Ancient Greek architecture had a huge impact on the architecture of subsequent eras. Its basic concepts and philosophy have long been entrenched in the traditions of Europe. What is interesting about ancient Greek architecture? The order system, the principles of city planning and the creation of theaters are described later in the article.

Development periods

Ancient civilization, which consisted of many disparate city-states. It covered the western coast of Asia Minor, the south of the Balkan Peninsula, the islands of the Aegean Sea, as well as southern Italy, the Black Sea region and Sicily.

Ancient Greek architecture gave rise to many styles and became the basis in the architecture of the Renaissance. In the history of its development, several stages are usually distinguished.

• (mid-XII - mid-8th century BC) - new forms and features based on the previous Mycenaean traditions. The main buildings were residential buildings and the first temples, made of clay, adobe and wood. The first ceramic details appeared in the decor.
• Archaic (VIII - early V century, 480-ies BC). With the formation of policies, new public buildings appear. The temple and the square in front of it become the center of city life. In construction, stone is often used: limestone and marble, terracotta cladding. Various types of temples appear. Doric order prevails.
• Classics (480 - 330 BC) - flourishing period. All types of orders in ancient Greek architecture are actively developing and even compositionally connected with each other. The first theaters and musical halls (odeilons), residential buildings with porticoes appeared. The theory of street and block planning is being formed.
• Hellenism (330 - 180 BC) Theaters and public buildings are being built. The ancient Greek style in architecture is complemented by oriental elements. Decorativeness, luxury and splendor prevail. The Corinthian order is used more often.

In 180 Greece came under the influence of Rome. The empire lured the best scientists and masters of art to its capital, borrowing some cultural traditions from the Greeks. Therefore, ancient Greek and Roman architecture have many similarities, for example, in the construction of theaters or in the order system.

Philosophy of architecture

In every aspect of life, the ancient Greeks strove to achieve harmony. The ideas about her were not vague and purely theoretical. In ancient Greece, harmony was defined as a combination of verified proportions.

They were also used for the human body. Beauty was measured not only "by eye", but also with specific numbers. Thus, the sculptor Polycletus in his treatise "Canon" presented clear parameters of the ideal man and woman. Beauty was directly linked to physical and even spiritual health and personal integrity.

The human body was seen as a structure, the details of which fit perfectly together. Ancient Greek architecture and sculpture, in turn, sought to match the concept of harmony as much as possible.

The sizes and shapes of the statues corresponded to the idea of \u200b\u200ba "correct" body and its parameters. usually promoted ideal person: soulful, healthy and athletic. In architecture, anthropomorphism manifested itself in the names of measures (elbow, palm) and in proportions that were derived from the proportions of the figure.

Columns were a reflection of a person. Their foundation or base was identified with the feet, the trunk with the body, the capital with the head. The vertical grooves or flutes on the column were represented by folds of clothing.

Major orders of ancient Greek architecture

There is no need to talk about the great achievements of engineering thought in Ancient Greece. Complex constructions and solutions were not used then. The temple of that time can be compared with a megalith, where a stone beam rests on a stone support. The greatness and peculiarities of ancient Greek architecture lie, first of all, in its aesthetics and decorativeness.

The artistry and philosophy of the building helped to embody its order or a post-and-beam composition of elements in a specific style and order. There were three main types of order in ancient Greek architecture:

• doric;
• ionic;
• corinthian.

They all had a common set of elements, but differed in their location, shape and ornament. Thus, the Greek order included a stereobath, stylobate, entablature and cornice. The stereobath represented a stepped base above the foundation. This was followed by the stylobate or columns.

The entablature was a carried part, located on columns. The lower beam, on which the entire entablature rested, is called architrave. There was a frieze on it - the middle decorative part. The upper part of the entablature is a cornice, it hung over the rest of the parts.

At first, the elements of ancient Greek architecture were not mixed. The Ionian entablature lay only on the Ionic column, the Corinthian - on the Corinthian. One style per building. After the erection of the Parthenon by Iktin and Callicrates in the 5th century BC. e. orders began to be combined and placed on top of each other. This was done in a specific order: first Doric, then Ionic, then Corinthian.

Doric order

The Doric and Ionic ancient Greek orders in architecture were the main ones. The Doric system was spread mainly on the mainland and inherited the Mycenaean culture. It is characterized by monumentality and somewhat ponderousness. The appearance of the order expresses calm grandeur and laconicism.

Doric columns are low. They lack a base, and the trunk is powerful and tapers upwards. The abaca, the upper part of the capital, has a square shape and lies on a rounded support (echina). Flutes, as a rule, were twenty. The architect Vitruvius compared the columns of this order with a man - strong and restrained.

The entablature of the order always contained architrave, frieze and cornice. The frieze was separated from the architrave by a shelf and consisted of triglyphs - rectangles elongated upward with flutes, which alternated with metopes - slightly recessed square plates with or without sculptural images. Friezes of other orders did not have triglyphs with metopes.

The triglyph was assigned primarily practical functions. Researchers assume that he represented the ends of the beams that lay on the walls of the sanctuary. It had strictly calculated parameters and served as a support for the cornice and rafters. In some of the most ancient buildings, the space between the ends of the triglyph was not filled with metopes, but remained empty.

Ionic order

The Ionian order system was spread along the coast of Asia Minor, Attica and the islands. It was influenced by Phenicia and Persia of Ahemedin. A prime example of this style was the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus and the Temple of Hera at Samosea.

Ionic was associated with the image of a woman. The order was characterized by decorativeness, lightness and refinement. Its main feature was the small capital, designed in the form of volutes - symmetrically arranged curls. Abacus and echinus were decorated with carvings.

The Ionian column is thinner and slender than the Doric one. Its base rested on a square slab and was decorated with convex and concave elements with ornamental cutting. Sometimes the base was located on a drum decorated with a sculptural composition. In ionics, the distance between the columns is greater, which increases the airiness and sophistication of the building.

The entablature could consist of architrave and cornice (Asia Minor style) or of three parts, as in Doric (Attic style). Architrave was divided into fascia - horizontal ledges. Small denticles were located between it and the cornice. The gutter on the cornice was richly decorated with ornaments.

Corinthian order

The Corinthian order is rarely considered independent, it is often defined as a variation of the Ionic order. There are two versions of the origins of this order. More mundane speaks of borrowing the style from the Egyptian columns, which were decorated with lotus leaves. According to another theory, the order was created by a sculptor from Corinth. He was inspired by the basket he saw, in which there were acanthus leaves.

It differs from Ionic mainly in the height and decoration of the capital, which is decorated with stylized acanthus leaves. Two rows of sculpted leaves frame the top of the column in a circle. The sides of the abacus are concave and decorated with large and small spiral curls.

The Corinthian order is more saturated with decor than other ancient Greek orders in architecture. Of all three styles, it was considered the most luxurious, graceful and rich. His tenderness and sophistication were associated with the image of a young girl, and the acanthus leaves resembled curls. Due to this, the order is often called "girlish".

Ancient temples

The temple was the main and most important building in Ancient Greece. Its shape was simple, the prototype for it was residential rectangular houses. The architecture of the ancient Greek temple gradually became more complex and supplemented with new elements until it acquired a round shape. The following styles are usually distinguished:

• distil;
• prostyle;
• amphiprostyle;
• peripter;
• dipter;
• pseudodipter;
• tholos.

The temple in Ancient Greece had no windows. Outside, it was surrounded by columns, which housed a gable roof and beams. Inside was a sanctuary with a statue of a deity to whom the temple was dedicated.

In some buildings, a small dressing room - pronaos could be located. There was another room in the back of the large temples. It contained donations from residents, sacred implements and the city treasury.

The first type of temple - the distille - consisted of a sanctuary, a front loggia, which was surrounded by walls or antes. There were two columns in the loggia. As the styles became more complex, the number of columns increased. In the forgiveness there are four of them, in the amphiprostyle - four each on the back and front facade.

In temples-peripeters, they surround the building from all sides. If the columns are lined up along the perimeter in two rows, then this is the dipter style. The latter style, tholos, also assumed a columned environment, but the perimeter was cylindrical. During the Roman Empire, tholos developed into a type of building called "rotunda".

Policy device

Ancient Greek policies were built mainly off the coast. They developed as trading democracies. All their full-fledged inhabitants took part in the social and political life of the cities. This leads to the fact that the architecture of ancient Greek is developing not only in the direction but also in terms of public buildings.

The upper part of the city was the acropolis. It was usually located on a hill and was well fortified to hold back the enemy during a surprise attack. Within its limits were the temples of the gods who patronized the city.

The center of the Lower City was the agora - an open market square, where trade was carried out, important social and political issues were resolved. It housed schools, the building of the council of elders, the basilica, the building for feasts and meetings, as well as temples. Statues were sometimes placed along the perimeter of the agora.

From the very beginning, ancient Greek architecture assumed that buildings inside the policies were placed freely. Their placement depended on the local relief. In the 5th century BC, Hippodamus revolutionized urban planning. He proposed a clear gridded street structure that divides neighborhoods into rectangles or squares.

All buildings and objects, including agoras, are located inside the neighborhood cells, without getting out of the general rhythm. Such a layout made it easy to complete new sections of the policy, without violating the integrity and harmony. According to the project of Hippodamus, Miletus, Cnidus, Assos, etc. were built. But Athens, for example, remained in the old "chaotic" form.

Living spaces

Houses in Ancient Greece differed depending on the era, as well as the wealth of the owners. There are several main types of houses:

• megaron;
• apsidal;
• pasta;
• peristyle.

One of the earliest types of dwellings is the megaron. His plan became the prototype for the first temples of the Homeric era. The house had a rectangular shape, in the end part of which there was an open room with a portico. The passage was flanked by two columns and protruding walls. There was only one room inside with a fireplace in the middle and a hole in the roof for smoke to escape.

The apse house was also built in the early period. It was a rectangle with a rounded end part, which was called an apse. Later, pasta and peristyle types of buildings appeared. The outer walls in them were blank, and the layout of the buildings was closed.

The pastada was a passage in the inner part of the courtyard. It was covered from above and supported by wooden supports. In the 4th century BC, the peristyle becomes popular. It retains the same layout, but the pasta walkway is replaced by covered columns around the perimeter of the courtyard.

From the side of the street there were only smooth walls of houses. Inside there was a courtyard around which all the premises of the house were located. As a rule, there were no windows; the courtyard was the source of light. If there were windows, they were located on the second floor. The interior decoration was mostly simple, excesses began to appear only in the Hellenistic era.

The house was clearly divided into the female (gynequea) and male (andron) halves. In the men's section, guests were received and a meal was arranged. The only way to get to the female half was through it. From the side of the gynequea was the entrance to the garden. The homes of the rich also housed a kitchen, a bathhouse and a bakery. The second floor was usually rented out.

Ancient Greek theater architecture

Theater in Ancient Greece combined not only an entertainment aspect, but also a religious one. Its origin is associated with the cult of Dionysus. The first theatrical performances were staged to honor this deity. The architecture of the ancient Greek theater reminded of the religious origin of the performances at least by the presence of the altar, which was in the orchestra.

Festivities, games and plays took place on the stage. In the 4th century BC, they ceased to be related to religion. The archon was responsible for the distribution of roles and control over the productions. The main roles were played by a maximum of three people, women were played by men. The drama was performed in the form of a competition, where poets took turns presenting their work.

The layout of the first theaters was simple. In the center was the orchestra - a round platform where the choir was located. Behind her there was a ward in which actors (skena) were changing clothes. The audience hall (theater) was of considerable size and was located on a hill, skirting the stage in a semicircle.

