical vegetation completely hid it. Only in 1814 Borobudur was rediscovered and freed from the layers of centuries, and in 1907 - 1911. has undergone major restoration. The temple is built around a natural hill, surrounded by stone blocks, and has the form of a stepped pyramid, square in plan. - The steps of the pyramids of ida are the galleries that encircle the monument. The side of the base of the monument is 123 m, height is about 32 m; before, when there was a spire crowning it, its total height exceeded 40 m. The temple has no internal space; it is formed by five lower rectangular and three upper concentric galleries facing the surrounding groves and fields, the nearby mountains and the bright blue sky of the tropics.

The main features of modern cultural development.

If in the past centuries Indonesia felt a variety of cultural influences coming from Eastern countries, and then experienced a strong influence of European culture, mainly Dutch, then after independence, and especially after 1965, it was intensively influenced by bourgeois American and Japanese culture. Modernist tendencies primarily affect the sphere of material culture, partly - the manner of behavior, they are especially noticeable in the ways of spending leisure time. Along with the inevitable and useful technical innovations come many negative phenomena inherent in bourgeois culture.

The main direction of the cultural development of Indonesia after the proclamation of the republic is to instill in all the peoples of the country the idea of \u200b\u200ba "single Indonesian nation", to emphasize the outstanding role that the peoples of Indonesia played in the past, and to call for the creation of a wonderful future. Indonesian media and art are subordinate to this task. On the whole, this direction of the country's cultural policy, which threw off the foreign domination that humiliated it, is progressive. Some of the sometimes observed extremes of the ultranationalist order do not destroy the main thing: the peoples of the country have awakened national self-consciousness, they began to honor their history, culture, and heroes. At the same time, in Indonesia, the national identity of individual nations and nationalities of the country is strengthening, wishing to participate in the social and cultural life of Indonesia on an equal basis.

Among the most famous museums are the National Museum in Jakarta, the Zoological Museum in Bogor and the Geological Museum in Bandung. The National Museum was founded in 1778 on the basis of the Batavian Society of Arts and Sciences, but was finally formed in 1862, when the Batavian Society Museum and Library were housed in a new building in Jakarta. The museum possesses a significant collection of works of Indonesian culture, organizes exhibitions and conducts extensive research work. Among the museums in the capital, the Museum of National History (founded in 1975), the Museum of the History of Jakarta (founded in 1974), the Wayang Museum (founded in 1975), the Museum of Fine Arts (founded in 1976), the Textile Museum (founded in 1976), the Museum of the Sea (founded in 1977) and the Abri Satriya Mandala Museum of the Armed Forces (founded in 1972). The Taman Mini Indonesia Park (“Beautiful Indonesia in Miniature”, founded in 1980) is well known, its expositions tell about the culture and life of the peoples inhabiting Indonesia. There are numerous museums in provincial cities. Among them - the Travulan Archaeological Museum (Java) with collections of antiquities from the 13th to 15th centuries; Sana Budaya Museum (founded in 1935, Yogyakarta) with an art collection of art from Java, Bali and Madura; Diponegoro Museum (Yogyakarta); Historical Museum Surakarta. Many museums are located on about. Bali: Neka Museum (founded 1982, Bali), museum fine arts Puri lukisan ratna wartha (founded in 1956, Ubud). The Bali Museum (founded in 1932, Denpasar) has a rich collection of local arts and crafts.