All theaters were located right in the open air. They were originally temporary. For each holiday, wooden platforms were rebuilt. In the 5th century BC, places for spectators began to be carved out of stone right in the hillside. Thus, a correct and natural funnel was created, contributing to good acoustics. To enhance the resonance of sound, special vessels were placed near the audience.

With the improvement of the theater, the construction of the stage also becomes more complicated. Its front part consisted of columns and imitated the front facade of the temples. On the sides were the premises - parakenia. They kept the scenery and theatrical equipment. In Athens, the largest theater was the theater of Dionysus.

Acropolis of Athens

Some monuments of ancient Greek architecture can be seen today. One of the most complete structures that have survived to this day is the Acropolis of Athens. It is located on Mount Pyrgos at an altitude of 156 meters. Here are the temple of the goddess Athena Parthenon, the sanctuary of Zeus, Artemis, Nike and other famous buildings.

The acropolis is characterized by the connection of all three order systems. The combination of styles marks the Parthenon. It is built in the form of a Doric peripeter, the inner frieze of which is in the Ionic style.

In the center, surrounded by columns, was the statue of Athena. An important political role was assigned to the acropolis. Its appearance was supposed to emphasize the hegemony of the city, and the composition of the Parthenon was supposed to celebrate the victory of democracy over the aristocratic system.

The Erechtheion is located next to the majestic and pretentious building of the Parthenon. It is entirely executed in the Ionic order. Unlike his "neighbor", he praises grace and beauty. The temple is dedicated to two gods at once - Poseidon and Athena, and is located at the place where, according to legend, they had a dispute.

Due to the features of the relief, the layout of the Erechtheion is asymmetrical. It has two sanctuaries - cellas and two entrances. In the southern part of the temple there is a portico, which is supported not by columns, but by marble caryatids (statues of women).

In addition, the Propylaea has survived in the acropolis - the main entrance, surrounded by columns and porticoes, on the sides of which there was a palace and park complex. On the hill was also Arreforion, a home for girls who weave clothes for the Athenian games.

The chapter "The flourishing of Attic architecture" of the subsection "Architecture of Ancient Greece of the heyday (480-400 BC)" of the section "Architecture of Ancient Greece" from the book "General history of architecture. Volume II. Architecture of the Ancient World (Greece and Rome) "edited by V.F. Marcuson.

Second half of the 5th century BC. was the time of the greatest development of Attic culture and art. After the successful outcome of the Greco-Persian wars, Attica was going through an era that, according to Marx, marked "the highest internal prosperity of Greece." This is the heyday of the slave-owning democracy, headed by Pericles. The large funds that the Athenian state had at its disposal allowed it to maintain a strong navy, which contributed to the further expansion of Athens.

It was during this period in Attica that an attempt was made to create a unified Pan-Hellenic architectural style, creatively combining the achievements of Doric and Ionic architecture. The peripter receives a unique development in the Parthenon full of deep ideological and artistic significance. New and bold asymmetrical compositions of buildings are being created (Propylaea, Erechtheion). The use of orders achieves considerable freedom: the order colonnade not only surrounds the temples and serves as a means of highlighting them in the surrounding space; it also serves to separate separate parts of space, or, on the contrary, to open one space into another. Being the most important means of artistic characterization of a public building, orders vary considerably in their proportions. The combination of the Doric and Ionic orders in one building allows a wide variety of impressions to be achieved. Appeared at the end of the 5th century. BC e. the Corinthian order is used in combination with the Doric and Ionic (temple in Bassa). The combination of various orders in one structure later, in the 4th century. BC e., generally becomes a characteristic feature of Hellenic architecture.

39. Athens. Acropolis. General plan and sections: 1 - gate, II century. BC e .; 2 - Pyrgos and the temple of Niki Apteros; 3 - Propylaea; 4 - Pinakothek (northern wing of the Propylaea); 5 - statue of Athena Promachos; 6 - the sanctuary of Artemis Bravronia; 7 - Chalcotek; 8 - Pelasgian wall; 9 - Parthenon; 10 - pre-Pericles Parthenon; 11 - temple of Roma and Augustus; 12 - modern museum building; 13 - modern belvedere; 14 - the sanctuary of Zeus; 15 - the altar of Athena; 16 - Temple of Athena Polyada (Hecatompedon); 17 - Erechtheion; 18 - Pandroseion's yard; 19 - Dionysus Theater; 20 - old temple of Dionysus; 21 - new temple of Dionysus; 22 - Pericles' odeillon; 23 - a monument to Thrasil; 24 - two memorial columns; 25 - the sanctuary of Asclepius; 26 - standing Eumenes; 27 - odeion of Herod Atticus

Ensemble of the Acropolis of Athens... Athens in the second half of the 5th century BC e. were the political and cultural center of Greece and achieved a special splendor. This is the time of the activity of the tragic poets Sophocles and Euripides, the author of the comedies of Aristophanes, famous sculptor Phidias and the brilliant constellation of architects Kallikrates, Iktin and Mnesicles. The highest architectural achievement of this era was the ensemble of the Acropolis of Athens. The dominant position of Athens in the maritime union of Greek city-states led to the fact that the union treasury was already in 454 BC. e. moved from Delos to Athens. This put into the hands of Pericles the means necessary for the implementation of the architectural plan, grandiose at that time.

Pericles' project, which aroused many objections both among the allies of Athens and within themselves, was based on far-reaching calculations: the exaltation of Athens in the eyes of their citizens and the entire Greek world and the solution of important internal economic problems. Plutarch tells us: “The slanderers shouted at popular assemblies that he dishonored the people, that he was dropping their good name by transferring (about 454 BC) the allied Greek treasury from Delos to Athens ... Whoever does not see, - they said, - that Greece is, obviously, under the rule of a tyrant, - in front of her eyes, for the money that she is obliged to contribute to the war, we, as a vain woman, are gilding and decorating our city. It shines with gems, statues and temples worth a thousand talents.

Pericles explained to the people that the Athenians were not obliged to give the allies an account of the use of their money, since wars were waged to protect them; that they do not give cavalry, not a fleet or infantry, but only money, and that if those who received them use them for their intended purpose, they do not belong to those who gave them, but to the one who received them. “The city,” he continued, “is sufficiently supplied with the necessities of war; therefore, the surplus in monetary funds should be used for buildings that, after their completion, will bring immortal glory to citizens, and during the production of work will strengthen their welfare. It will be impossible to do without all kinds of workers, a lot will be needed: all crafts will be revived; no one will sit idly by; almost the entire city will serve on a salary, and thus take care of its own amenities and food. " Young and healthy people received a salary from the state during the war, but Pericles wanted artisans who were not obliged to serve in the army to have their share of the income, but they received them not for free, but working. That is why he offered the people a plan for large buildings, architectural work that required artists and a long time so that the sedentary population could have a field of activity and use state revenues on an equal basis with sailors or serving in garrisons and infantry. The state had wood, stone, honey, ivory, gold, ebony, and cypress; he had artisans to work it all: carpenters, potters, coppersmiths, masons, dyers, goldsmiths and ivory carvers, painters, embroiderers, embossers, then commission agents and suppliers, merchants, sailors, helmsmen for shipping by sea, and for overland transport - carts, team-keepers, cabbies, rope-craftsmen, weavers, saddlers, workers, road-craftsmen and miners. Each of the crafts had its own workers from the common people, like a general in command of his detachment; they served as a tool and means for the production of work. Thus, these occupations were distributed, so to speak, between all ages and professions, increasing the well-being of everyone. "

The rock of the Athenian Acropolis rises in the middle of a valley, which is surrounded by hills on three sides, and on the fourth, southern side, adjoins the sea. It is a lilac-gray limestone massif with steep, winding slopes making access possible only from the western side. The top is, as it were, cut off and forms an area stretched from west to east (Fig. 38-40). Its length is 300 m and the maximum width is about 130 m. The elevation of the highest point of the Acropolis above sea level is 156.2 m, and above the adjacent basin and the city stretching at its foot, the Acropolis rises 70-80 m.It is, as it were, a fortified place by nature itself , located 6 km from a convenient bay - Piraeus, from a very early time was chosen for settlement. Remains of the fortress wall of the cyclopean masonry have survived, the construction of which the Athenians attributed to their legendary predecessors - the Pelasgians. In the most ancient era, the Acropolis, as mentioned above, was a fortress, in which the surrounding inhabitants took refuge in danger; public buildings and temples built here in the Archaic era were destroyed by the Persians in 480-479. BC.

After the expulsion of the Persians, the Athenians set about rebuilding the walls of the Acropolis using the stones of the destroyed buildings. At the beginning, the northern wall was built, and the drums of the temple columns went to the construction of which among other fragments. Kimon rebuilt the entire southern wall, giving it the correct outlines of two segments converging at an obtuse angle. The complex of architectural structures of the Acropolis was to take a dominant position over the city and the valley, while retaining the features of an ancient fortress in its new appearance.

Later, under Pericles, almost all the most important monuments of the ensemble were erected: the Parthenon - the main temple of Athena the Virgin, the patroness of the city, set at the southern edge of the rock, at its highest point (built in 447-438 BC, finished with finishing until 432 BC), the Propylaea - the front gate on the western, gentle slope of the Acropolis (437-432 BC) and the grandiose statue of the Warrior Athena (Promachos), the work of the genius Phidias, towering on a high pedestal facing the entrance and dominating the entire western part of the ensemble. The extensively conceived reconstruction was carried out with great energy and speed, under the direction of Phidias himself. But after Pericles, only the Small Temple of Nika Apteros was built, placed slightly ahead of the Propylae on a high rock (Pyrgos), expanded and fortified with substructures (designed around 449 BC, but built around 421 BC) , and the Erechtheion is a temple dedicated to Athena and Poseidon and located almost parallel to the Parthenon on the north side. Its construction was started in 421, but was delayed by the Peloponnesian War until 407-406. BC e. Thus, it took about forty years to build all the buildings. “Little by little,” writes Plutarch, “majestic buildings began to rise, inimitable in beauty and grace. All artisans tried in front of each other to bring their craft to< высшей степени совершенства. В особенности заслуживает внимания быстрота окончания построек. Все работы, из которых каждую могли, казалось, кончить лишь несколько поколений в продолжение нескольких столетий, были кончены в кратковременное блестящее управление государством одного человека. Легкость и быстрота произведения не дают еще ему прочности или художественного совершенства. Лишняя трата времени вознаграждается точностью произведения. Вот почему создания Перикла заслуживают величайшего удивления: они окончены в короткое время, но для долгого времени. По совершенству каждое из них уже тогда казалось древним; но по своей свежести они кажутся исполненными и оконченными только в настоящее время. Таким образом, их вечная новизна спасла их от прикосновения времени, как будто творец дал своим произведениям вечную юность и вдохнул в них нестареющую душу» (Плутарх. Перикл, 13.).

There is no reason to doubt that the composition of the Acropolis was based on a single plan, which, however, during its implementation, some changes could be made.

The Acropolis ensemble (Fig. 41) was supposed to perpetuate the victory of the Greek states over the Persians, their heroic liberation struggle against foreign invaders. The theme of struggle, victory and military power is one of the leading in the Acropolis. She is depicted in the image of Athena Promachos, standing guard and crowning the entire composition of the ensemble, in the image of Athena Lemnia with a helmet and a spear in her hands, and, finally, in the statue of the Wingless Victory, named so, according to Pausanias, because the wooden statue of the goddess in the temple was depicted without wings so that she could not leave the Athenians. The same motive sounds in the scenes of the battles of the Greeks with the centaurs and Amazons, which on the metopes of the Parthenon and on the shield of Athena the Virgin symbolize the struggle with the Persians.

The second ideological line, embedded in the architectural images of the Acropolis, is directly related to the politics of Pericles. Its monuments were supposed to embody the idea of \u200b\u200bthe hegemony of Athens as a pioneering socio-political and cultural center of all Greece and as a powerful capital of the union of Greek poleis. This ensemble was also supposed to perpetuate the victory of the most progressive trends in the social development of the polis, which in the middle of the 5th century. BC. the Athenian slave-owning democracy won over the most inert elements of the ruling class - the aristocracy.

The largest Greek architects and artists of that time participated in the creation of the Acropolis: Iktinus, Callicrates, Mnesicles, Callimachus and many others. The sculptor Phidias, a close friend of Pericles, directed the creation of the entire ensemble and created the most important of its sculptures.

The compositional idea of \u200b\u200bthe ensemble is inextricably linked with the Panathenaean celebrations and the procession to the Acropolis, which were the most important rite of the polis cult of Athena, the patroness of the city. On the last day of the Great Panathenaeus, celebrated once every four years, a solemn procession, led by the most noble and valiant citizens of the city, offered Athena a sacred veil - peplos. The procession began its journey from Keramika (the outskirts of the city), passed through the agora and moved further through the city in such a way that along the entire way to the Acropolis, the procession participants saw a rock towering over the city and the valley, and on it - the Parthenon, which, due to its size, clarity of silhouette and location dominated all natural and architectural surroundings. The Acropolis, with its marble structures shining against the blue southern sky, opened up to the participants in the procession in various aspects.

Indeed, passing the market square and the hill of the Areopagus, the solemn procession bypassed the Acropolis from the east and then moved along its southern wall and further west past the Odeillon built under Pericles and the theater of Dionysus, adjacent to the southeastern corner of the hill (at that time it was very simple construction).

The first construction of the Acropolis, which opened in front of the procession, was a small amphiprostyle temple of the Wingless Victory (Niki Apteros), which seems miniature and airy light compared to the powerful protrusion of the fortress wall - Pyrgos, on which it is placed (Fig. 42, 43). At first, it was turned towards the viewer with its lateral southern facade, and when the participants in the procession, having reached the western slope, turned to the facade of the Propylaea, Nika's temple loomed in the open sky, facing the spectators in the north-western corner. From below, from this point of view, it seemed to be a continuation of the shortened southern wing of the Propylaea. The ascent to the Acropolis went in a zigzag: first towards the northern edge of Pyrgos, and then turned to the central passage of the Propylaea.

The solemn Doric colonnade of the Propylaus rose at the top of a steep rise between two arrays of side wings, turned towards the viewer by their blank walls and opening narrow colonnades towards the passage. Having passed through the Propylaea, the procession found itself on the upper surface of the Acropolis rock, which rose rather steeply in the direction of the Parthenon, located at the very top. From the eastern facade of the Propylaea, the "Sacred Road" began, stretching along the longitudinal axis of the entire hill. A little to the left of it, thirty meters from the Propylaea, stood a colossal statue of Athena Promachos (Fig. 44). She dominated not only the front half of the Acropolis, but also over the valley stretching ahead.

To the right of the "Sacred Road" were the sanctuaries of Artemis Bravronia and Athena Ergana, the patroness of crafts and arts, and a long hall - the chalcotek, whose portico, adjacent to the southern wall of the Acropolis, faced north.

The Parthenon seen in perspective from the northwest corner was raised high on a raised platform (Fig. 45). Nine narrow steps carved into the rock separated it from the Ergana sanctuary. Here it is appropriate to note the main feature of these steps - curvatures, which, as will be shown below, are also characteristic of all horizontal parts of the Parthenon. The steps in the rock, carved several meters in front of the western facade of the temple, are not located along its main axis, but are shifted to the left. And also to the left of the axis of the temple the tops of their curvatures are shifted.

45. Athens. Acropolis. Schemes of the actual and perceived viewer of the position of the curvatures of the steps and the western facade of the Parthenon (according to Choisy): a - the upper point of the stylobate; b - the top point of the steps carved into the rock; c - the position of the viewer at the entrance to the sanctuary of Athena Ergana

46. \u200b\u200bAthens. Acropolis. Location of buildings in the VI century. BC e. (left) and in the V century. BC. (on right). Schemes of Choisy: a - place of the imprint of Poseidon's trident and the tree of Athena (according to legend): b - an old temple dedicated to Athena and Poseidon (the so-called temple of Athena Polyada, or Hecatompedon); c - the new temple of Athena and Poseidon (Erechtheion); d - old Parthenon (temple of Athena Parthenos); d - new Parthenon; e - old Propylaea; g - new Propylaea; h - statue of Athena Promachos

This asymmetry, visible to the viewer standing along the axis of the western façade of the Parthenon, is not accidental, the curvatures of the steps seem to be symmetrical relative to the façade for anyone who looks out onto the Acropolis from under the eastern portico of the Propylaea. And it is from here that the viewer for the first time completely covers the Parthenon with his gaze. It was on this point of view that the architect was guided, striving to achieve the impression of perfect harmony and to make his work as alive as the creation of nature (steps are not shown in Fig. 46, on the right).

Further, the "Sacred Road" ran along the northern facade of the Parthenon. Passing the colonnade, the viewer could see behind it, on the wall of the temple, a sculptural frieze depicting the very procession of the Great Panathenaeos in which he participated.

On the left, behind the statue of Athena Promachos, almost at the northernmost edge of the Acropolis and opposite the long colonnade of the Parthenon, the Erechtheion temple, small in size, but distinguished by its extraordinary asymmetric composition, loomed. Semi-hidden at first behind a low wall and a clump of Pandroseion trees, it opened somewhat further in all its complexity and opulence, with half-columns of the western facade and a portico of caryatids against the smooth southern wall. The contrast between this building and the Parthenon is one of the most striking features of the ensemble.

The festive procession ended at the altar of Athena, in front of the eastern facade of the Parthenon, where a solemn transfer to the priest of the newly woven and richly embroidered veil (peplos), which was presented to the priest, was presented to the priest, on which scenes of the struggle of the gods with giants were presented. Thus, through the successive change of a number of architectural effects, this ensemble, which constituted their pride and glory, was revealed near the Athenians.

The architectural techniques that achieved the unity and integrity of the impression in the Acropolis ensemble, inherent to a certain extent, and other complexes of the classical time, differ significantly from the techniques of ensemble solutions of previous periods. The opinion was expressed that the Acropolis of the 5th century, like other ensembles of Greece, arose without a definite plan and that each architect, starting his construction, again solved the problem of unity in the construction of the sanctuary, being connected only by the location of previously erected buildings. However, one cannot agree with this. The presence of a single plan is evidenced by quite reliable ancient sources, such as the above extract from Plutarch, as well as the impression of artistic unity that the ensemble produces on everyone who visits it.

A comparative analysis of the location of buildings on the Acropolis in the archaic and classical periods was convincingly carried out as early as the 19th century. Choisy. On the plans he compared (Fig. 46), the left shows the Acropolis in the form in which the Pisistratis left it and as it remained until the burning of Athens by the Persians in 480 g. The right image corresponds to the relative position of buildings after the restoration of the Acropolis in the 5th century. BC.; the dotted line shows the path of the Panathenaean procession from the Propylaea.

The difference in the principles of setting up buildings begins with Propyl. In the 6th century they were turned at an angle to the main direction of the approach and consisted of one simple volume, set across the saddle, along which a winding path went up; It is possible that such an arrangement of the Propylae was also associated with their function as a fortress gate, the approach to which was usually laid along a winding, broken line. The two main temples - Athena Polyada and Poseidon, built first as antes, and then surrounded by a peripteral colonnade, and the temple of Athena Parthenos (unfinished) were placed in parallel on the very crest of the rock. Their western facades were almost in line. The composition, as in other archaic ensembles (for example, in the acropolis of Selinunte), was based on the comparison of similar, typical architectural images.

In the classical era, the approach to the Acropolis was straightened and focused directly on the main portico of the Propylaea, which now had to not block the road to the fortress, but solemnly lead the public shrine, the object of worship and pride of the citizens of the polis.

The individual parts of the Acropolis ensemble are artfully interconnected. This was achieved by comparing free-standing buildings of different sizes and shapes, balancing each other not by the size and symmetry of their location, but by finely calculated free balance and features of their architecture. The Parthenon and the Erechtheion are conceived in this juxtaposition. With the similarity of forms and symmetrical arrangement of the small and placed below the Parthenon, the Erechtheion would be completely suppressed by it. But with an asymmetrical composition, contrasting with the whimsical originality of its appearance, the Parthenon, together with the statue of Athena Promachos, was able to create a balance between the northern and southern half of the ensemble. The deeply thought-out use of relief for artistic purposes was also of great importance in the formation of the composition. This technique in the classical era generally becomes a common architectural tool.

Thus, the unevenness of the rock on which the Propylaea and the Erechtheion were erected became a means of forming an artistic image. The significance of the Parthenon is emphasized by its location close to the edge of the platform, which, as it were, serves as its foundation. The entire ensemble as a whole turned the roughness and meanderness of the natural rock into an artistic pattern. It is striking that all the architects who built on the Acropolis in the 5th century deliberately avoided parallelism in the arrangement of structures and took into account the various points of view that opened up on the buildings. This not only allowed them to avoid the monotony of the ensemble, but also served as the source of an exceptionally picturesque play of light and shadow. Indeed, despite the apparent freedom of arrangement of parts, the composition of the Acropolis is based on a strict system and is precisely calculated. Some of Choisy's observations are indicative. He points out, for example, that the miniature, in comparison with other elements of the ensemble, the portico of the caryatids, which would have looked too shallow at the moment when the huge statue of Athena was in front of the viewer, was located so that the high pedestal of the statue completely covered it. The artist wanted to show it when the statue and the western façade of the Parthenon were left behind.

Propylaea - no less important building in the composition of the ensemble than its main temple, the Parthenon - were erected by the architect Mnesicles. Like all buildings on the Acropolis, they are entirely (including the roof tiles) constructed of white Pentelian marble and are distinguished by the unusual thoroughness of the construction work and the subtlety of the details (Fig. 47).

The Propylaea is the richest and most developed example of monumental entrances, which have long been built in the sanctuaries of Greece. Such entrances were through porticos in antae, facing inward and outward of the sanctuary and cut into the fence of the temenos. But this traditional scheme was substantially revised in the Propylaea of \u200b\u200bthe Acropolis in accordance with their location and role in the ensemble, and also complicated: the central part was accompanied by wings. Instead of one entrance, five openings were made in the Propylaea, the middle of which, designed for riding on horseback and leading the sacrificial animals, was much larger than the others (Fig. 48-51). The external and internal facades of the central part were majestic six-column Doric porticos of the prostrate type, with the middle intercolumnia being made wider than the rest. The western portico, facing the main approach to the Acropolis, is much deeper, more complex in composition and somewhat higher than the eastern portico: with the same proportions of entablatures, the heights of the columns are 8.81 and 8.57 m, respectively. The western portico is supported by a substructure and stands on the upper the site of the four-step staircase. The eastern portico is set at the level of the western edge of the Acropolis site. The difference in floor level between the porticoes is 1.43 m; therefore, five rather steep steps (0.32-0.27 m) are arranged in the side aisles inside the Propylaea. There were also entablatures, ceilings, pediments and the roof of both porticos at different levels, which can be clearly seen in the section. JB nature, due to the steepness of the ascent to the Propylaea, this difference should not have been perceived at all. Behind the shining in the sun whiteness of the western portico, from which now only the trunks of the columns have survived, the ceiling in deep shadow should have seemed to go far up. The outer contours of the roof generally disappeared when approaching the Propylaea. However, from the hills surrounding the Acropolis - from the Areopagus or from the Muses Hill - the roof of the Propylaea, covered with marble tiles, could be clearly seen.

In the middle passage, instead of steps, there is a ramp, on either side of which there are two rows of Ionic columns. This is one of the most striking examples of combining two orders in one building. The very idea of \u200b\u200bthe Acropolis as a common Greek sanctuary prompted the combination of various orders, it also reflected the desire to create a pan-Hellenic style, typical in general for Athenian art of the time of Pericles.

The wings of the Propylaea, which are slightly extended in relation to the western entrance portico, are asymmetrical. Both face the main axis with small three-column Doric porticoes, the modest size of which emphasizes the grandeur of the main entrance. However, their volumes are completely different. The northern wing is crowned with a pediment, a very restrained and heavy chimney in antae (in this room there was an art gallery - a pinakothek). The southern wing was not completed; behind the front row of columns ending with a column, devoid of a pediment, it has only a short closing wall.

This composition, clearly left unfinished, entailed many assumptions and reconstructions.

Reconstruction of Bohn and Dörpfeld suggests that the original design of Mnesicles included two more large halls with nine-column porticoes, which were to be located on the sides of the eastern portico, as well as an additional room behind the south wing with an open colonnade of four columns instead of the western wall. However, the latter assumption is not well founded. The propylaea were built taking into account the temple of Nike, which stood on Pyrgos, and this should have prompted Mnesicles to reduce the size of the southern wing of the building. Balance instead of the symmetry of the facade was apparently envisioned by the architect, regardless of the need to change the project. Indeed, the architect achieved a remarkable visual balance of the sides, which was analyzed in detail by Choisy. The high-raised temple of Nike was probably associated with a large statue on the left, the pedestal of which was used for the sculpture of Agrippa in the Roman era.

The main Doric porticoes of the Propylaea are among the finest works of the Greek classics (Fig. 54). They are characterized by a restrained, not in the slightest degree not exaggerated monumentality; at the same time, the impression of lightness and some kind of striking elevation caused by their architecture does not leave the viewer.

Indeed, the proportions of the porticoes are light. In the eastern portico, completely restored in 1910-1918, the ratio of the height of the entablature to the height of the column is 1: 3.12, close to that in the Parthenon. The ratio of the parts of the entablature - architrave, frieze and cornice, which is 10: 10.9: 3.05, also testifies to the lightness of the cornice (Fig. 52).

The height of the columns of the eastern portico is different - from 8.53 to 8.57 m, which is 5.48 of the lower diameter. The central columns are slightly higher, since the stylobate in both porticos is horizontal, and the entablature has a curvature, the rise of which reaches 4 cm in the center. The height of the columns of the western portico is somewhat greater. It reaches 8.81 m, including 0.702 m of the capital height. The lower diameter of the columns is 1.558 m, the upper one is 1.216 m9, which gives a thinning of 0.045 m per 1 running meter. m trunk. Entasis is somewhat stronger than in the Parthenon.

The order of the lateral wings of the Propylaea is much smaller. The height of the columns is 5.85 m, the diameter is 1.06 m. Its proportions are heavier than that of the order of the main porticos: the entablature is higher in relation to the columns, the columns themselves are thicker, the capitals are relatively larger. The large-scale structure of the side wings determined by these proportions is subtly calculated to emphasize the significance of the main portico.

In contrast to the restrained external appearance of the Propylaeans, their internal architecture was of a festive, elegant character. The six slender Ionic columns supporting the magnificent marble ceiling are the first example of the use of the Ionic order in the interior of a Doric building available to us (Fig. 53). The height of these columns is 10.25 m; the diameter of the trunk at the base is 1.035 m, the upper one is 0.881 m. Thus, the proportions are about 10 D, which makes it possible to attribute them to the lightest in Ionic of this time. The bases, an early example of the Attic type, are slightly tapered and consist of two large shafts separated by a fillet and shelves.

The capitals are striking in their maturity of forms and are unmatched in the perfection of their lines in all Hellenic architecture. The volute spirals, outlined by a double roller, end with a convex eye, which lies slightly below the upper line of the echinus. Elastic, taut cushion, laterally tied by a triple belt with flutes, facing the aisle.

The architraves above the Ionic columns are divided into three fascia. In the middle part of the span, they were reinforced with iron beams, the existence of which is indicated by grooves in the upper surface of the architrave with traces of rust. The architrave has low cross beams.

The ceiling, as in other structures of the Acropolis, was made of marble. The slabs were lightened by caissons painted inside: in the depths of the spotlights, gold stars were painted on a blue background.

It should be specially noted that the ceiling of the Propylaea and the ceiling of the Parthenon Pteron, completed ten years earlier, are, apparently, the first stone floors in ancient Greek architecture. There is no evidence for the existence of earlier examples. This fact in itself is very significant, since throughout the entire 6th and 1st half of the 5th century. BC. the pteron colonnade was not connected to the walls of the cella by any stone elements. On the one hand, this testifies to the imperfection of archaic construction techniques and, possibly, the fear of architects to block the spans with stone, which in the end porticos of the temples were at least one and a half times larger than the spans of the outer colonnade (wooden floor beams and rafters were, by the way, good elements connections between individual parts of the building in high seismic conditions in many areas of the Mediterranean). On the other hand, the absence of a connection in stone between the outer colonnade and the cell at the entire first stage of the existence of orders once again confirms the pictorial, frankly conditional nature of both the Doric and Ionic friezes.

Propylaea also have some remarkable design features. Thus, the frieze above the central intercolumnium of the eastern portico, which, due to the large span, contained two triglyphs (instead of the usual one), was originally designed to reduce the load on the architrave (Fig. 54). The blocks that make up the frieze were located above the column, so that their ends worked as cantilevers and the load from the block was transferred directly to the support itself (similar to the structure of the frieze of the Temple of Athena in Poseidonia, see above). The triglyphs were cut into the face of the blocks and closed the seams between them. The architrave of the middle span, reaching a length of 5.43 m, was reinforced with iron strips. The Pinakothek had two windows - these are the first windows known to science in monumental Greek buildings.

The architecture of the Propylaea is characterized by some deviations, which were then repeated also in the Parthenon - the curvatures of the entablature (the stylobate did not have them), the slopes of the supports, etc. mm. The columns of the front porticos, which have significant entasis, are inclined inward by 76.4 mm, while the corner columns are inclined diagonally. The entablature is tilted inward. Thus, in the Propylaea, as in the Parthenon, there are almost no straight lines and vertical planes.Mnesicles' approach to his architectural creation, as to a work of sculpture, apparently differed little from Phidias's approach to sculpture.

56. Athens. Temple of Niki Apteros. Facade, plan, general view

Temple of Niki Apteros (Wingless Victory) was built by Callicrates in honor of the goddess of Victory (Fig. 55, 56). This is a small Ionic four-column amphiprostyle measuring 5.4X8.14 m along the stylobate, set, as already mentioned, on a high ledge - Pyrgos. The area around the temple was surrounded by a marble parapet, adorned with beautiful sculptural reliefs. Here, in front of the temple, was the altar of Nika.

The project of Nika's temple and the altar in front of it was executed by Callicrates after the completion of work on the construction of Pyrgos. After the Democrats came to power, when a new plan for the development of the Acropolis was being worked out, this project and model of the temple were (in 449 BC) approved by the national assembly. Construction began at the same time, but the implementation of the temple dates back to a later period, possibly after the outbreak of the Peloponnesian War (by 421 it was completed).

The massive walls of Pyrgos, made of limestone slabs, have long served the Athenians as a place for hanging trophies. Thus, Pyrgos and the Temple of the Wingless Victory played an important role in creating a common ideological and artistic image of the Acropolis ensemble as a monument to the victory of the Greeks over the Persians.

The cella of the temple has neither pronaos nor opisthodom. The ends of its longitudinal walls are processed in the form of antes. On the east side, there were two narrow stone pillars, placed between the antae, to which were attached metal gratings that closed the entrance to the shallow cella.

The height of the monolithic columns of the temple is 4.04 m. The Ionian capitals are similar in type to those of the Propylaea (Fig. 57). They have a wide, rather strongly curved pillow. The volute spirals are outlined by a thin roller and end with an eyelet with a hole. The low echinus is covered with cut oats. In the temple are the first corner Ionic capitals that have come down to us.

The Temple of Nike gives us a classic example of a three-part version of the Ionic entablature: an architrave dissected into three fascia, a continuous sculptural frieze and a cornice without teeth. On the bas-reliefs of the frieze (Fig. 58, 59), on its three sides, there was a battle between the Greeks and the Persian cavalry; on the east side are the Olympic gods watching the battle.

If the Doric structures of the Acropolis contain elements of Ionic architecture, then in the Ionic temple of Niki Apteros, features characteristic of Doric architecture can be noted, for example, the picturesque rather than carved decor of the sima, the three-sided profiling of the capitals of the ants, the heavier proportions of the order. This increased the height of the architrave relative to the span it covered and the overall height of the entablature as a whole, which is 2/9 of the order's height. The proportions of the columns, which are 7.85 in diameter, are also heavy for the Ionic order. These features, as well as the absence of curvatures, which gave the appearance of the temple a touch of exquisite dryness, bring its architecture closer to the monuments of the 1st half of the 5th century. BC, for example, with a temple on the river. Ilise than with other buildings on the Acropolis during the heyday of the Athenian slave-owning democracy.

The heavier proportions of the order, most likely, were carefully thought out by the architect and had the purpose of creating a certain scale: in this way, an impression of austerity and significance was achieved, which could be lacking with lighter proportions of a small temple, compared with the monumental Doric architecture of the Propylaea.

The history of the Niki temple is interesting. It stood until the end of the 18th century, when the Turks, fortifying the Acropolis, dismantled it and used stones to build an embankment for a battery. After the liberation of Greece, parts of the building and reliefs (Fig. 60) were removed from the ground, and in 1835-1836. the temple was rebuilt and received its present appearance. In the winter of 1935/36, when the masonry of Pyrgos and the temple began to threaten to fall, the temple and its pedestal had to be dismantled once again, after which all the stones were folded again, and the Nika temple was again restored in the most careful way.

Parthenon - one of the most perfect and deservedly glorified works of world architecture (Fig. 61, 62). It was erected on the site of a large temple, the construction of which the Athenians began at the turn of the 5th century. BC. after the overthrow of tyranny. The highest part of the cliff was chosen and the size of the construction site was increased to the south, where a retaining wall was erected along a steep cliff, as well as a powerful foundation and a stereobath of the temple. They began to install the drums of the columns, but with the invasion of Xerxes in 480 BC. e. all the work begun, as well as other structures, were destroyed (Fig. 39, 63). The new temple of Athena was begun in 447 BC, and during the celebration of Panathena in 438 BC. the consecration of the temple took place. The sculptural work continued until 432 BC.

The architects of the Parthenon, Ictinus and Callicrates, faced an unusual, difficult and majestic task: to create not only the main temple of the polis, dedicated to its divine patroness Athena, but also the main structure of the entire ensemble of the Acropolis, which, according to Pericles, was to become an all-Hellenic sanctuary. If the ensemble of the Acropolis as a whole perpetuated the heroic liberation struggle of the Greek states, then the Parthenon, dominating the new Pan-Hellenic sanctuary, was supposed to clearly express the leading role of Athens both in the struggle and in the post-war life of the Greek states. In connection with the most important state role of the Parthenon, it was decided to make it the place of keeping the treasury of Athens and the Naval Union headed by them, as well as treaties with other policies.

In order to solve the ideological and architectural and artistic tasks that faced them, the builders of the Parthenon creatively reworked the composition of the Doric peripter, deviating in many respects from the established type, in particular, resorting to the free combination of Doric and Ionic architectural traditions.

The Parthenon is the largest Doric temple in the Greek metropolis (stylobate size 30.86X69.51 m), and its outer colonnade - 8x17 - exceeded the number of colonies usual for the Doric peripters. Both ends of the cella ended with six-column prostyle porticoes (Fig. 64, 67).

In accordance with the purpose of the Parthenon, his plan included not only an extensive cella for the cult statue, but also an independent, west-facing room that served as a treasury and was called the Parthenon, ie. "Room for girls". According to the assumption of Acad. Zhebeleva, it was here that the selected Athenian girls wove a veil for the goddess.

The main room of the Parthenon was significantly different from other temples with three naves: its longitudinal two-tier colonnades were connected along the back wall of the cella by a third, transverse colonnade, forming a U-shaped bypass around the cult statue. This organically completed the interior space and strengthened the importance of the central nave with the sculpture located in it. This technique, first used by Iktin and emphasizing the importance of cela as the culmination point of the entire composition, was an important step in the development of monumental interior architecture, interest in which steadily increased over time.

The two-tiered inner colonnade was supposed to play an important role in the scale characterization of the Parthenon's interior (Fig. 64,67,86). She not only emphasized the extraordinary dimensions of the central space of the cella (its width exceeded 19 m, the span between the colonnades was about 10 m), but against its background the grandiose statue of Athena Parthenos (Virgin), made by Phidias himself and reaching a height of 12 m, should have seemed even more. There was no information about the overlap of the central part of the cella. It is possible that it had a large light hole and that the cella was open to the sky. On the other hand, one can imagine what exceptional light and shadow effects could be obtained by illuminating the cult statue, made of gold and ivory, only through the entrance opening. The wealth of possible reflexes was supposed to further enhance the impression she made.

The ceiling of the western room of the cella of the temple was supported by four columns, which, judging by their slenderness, were probably Ionic. Ionian features also appeared in the external architecture of the temple: behind the majestic external Doric colonnade of the Parthenon, on top of the walls of the cella and above its Doric porticoes, there was a continuous sculptural frieze, under which, however, Doric shelves with drops were preserved on the east and west facades (Fig. 67) ...

67. Athens. Parthenon. Fragments of longitudinal and transverse (along the portico) sections, longitudinal section (reconstruction), acroteria

The Order of the Parthenon differs significantly from the order of the preceding Doric temples (Figs. 68-74). The columns, equal in height to the columns of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia, i.e. 10.43 m with a diameter of 1.905 m (1.948 in the corner columns), have much lighter proportions: their height is 5.48 lower diameters, whereas in Olympia it is the ratio is 4.6: 1. The thinning of the columns was not strong, the top diameter of the trunk was 1.481 m for the middle ones and 1.52 m for the corner columns. Entasis is small - the maximum deviation from a straight line is 17 mm. Spans on the sides (4.291 m) are practically the same as on the front facades (4.296 m). The extreme corner span was narrowed to 3.681 m (3.689 m on the sides). However, the narrowing was not a single one, which led to subtle but completely consistent deviations from the regularity of the frieze, since the width of the metopes ranges from 1.317 m to 1.238 m, decreasing from the center of the façade to the corners.

The proportions of the order as a whole, as well as of the columns, are greatly facilitated. With a total height of 3.29 m, the entablature is 0.316 of the height of the column, while in the temple of Zeus at Olympia this ratio is 0.417, and in the II temple of Hera in Poseidonia - 0.42. The architrave is equal in height to the triglyph frieze, and the ratio of both these parts to the cornice is 10: 10: 4.46.

The capital of the Parthenon, which can be called an example of the Doric capital of the classical era, was of great importance for the characterization of the order. Echin is distinguished by a close to straight, but extremely elastic outline. The removal is small - only 0.18 of the column top diameter. The height of the abacus and the echina is the same (0.345 m). There are also remarkable innovations in these capitals. Their abacas support the architrave only with their middle, slightly protruding part, which indicates a clear distinction between the architect of the practical and artistic (figurative) functions of the capital. Another innovation, testifying to the free circulation of architects with the order system - the above-mentioned Doric shelves with drops, located on the wall of the cella under the Panathenian frieze - speaks of the fusion of Doric and Ionic architectural elements in the Parthenon architecture brought to the smallest detail.

Thanks to the clarity of the tectonic concept and the simplicity of the general volume of the Parthenon, its role in the ensemble and its ideological significance were revealed from afar. When, at the end of the Panathenaean celebrations, the participants in the procession finally found themselves in close proximity to the monumental structure that dominated the ensemble of the Acropolis, over the city stretching at its foot and all the natural surroundings, the Parthenon appeared before them in all its grandeur and wealth. Here is a deep understanding of the task and masterful use of the artistic and expressive possibilities hidden in the order by the architects, first of all, the extreme thoughtfulness of the wonderfully found proportions of the order with the perfection of its execution.

Considering the actual size of the building and all the aspects in which it was consistently revealed to the viewer, the architects were able to give the temple such "scale", thanks to which its heroic majesty did not overwhelm the viewer at close range, but, on the contrary, gave him patriotic pathos, proud self-awareness and confidence in their forces, which were characteristic of the Athenians, contemporaries of Pericles. This feature of the Parthenon architecture, acutely felt by everyone who saw it in nature, can only be guessed by a thoughtful examination of those photographs in which the figure of a standing person is visible directly at the colonnade. Man is perceived by us as more than one would expect when considering the architecture of the temple; in other words, the scale characteristic of the Parthenon is such that its actual size exceeds expected, but does not overwhelm.

Close up, another side of the artistic image of the Parthenon was revealed - its solemn festivity created by the richness of colors of its architecture, strong contrasts and complex play of chiaroscuro, remarkable plastic properties of noble Pentelian marble. This stone, still mined near Athens, on the Pentelikon Upland, has good mechanical properties and lends itself to fine processing. It has a rather large grain, and in some places includes thin layers of mica.

Immediately after being mined, the marble is almost completely white, but over time takes on a warm hue. Due to the presence of iron, it is covered with a golden patina of extraordinary beauty. In the Parthenon, this patina lay mainly on the sides of the stones facing east and west, while the southern side almost retained its original shade. On the northern side, over the past millennia, microscopic gray moss has appeared (with which scientists are now waging a serious struggle, since its destructive effect on the stone has been established).

These transitions of shades give the colonnade of the temple an extraordinary warmth characteristic of a living body, and not a death stone.

The perfection of its execution is of great importance for the architecture of the temple, and especially with the utmost care implemented systems of "refinements" or minor deviations from the geometric correctness of the lines. These deviations, which were found separately in various archaic temples, and more consistently in the temples of the 2nd quarter of the 5th century. BC e., were first used simultaneously in the Parthenon. To a large extent, the possibility of such a wide introduction of "refinements" is explained by the use of marble as the only building material for all the most important structures of the Acropolis. Of all the types of stone used by the Hellenic civilization, it was marble that allowed such a high precision and subtlety of detailing, sharper corners and surface polishing.

These deviations include, first, curvatures of all horizontal lines, starting with the steps of the stereobath and ending with parts of the entablature (Fig. 75, 76). It is noteworthy that with a slight curvature of all horizontal lines, the verticality of the masonry seams is fully maintained, so that, for example, the blocks of the stereobath steps have the shape of irregular quadrangles along the facade, changing, moreover, from the corners to the middle of the sides of the structure. All other "deviations" were carried out with amazing accuracy: the tilt of the axes of the columns and entablature to the walls of the temple, and the gayson outward, thickening of the corner columns, reduction of the angular intercolumnia, tilt to the outside of the pediment tympans, etc. Inclination to the outside of the vertical surfaces the crowning parts of the temple - in particular the geison, antefixes and acroteria, as well as the abacus of the outer columns (a detail first found in the Parthenon, but then also observed in the Temple of Concordia in Akragant and in Segesta) - may have been performed to better reflect light in the direction of the viewer, in other cases, for example, in anta capitals, its purpose was to emphasize the contrast of a detail and a larger element - the surface of the anta itself, inclined in the opposite direction.

73. Athens. Parthenon. Details: 1 - Sima's water cannon; 2 - the angle of the entablature; 3 - corner of the triglyph-metope frieze and the ceiling of the portico with the remains of the painting; 4 - capital
74. Athens. Parthenon. Northwest corner of the entablature (after Colignon): 1 - view from the north side; 2 - view from the west; 3 - plan of the entablature at the frieze level and bottom view of the gison
77. Athens. Parthenon. Corner of the western pediment, metope of the south side - centaur and lapith

It is noteworthy that the curvature of the architrave in the Parthenon was made in the form of a broken line so that the lower and upper surfaces of each block were not curved, but rectilinear. On the other hand, it took an extremely accurate quilting of the vertical seams at the junction of adjacent blocks, as well as the undercut of the abacus, the upper surface of which turned out to be like a gable.

The indicated deviations, undoubtedly, cannot be explained only by the struggle against optical distortions and illusions, as it was originally assumed. Some of them are so subtle that they are almost invisible to the eye, while others are undoubtedly perceived by the viewer, giving the Parthenon's forms an amazing plasticity and vitality.

The sculptures of the Parthenon, made by the best masters of Greece according to the concept and with the direct participation of the great Phidias, played an important role in deepening and revealing the rich artistic and ideological content of the temple (Fig. 77). Groups of complex composition, made in a round sculpture, well projected against the background of the tympanum wall, were installed on the horizontal cornice of both gables. These figures were of the largest scale and were designed for perception from a distant point of view: they, no doubt, were quite clearly distinguishable already along the entire route of the Panathenaic procession along the southern side of the Acropolis. The next place belonged to metopes made in a large relief (corresponding to the strong plasticity of the architectural forms of the temple), with figures of a somewhat smaller scale, which, however, should have been well perceived from the very exit from the Propylaea to the Acropolis. When approaching the western facade of the Parthenon and moving along its northern colonnade, the third sculptural element in the external architecture of the temple also came into play - the famous frieze (Fig. 78), which stretched along the top of the walls of the cella along its entire perimeter, reaching 160 m. in relatively low relief. With a height of 1 m, its exceptionally thin relief, in some places depicting four figures projecting one on top of the other, did not exceed 6 cm in the upper part of the sculptural slabs and reached only 4 cm in their lower part. Such a difference in relief, obviously, was deeply thought out and took into account the specific conditions of perception of the frieze - from a strong perspective.

All external sculptures remained in place, and the Parthenon itself, despite a number of alterations, remained intact until 1687, when, during the Venetian-Turkish War, a direct hit from a Venetian bomb destroyed its entire middle part. The current state of the temple is the fruit of careful restorations. His sculptures, which are now stored in many museums in Europe (mainly in the British Museum in London, where they were taken by Lord Elgin, the British ambassador to Turkey), have survived in part and in varying degrees of preservation. The frieze is best preserved.

The ideological subtext of the theme developed in the sculptures of the Parthenon is closely related to recent events (the fierce struggle and victory of the Greeks over the Persians) and the desire to embody in a visual and convincing form the idea of \u200b\u200bthe hegemony of Athens, consecrated and supported by their most divine patroness.

The group of the western pediment, of whose figures only fragments remained (Fig. 79), depicted the dispute between Athena and Poseidon over the dominion over Attica. Since the goddess - the patroness of crafts - was especially revered by the Athenian demos, and Poseidon in ancient times was considered the patron saint of the clan nobility, this group undoubtedly reminded the ancient audience of the recent fierce intraclass struggle. So in the sculptures of the Parthenon, the second side of the general ideological plan of the Acropolis ensemble was emphasized: by erecting it, the Athenian slave-owning democracy sought to perpetuate not only the triumph of the Greeks over the barbarians, but also its victory over the reactionary forces within the polis. The sculptural group of the eastern pediment, from which individual figures reached (Fig. 80, 83), depicted the myth of the birth of Athena from the head of Zeus. Thus, as it were, emphasized the special place of Athens in the Hellenic world.

81-82. Athens. Parthenon. Fragment of the Panathenaic frieze on the eastern side of the cella

The composition of the pediment groups is known only from the sketches made 13 years before their destruction. Nevertheless, there is no doubt about the serious shifts that have occurred in the development of this type of sculptural compositions, as well as individual sculptures, since the execution of the pediments of the Temple of Zeus at Olympia. The composition is now built not on a strict correspondence of the figures of the left and right sides, but on the cross-opposition of mutually balanced figures. Thus, for example, a naked male figure on the left is invariably answered by a clothed female figure on the right side of the pediment, and vice versa. Three exceptionally finely executed, feminine figures of the Moir (goddesses of fate) correspond to the nude reclining hunter Kefal and the seated female deities - Oram. A bold innovation is the filling of the corners of the eastern pediment; the place of ordinary lying figures is taken by the heads of horses, on the left - Helios (sun), rising from the Ocean in his chariot, on the right - Nyx (night), descending into the Ocean with his horses. These images are significant. Using the ideas of Greek mythology about the Universe, about the Earth, surrounded by a wide river Ocean, they symbolically reveal the greatness and significance for the entire Hellenic world of the event depicted in the pediment sculpture - the birth of a new deity, the mighty Athena, from the head of Zeus. Phidias tried to convey the authenticity of this incredible miracle, showing what a stunning impression it made on the gods present. This is evidenced by the full movement, draped in flowing clothes, the figure of Iris.

It is characteristic that the pediment sculptures are technically completely finished not only from the face and sides, but also from the rear. This is the result of a new technique of gradual and repeated processing of the entire surface of the statue at once, replacing the archaic technique of processing a block from its four facades. It was only with this more flexible technique that it became possible to perform in marble dynamic forms of complex composition, characteristic of the classical era.

On the metopes of the frieze of the outer colonnade, the events of Greek mythology were depicted: on the eastern facade - gigantomachy; in the south (the best preserved metopes) - the struggle of the Lapiths against the centaurs; on the west - the battle of the Greeks with the Amazons; on the north - the capture of Troy. The sculpture of metopes is far from being equal in technique. A large number of sculptors worked on them, under the general guidance of Phidias. The very nature of the individual images is also different, in which the transition from archaic stiffness of movements is clearly noticeable (for example, a centaur holding a young man by the hair) to the dynamics of bodies that amazes with its vitality (a centaur rearing over a defeated enemy). For all that, metope sculpture is characterized by a vivid depiction of emotions.

The most important element of the sculpture that directly determined the appearance of the Parthenon was the grandiosely conceived Panathenaic frieze, which included hundreds of figures of gods, people, horses and sacrificial animals. Its theme is the expression of the Athenians' gratitude to their divine protector. On the west side, the formation of the Panathenaean procession is shown: young men saddling horses. The action unfolds in a measured rhythm along the longitudinal sides of the temple: here are men carrying branches of olives (the tree of Athena), musicians, horsemen performing in rows of fours, women and girls in clothes falling in folds, slowly moving towards the eastern side of the Parthenon, where seated on graceful seats the gods and the priest of Athena, with the help of a boy, unfolds the precious peplos (Fig. 81, 82, 84).

Passing this solemnly unfolding composition of the frieze, depicting the successive stages of the Panathenaean procession, the spectators - participants in the actual procession - became more aware of their connection with the temple and its enormous social significance.

The last sculptural image, which was the center of the entire compositional and ideological concept of the Parthenon, is the cult statue of Athena, executed by Phidias from gold and ivory and which was one of his masterpieces (44 talents were spent on its production, i.e. 1140 kg of gold). Numerous descriptions of ancient authors, images on coins and several later sculptural copies, of which the marble statuette from Barvakion in Athens (its height is 1 m), seems to be the closest to the original. Athena stands in a calm, solemn pose (Fig. 85). The head is covered with a high helmet, the body is dressed in a chiton, the folds of which were supposed to correspond to the flutes on the columns of a huge cella surrounding the statue of Phidias (the entire middle part of the cella was destroyed by an explosion, and now the walls of the second room of the temple - the Parthenon itself) are opening to the viewer. The left hand rests on a large round shield covered with reliefs, behind which hides a snake that, according to legend, lived in the temple of Athena Polias. The right arm, slightly extended forward and supported by a small column, carries a small figure of Nicky. The bell-shaped column capital, probably painted in the statuette and plastically developed in the original, can clearly be seen as an early form of the Corinthian capital, later used for the first time as a truly architectural form by Ictinus in the temple of Apollo in Bassa. The image of Athena was supposed to reflect the restrained power and majesty, characteristic, according to Hellenic ideas, of the Olympic goddess.

So in the sculptural images of the Parthenon, as in its architecture, the combination of monumental peace with vitality and noble grandeur with simplicity, which distinguishes the ancient Greek art of the time of its highest flowering, was fully embodied.

Using the means of architecture and sculpture, the creators of the Parthenon brilliantly solved the tasks before them, reflecting in it those features of Athens that, in the opinion of Pericles and his associates, gave their policy the right to a leading role in the entire Hellenic world: the most perfect state system for its time Athens, their political wisdom and economic power, the advanced nature of their ideals and undeniable primacy in all areas of Greek culture, which turned Athens at that time into the foremost center and school of Hellas. And the more vividly the Parthenon reflected the brilliant image of Pericles' Athens, the power of their worldview, ethical and aesthetic ideals, the better it fulfilled its role in the Pan-Hellenic ensemble of the Acropolis.

The significance of the ideological content and the perfection of the artistic form make the Parthenon the pinnacle of all ancient Greek architecture.

89. Athens. Erechtheion. Sections (transverse and longitudinal)

Erechtheion - the last construction of the Acropolis, completing its entire ensemble (Fig. 87). This marble temple of the Ionic order is located in the northern part of the hill, near the site of ancient Hecatompedon, which was subsequently burned down. The Erechtheion was dedicated to Athena and Poseidon. The area set aside for the temple was associated with a number of relics related to the cult.

At the end of the 1st century. BC e. the interior of the Erechtheion was damaged by fire. During the Byzantine period, the Erechtheion was converted into a church. In the 12th century, during the reign of the Crusaders, it was attached to the palace built on the Acropolis and, finally, during the era of Turkish rule, it served as the premises of the local ruler's harem. At the beginning of the XIX century. the temple was destroyed during the hostilities. Excavation and study of it began in 1837; the first attempts at restoration date back to the forties of the 19th century. Large restoration work was carried out in 1902-1907. under the leadership of N. Balaios; in particular, many of the missing stones were found and the most important parts of the temple were restored. Now the external view of the Erechtheion can be considered largely clarified.

In the arrangement of the internal parts of the temple, in view of many later reconstructions, much still remains unclear.

The features of the Erechtheion are its asymmetric plan, which has no analogies in the Hellenic temple architecture, as well as a very complex spatial composition of its premises and three porticos located at different levels (Fig. 88, 89).

The main core of the building is a rectangular building with a stylobate size of 11.63X23.50 m. The roof is gable, covered with marble tiles, on the east and west sides there are pediments. From the east, the cella ends with a six-column Ionic portico across the entire width of the building, like temples of the forgiving type. The western end of the structure was decided in an unusual way (Fig. 90). There were two peculiarly located porticoes, which ended not the end, but the longitudinal sides of the cella and were oriented to the north and south (the northern portico and the portico of Cor).

On the western side of the temple there was a high base, above which four columns in antae rose. The gaps between the columns were covered with bars. The grilles were installed in the 5th century. BC e., as can be seen from the report of the construction commission. In Roman times, the gratings were replaced by masonry with window openings, as a result of which the columns became semi-columns.

The height of the columns and antes of the western facade is 5.61 m. The height of the basement on which they stand is 4.8 m. The profiled base runs 1.30 m higher than the similar base of the southern portico. It was necessary to raise the western colonnade so high, perhaps, so that it would be completely visible from behind the trees and the fence of the Pandrosa garden, located in front of it. It also made it possible to place in the plinth a door from Pandroseion to the temple; it is located asymmetrically, closer to the southern corner.

It is believed that during the construction at the southwestern corner of the Erechtheion, an ancient grave was discovered under the foundations of Hecatompedon. It was recognized as the grave of Cecrops and, in order to keep it intact, the foundation of the Erechtheion was moved to the west, and a large marble beam, 1.5 meters wide and 4.83 meters long, was placed over the grave.

	90. Athens. Erechtheion. View from the west. West facade

The southern wall stands on a three-step base and is made up of carefully fitted polished squares (Fig. 91). Orphostats (quadras of the lower row of masonry) are placed on a profiled base, which serves as a continuation of the base of the anta of the eastern portico. A wide ribbon of ornamental cut, passing from the neck of this ant to the southern wall, stretches along its top. The motif of this ornament, composed of palmettes and lilies, is called anfemia and, in less developed forms, is also found on archaic capitals found in Navcratis and Samos. In the Erechtheion, its more complicated drawing acquires special grace and completeness. The individual elements are more dissected; the wriggling antennae connecting palmettes and lilies are strongly developed. Anfemius is used in the Erechtheion with extreme generosity - it is found on antae, under the capitals of the columns, in the upper part of the door frame.

On all the walls of the Erechtheion, with the exception of the western one, under the three-part entablature stretches a wide strip of the same ornament - anfemia, crowned with a belt of ovaries and lesbian kimaty. This decorative belt formed an exquisite and elegant frame of the magnificent surface of the wall, enhancing its independent artistic value.

The frieze of the Erechtheion deserves special attention: it was made of dark (violet-black) Eleusinian marble-like limestone, against the background of which the separately carved from light (white) marble and then attached sculptures stood out. Above, there was a cornice topped with oaks. This frieze, along with the entire entablature, passed to the eastern portico and other facades of the building.

A small portico adjoins the western end of the southern wall - the famous portico of Cor, in which the columns are replaced by six marble figures of caryatid girls (or cor) slightly taller than human height - 2.1 m (Fig. 92, 93).

A high plinth with a profiled base, on which the caryatids stand, rests on a three-tiered base. Made up of large slabs and crowned with a rod with a large cut, it served as a massive base for the figures of girls carrying the entablature of the portico. An intermediate link between sculpture and architecture is the capitals over the heads of the caryatids, consisting of an echinus cut with large ovami and a narrow abacus.

In an effort to visually lighten the entablature in order to avoid the impression of the tension of the caryatids, the architect with great tact applied the original form of the Ionic entablature, reducing it to two parts: an architrave and a cornice with teeth. The frieze is missing. On the upper fascia of the architrave, small, slightly protruding circles are visible, on which, perhaps, it was supposed to cut rosettes.

In the northeastern corner of the portico of the caryatids, there is a narrow passage and behind it a ladder connecting the portico with the cella. When the viewer approaches Erechteionuso from the Propylaea side and the temple opens in front of him from the southwest corner, the small, but rich in chiaroscuro portico of Cor stands out clearly against the shiny surface of the southern wall, greatly reduced from this point of view. The portico revives the composition in a new way when viewed from the platform in front of the Parthenon (i.e. from the east).

93. Athens. Erechtheion. Portico of the caryatids: fragment, profiles
94. Athens. Erechtheion. East facade, east corner of the south wall, south column of the east portico
95. Athens. Erechtheion. East portico: view towards the Parthenon, profiles: 1 - anta capital; 2 - anta base; 3 - column base

Walking around the temple and reaching the site in front of the eastern facade, the viewer sees a shallow six-column portico of very light proportions (Fig. 94-96). The height of its columns is 9.52 D (6.58 m) with an intercolumnium of 2.05 D. In the back wall there was a door decorated with a rich casing and two (partially preserved) windows.

Coming out to the northeastern corner of the building, the viewer found himself on the top step of the stairs that descended to the northern courtyard, or rather, the site at the northern edge of the Acropolis. The two lower steps turned onto the base of the northern wall and stretched along its base, up to the steps of the northern portico. The north portico served as the entrance to Poseidon's cella. Here, by the wall, was the altar of Zeus, and through the hole in the floor, the visitor could see the trace of the trident on the rock, with which, according to legend, the god Poseidon hit the rock of the Acropolis. A cassette was removed above this spot in the ceiling so that the sacred sign was in the open air.

The northern portico has a size of 12.035x7.45 m along the lower step (in width and depth). There are six columns along its perimeter (Fig. 97-99). They are heavier than the columns of the eastern portico (their height is 7.63 m, i.e. 9.2 D) and are spread wider (intercolumn 2.32-2.27 m, or 2.8 D).

The columnar trunks have a slight entasis and a slight thinning (the difference between the lower and upper diameters is 0.1 m), 24 flutes have oval grooves. The columns of the portico correspond to the antae, only slightly protruding from the wall. The corner columns slope slightly inward diagonally. The marble ceiling is cassette.

98. Athens. Erechtheion. View from the northeast corner. North facade. Portal of the north portico, detail

The decor of the northern portico repeats the motives of the ornamentation of other parts of the temple, standing out for the elegant bases. In the bases of its columns, the upper shaft is covered with carved braids, which the columns of the eastern portico do not have. In the capitals, volute spirals gracefully outlined by a double roll with a slight deflection in the middle end with a convex eye, once decorated with a golden rosette. The balustrades of the capitals are fluted, with a string of beads running along the edges of each of the seven shallow flutes. The narrow abacus is covered with ova and tongues, the echinus is decorated with carvings (oves) and underlined with astragalus beads from below, it is separated from the pillow in turn by a braid. Below is a wide ribbon of anfemia.

The total height of the capitals of the northern portico is 0.613 m, of which 0.279 m are anfemias and echinus, and 0.334 m are cushion and abacus.

Of all the three varieties of capitals in the Erechtheion, the capital of the northern portico has the richest interpretation.

The entablature of the north portico is slightly below the entablature of the cella. On top of a light architrave (0.72 m), divided into three fasciae and crowned with Ionic kimatius and astragalus, there was a dark strip of frieze, similar to the frieze of the eastern portico and cella. Topped with a belt of ovaries, the cornice had a slight extension (0.31 m). Sima was adorned with water cannons in the form of lion's heads, and the roof tiles overlapping with antefixes (with palmette and volutes).

The door to the pronaos is especially richly decorated in the northern portico. Its narrowing upward opening (4.88 m high, 2.42 m wide at the bottom and 2.34 m on top) is framed by a casing with rosettes and a sandrik on consoles, decorated with anfemia. The framing of the doorway is well preserved and is the best example of the classic period casing (only the sandrik was restored in Roman times).

In contrast to the portico of the Caryatids, the northern portico is significantly shifted to the west, extending beyond the northern wall, so that its axis coincides with the axis of the narrow pronaos. The northern wall ends in the west with an ant, which has two obverse sides and resembles the same antae of the western facade of the northern wing of the Propylaea.

Such is the complex and varied structure of the external appearance of the Erechtheion.

The interior of the Erechtheion was divided into two parts by a blank transverse wall.

The eastern, somewhat smaller, was the sanctuary of Athena: there stood an ancient, carved from wood, especially revered statue of the goddess. An unquenchable fire burned in front of her in a golden lamp made by the famous master Callimachus. This room was a "inaccessible sanctuary of the goddess", where only priests could enter, so the doors were always closed and two windows had to be arranged for lighting.

The western part of the temple was actually the temple of Poseidon. It was divided into several rooms: a wall that did not reach the ceiling separated a pronaos stretched from north to south, and, probably, the wall of the same height separated two rooms adjoining it from the east. According to Pausanias, there were three altars in the temple: Poseidon and Erechtheus, the hero of Booth, Hephaestus; on the walls were pictures from the life of the Butad family. Under the floor of the cella there was a crypt in which the sacred serpent Erichthonius lived; under the floor of the pronaos there was a well of salt water ("Sea of \u200b\u200bErechte"), which, according to legend, appeared from Poseidon's trident hitting a rock.

The western part of the building lay 3.206 m below the floor of the eastern part (raised above the level of the site adjacent to the southeastern corner by about 1 m). The difference in levels made the composition of the Erechtheion no less unusual than the asymmetry of the plan.

At a lower elevation there are also two courtyards adjoining the Erechtheion. One lies between the northern wall of the temple, the wall of the Acropolis, and a wide staircase at the northeastern corner of the Erechtheion. Another, surrounded by a fence, adjoined the western wall of the temple: it was the sanctuary of Pandrosa, daughter of the legendary king Cecrops. The sacred olive tree of Athena grew in it.

This location of the temple, as well as its dismemberment, were probably dictated by the desire to create a structure that contrasts with the monumental simple, stately Parthenon in all its complex architectural composition, but does not compete with it. This was the new principle of the freely and picturesquely arranged ensembles of the 5th century. The place of relics, located in the depression of the rock behind Hecatompedon, was now within the boundaries of the temple.

The Ionian order in the Erechtheion is distinguished by its lightness, grace and variety of forms, its three variants are close to each other. Each of the facades, which received their own individual appearance, is at the same time skillfully connected with the whole. This is served by a common entablature with a kind of common frieze around the entire building, a common profiled base, stretched along the bottom of all the walls of the temple, base steps, spliced \u200b\u200bwith the steps of the northeastern staircase.

The same purpose is served by the similarity of individual parts (for example, plans and placement of supports of the northern and southern porticos, plinths of the portico of the cortex and the western colonnade, etc.), as well as the system of relationships that connects the forms of the porticos and the division of the walls. Thus, the squares of the southern wall are strictly coordinated with the height of the portico basement, which is equal to the height of the orthostat and one row of masonry; the height of the cortex is equal to five rows of masonry, the height of the entablature is the height of two rows, the distance between the antefixes is half the length of the square, etc. All these techniques create the impression of harmonious unity, despite the variety of individual elements.

There was less coloring in the Erechtheion. It was largely replaced by the polychromy of various materials (stone of different colors). The report of the construction commission mentions encaustic coloring of only parts of the internal ornament (for example, the lesbian heel of the architrave), but often it is about gilding. Pentelian marble, white with a warm yellowish tinge, a dark ribbon of a frieze of Eleusinian limestone with prominent figures on it, and gilding of the ornamented parts - such, perhaps, was the color scheme of the outer parts of the Erechtheion.

Less than twenty years have passed from the construction of the Parthenon to the beginning of the construction of the Erechtheion, and yet these two monuments differ sharply from one another in terms of their ideological content. The sublime heroism of the previous decades fades into the background, not monumental and heroic themes begin to prevail in the images of art and literature, but profound psychological motives, on the one hand, and the desire for refined grace of form, on the other. The author of the Erechtheion no longer adheres to the traditional forms of Greek religious architecture and, having received the task of combining a number of ancient relics under one roof, uses the techniques of bold innovation: many features of the structure in the plan resemble not the established type of Greek temple, but the front gate of the Acropolis - Propylaea. At the same time, the architect combines Ionic porticos with por-; teak caryatids (cor), in which the classical column is replaced by a sculptural statue. This is another feature that violates the strictness of the composition in the temples of the middle of the 5th century. BC.

In addition to the kinship of the plans of the Erechtheion and the Propylaea, the commonality of a number of architectural techniques in these two structures is indicated by: the form of antes with two obverse sides - in the northern portico of the Erechtheion and at the corners of the eastern facade of the Propylaea; the use of window openings for lighting (east portico and pinakothek); the use of solid masonry as an artistic element of architecture (the southern wall of the Erechtheion and the right wing of the Propylaea); the use of the Eleusinian stone in the polychrome of the building; the solution of the composition at different levels and, finally, the balance of the parts by means of free artistic combination instead of simple symmetry - the general principle of the entire ensemble of the Acropolis.

Several monuments located both in Athens and outside it are also important for understanding Attic architecture of the heyday.

100. Athens. Agora in the 5th century BC: 1 - southern standing; 2 - foul; 3 - old booleuter; 4 - new booleuter; 5 - Hephaisteion; 6 - standing Zeus; 7 - altar of the Twelve Gods
101. Athens. The Temple of Hephaestus, or Hephaisteion (formerly known as Theseion), between 440-430 AD BC e.: 1 - facade; 2 - cross section in front of the pronaos; 3 - order of the outer colonnade; 4 - entablature of the pronaos portico; 5 - plan

Hephaisteion (Temple of Hephaestus) near the agora of the market square (Fig. 100) in Athens (previously erroneously called Theseion) - the best preserved monument of the Pericles era. The temple is made entirely of Pentelian marble in the Doric order and has 13.72X31.77 m along the stylobate, the number of columns is 6 X 13 (Fig. 101-105). Cella has pronaos, naos and opisthodes; it was found that a little later, an internal colonnade was built into the cella, now destroyed.

Hephaisteion was built shortly after the completion of the Parthenon (probably between 440 and 430 BC) and is largely an imitation of it. However, it is very far from the power of the artistic image and the compositional perfection of the Parthenon. The mechanical repetition of the compositional scheme of the Parthenon and a number of its details could not, of course, give the same artistic effect. So, for example, the proportions of the external order of the Parthenon, almost exactly repeated in Hephaisteion in relation to an order of a different (smaller) size, determined a completely different scale character of the structure, and the U-shaped internal colonnade in plan only crowded out the cella of Hephaisteion and turned out to be so close to the walls of the room that lost tectonic persuasiveness (Fig. 101).

A peculiar compositional feature of Hephaisteion was a technique that distinguished both end parts of the pteron space. The anta porticoes of the pronaos and the opistodom were completed with an entablature, consisting of an architrave and a sculptural frieze, continued until the intersection with the entablature of the outer colonnade. This kind of method of highlighting the end porticos of the outer colonnade becomes, apparently, specific to the Attic architecture of the late 5th century. BC, as it is repeated in the temple of Nemesis at Ramnunt and at the temple of Poseidon at Cape Sunius.

In Hephaisteion, the technique of highlighting the eastern portico facing the agora was further enhanced by sculptural metopes, which were installed not only on the eastern facade, but in the adjacent two extreme spans of the lateral facades (four metopes on each side).

107. Eleusis. Telesterion Iktin: cuts, plan (the realized parts are filled with black), view of the ruins

Telesterion at Eleusis ("Hall of Initiation")built by Iktinus, the architect of the Parthenon, probably in the 3rd quarter of the century (435-430 BC), occupies a special place among the Greek religious buildings.

This is an indoor meeting room intended for the ancient mysterious Eleusinian mysteries associated with the cult of the goddess of agriculture, Demeter (Fig. 106). The nature of these ceremonies required a closed room, and the meager remains of such a room, found in the same place, date back to the end of the 7th century. BC.

The rectangular hall of the ancient Telesterion, divided by two rows of internal supports, was oriented to the north-east. On the opposite side, a narrow aditon adjoined it - the holy of holies of the structure. This room - the so-called anactoron (palace) of the goddess - remained intact during all subsequent reconstructions, made up to Roman times.

After Eleusis became the deme of Attica, the expansion of the sanctuary was required, which was undertaken by the Pisistratis towards the end of the 6th century. BC e. This second Telesterion, which was apparently the earliest covered room of the Greeks intended for large gatherings, had already received many of the distinctive features of the "future grandiose construction: a square hall enclosed by blank walls was surrounded on three sides by stepped rows of seats; to the fourth wall, in which had three doors, a nine-column portico adjoined; the roof was supported by five rows of columns (possibly Ionic). Anaktoron adjoined the western corner of the building, which, apparently, was richly decorated; painted parts of the antefixes, pediment sima with a deer head and pieces of marble shingles.

The building was burned down by the Persians and around 465 BC. under Kimon, they began to rebuild it. The dimensions of the hall have been significantly increased, as well as the number of internal supports. But the reconstruction was never completed.

Ictin's telesterion in the plan represented almost regular square, on the western side adjacent to the rock, in which a terrace was carved at the level of half the height of the building. On three other sides, Telesterion may have been surrounded by a colonnade. At both ends of the terrace, in the rock, two stairs were carved, connecting it to the level of the stylobate in a single wide bypass around the entire building (it is now suggested that Iktin designed the portico on only one side, leaving the side stairs open).

Inside Telesterion, along the perimeter of its walls, there were eight rows of narrow steps, partly carved into the rock during the reign of Cimon. On them stood the spectators of the mystery performance, which took place, apparently, in the center of the building. Rejecting the frequent grid of numerous columns, provided according to the Kimonov scheme (49 columns were supposed: seven rows of seven columns in each), Iktin boldly reduced their number to 20, arranging them in four rows, with five columns in each. This spacious spacing of internal supports undoubtedly indicates that the purlins and other floor elements were made of wood. The two-tiered colonnades carried a roof and galleries above the spectators' seats; these galleries could probably be accessed through the above-mentioned terrace on the west side of Telesterion (Fig. 107).

According to a convincing, but still based only on guesswork, reconstruction, the roof of Telesterion was pyramidal with a light hole in the middle. The central part of the hall, located under this opening, in which the most important part of the mysteries took place, could be closed from the audience by curtains, as is known, used in the cellas of some temples (for example, in Olympia). Thus, Iktin gave a completely new solution to the interior of a large building and the ceiling above it.

After the death of Pericles, the construction of Telesterion probably passed into new hands. The Iktin project was abandoned, and the new builders returned to the "Kimon" scheme. Pteron remained unfulfilled, the roof received a more conventional gable shape (with a ridge located along the east-west axis), and 42 columns (six rows of seven) were installed inside the room, slightly widened towards the rock. Yet the skylight designed by Iktin was apparently made (Fig. 106 below).

In the middle of the IV century. BC. the construction of a Doric 12-column portico on the east side began, the construction of which was continued at the end of the same century by Philo. This portico, although it was not completely finished (the flutes of the columns were never completed), existed in Roman times. In Telesterion, perhaps for the first time in Greek architecture, complex issues related to the large indoor assembly hall were raised and resolved, and the Eleusinian temple undoubtedly played a very important role in the development of this architectural type.

110. Bass. Temple of Apollo. Facade. Plans (schematic and general), detail of the outer colonnade
		112. Bass. Temple of Apollo. Details of the Doric order: 1 - capital anta; 2 - cornice over the Anta portico of the pronaos; 3 - the capital of the pteron column; 4 - bummer crowning the metope; 5 - stage of pronaos
115. Bass. Temple of Apollo. Corinthian column. Cella reconstruction in axonometry according to Choisy with changes according to V. Markuson. Fragments of the frieze
116. Bass. Temple of Apollo. Ionic order, fragment of frieze

Temple of Apollo Epicurius in Bassa, near Figalia (Arcadia) - one of the most remarkable buildings of the last third of the 5th century. BC. (fig. 108-111). Located in a desert and wilderness, high in the mountains (ISO m above sea level), from where a wide view of the surrounding valleys opened up to the Gulf of Messene, the temple, after many centuries of oblivion, was reopened only in the second half of the 18th century. and was first examined in detail in 1810. The Greek traveler Pausanias, who still saw the temple intact and admired it, reports that it was built in gratitude for the deliverance from the plague in 430 BC. Iktin, the architect of the famous Athenian Parthenon. This circumstance, as well as a number of remarkable features of the architecture of the temple, attracted a lot of attention to it by later researchers.

Except for a few details, the temple is made of fine bluish-gray marbled limestone and is a rather elongated Doric peripter (6X15 columns) measuring 14.63 X 38.29 m along the stylobate (Fig. 110). In appearance, the temple (with the exception of its length) differs little from the established type of the Doric peripter of the middle of the 5th century. BC e., but the absence of curvatures, entasis at the trunks of the columns, their strict verticality (including corner columns), as well as the ants of the pronaos and opisthodom, the characteristic processing of the masonry seams (in the steps of the stylobate) emphasized elements of regularity. This austere, almost dry architecture embodied an image full of inner composure and energetic strength. This nature of architecture was determined primarily by the proportions of the order, the features of which are clarified when comparing it with the Order of the Parthenon. Despite their great similarity, the differences are still very significant: the columns of the Figali temple are squat; the entablature and capitals are larger in relation to the height of the column than in the Parthenon; the dry outline of the echina rises steeper to the higher abacus (Fig. 110, 112). The proportions of the order determine the large-scale expressiveness of this essentially small structure and lead to the fact that it is not visually suppressed by the harsh mountainous nature surrounding it.

Only when approaching the temple, the viewer discovered its subtle details: the tall sims crowning the pediments were made of marble and decorated, in contrast to the traditional Doric painting, with beautiful ornamental cutting. Thanks to the sparse use of decor, carved sims acquired special significance and enriched the entire strict appearance of the temple (* It is possible that there were sculptures in the rather deep pediments of the temple), in the exquisite simplicity of which the conscious restraint of the architect was reflected. The role of decoration was also played by the wonderful coffered ceilings of the pronaos and the marble roof of the temple made of marble. But besides this, in the external architecture of the temple there were no indications of a completely unusual solution to its Ionic interior, which opened to the viewer through a very wide (compared to the whole) opening of the main entrance and presented an unexpected contrast with the strict Doric of the facades.

The cella of the temple, which receded strongly at the ends from the outer colonnade (another row of columns could be located here), being located with its longitudinal axis in the north-south direction, consisted (not counting the deep pronaos and opisthodom) of two unequal interconnecting rooms. This unusual composition and orientation of the temple is possibly related to the fact that Iktin included in his construction the cella of an older small temple located here. At the same time, the new cella was attached at right angles to the old temple on its northern side; its southern longitudinal wall became the rear wall of the new cella, and the northern side wall separating the two cellas was demolished. Therefore, the new cella turned out to be elongated in the direction from south to north, where the main entrance to the temple was located. The entrance to the old temple on the east side has also been preserved.

The architectural composition of the main part of the cella is completely unusual: it was framed on both sides by five short walls protruding from the side walls of the cella, forming on the sides a row of small niches, similar to those that were in the temple of Hera in Olympia (Fig. 114). The last, fifth, pair of walls was turned at an angle of 45 ° to the walls of the cella.

The ends of these transverse walls are processed in the form of ionic semi-columns (Fig. 116). On the walls lay an entablature with a sculptural frieze that ran around the entire cella in a continuous ribbon. He depicted the struggle of the centaurs with the Lapiths and the Greeks with the Amazons. This frieze, full of expression and pathos of struggle, was apparently the most important cult element of the cella, and the statue of Apollo was probably placed in the adython, which was separated from the cella by a single free-standing inner column with a Corinthian capital. In contrast to the frieze of the Parthenon, carved on the bearing wall in low relief, the figali frieze, located inside the temple, is carried out in a strong relief with rich chiaroscuro. The stylistic features of his sculpture gave rise to a later dating of the temple (the end of the 5th century BC). But the frieze, carved on removable marble boards, could have been installed at the end of the construction of the temple itself.

There is also another opinion about the time of the construction of the temple. Dinsmoor, who regards its forms as immature, attributes all construction to the time before the construction of the Parthenon. An analysis of the composition of the temple shows, however, that the next step in the architectural development of the interior space of the cella was made in it compared to the Parthenon, and the details and profiles of the order testify to the exceptional maturity of the architect, who purposefully changed the generally accepted breakdowns in accordance with the specific functions of one or another element. The best researcher of the Greek breakaways - L. Shu relates them, as well as the entire temple to about 420 BC, strongly disagreeing with Dinsmoor.

The architect perfectly revealed the meaning of the frieze and made it an essential element of the temple interior, tearing the frieze off the walls of the cella and carrying it forward, to the center of the room. When solving the pillars on which the entablature with the frieze rested, the architect did not want to mechanically reproduce the usual forms of the Ionic order, which had developed in connection with free-standing pillars, but tried to show that the half-columns are only the processing of the ends of the transverse walls. The bases and capitals made of marble (preserved only in separate fragments) emphasized the tectonicity of the walls and the conventional character of the semi-columns. The bases are strongly broadened downwards and separated from the floor by a slit. The volutes of the Ionic capitals are given a steep, unusually plastic bend that does not touch the abacus, thereby emphasizing that not the columns, but the walls are load-bearing. Thus, following the specific processing of antes in Greek temples, the interpretation of the Ionic half-columns of the temple in Bassa is an extremely important step in this conditional application of order forms to characterize the wall.

The cult statue was most likely installed in the adython, facing the eastern door and looking at it through the main northern entrance was seen from an unusual point of view (Fig. 113).

The only free-standing column separating the adyton and organically closing the main part of the cella, as it were, indicated the inaccessibility of the adyton. Its special importance in the spatial composition of the interior was emphasized by the Corinthian capital, the earliest example we know: perhaps the entire column was marble. Its base expanded very little downward, which emphasized the constructive significance of this separately standing support. The Corinthian capital, known only from the drawings of Cocquerel and Hallerstein (the capital was broken immediately after the excavations), is a further development of the capital of the Massali treasury in Delphi in the 6th century. BC. (fig. 115). Its inner spirals were large, the abacus was heavy: only one row of leaves went downward.

Given the place and role of the Corinthian column in the composition of the cella, it is necessary to reject the reconstruction of the interior proposed by the archaeologist Dinsmoor. Relying on a new interpretation of some fragments, he argued that the temple had not one, but three Corinthian capitals: one at a free-standing column and two at the semi-columns of diagonal walls on its sides. But a Greek architect would hardly have made the same capitals on such pillars that are so different in their constructive essence and tectonic interpretation (compare, for example, their bases). Dinsmoor's reconstruction does not fit either with the architectural and compositional solution of the cella, or with the nature of the artistic thinking of the Greeks. Rather, it can be assumed that on the diagonal transverse walls on the sides of the column, the side volutes of the Ionic capitals did not break off in the middle, but had a second curl (in the old cella reconstructions, such curls were mistakenly indicated on all half-columns), representing a special type of three-sided Ionic capital, which is different in shape and from the Corinthian capital of a free standing column and from the capitals of the remaining Ionic semi-columns.

The issue of overlapping the cella is not clear. If the fragments found during the excavations were enough for the reconstruction of the marble ceilings of the pteron, then the ceiling of the cella usually depicted in the drawing is the whole guess of Kokkerel. In the ceiling of the Pteron, which was not inferior in luxury to the ceiling of the Acropolis Propylaea, Iktin used technical innovations - in the northern and southern porticos, the earliest of the U-shaped (channel) section beams that have come down to us, made in marble and possibly reinforced with iron, were installed.

As for the ceiling of the cella, its device is associated with the problem of its lighting, which is necessary for viewing the frieze. The fragments of the marble "tiles" found on the roof suggested that at least some of them had holes that allowed light to penetrate into the cella.

It is easy to see that in the temple of Apollo in Bassa, while maintaining the external appearance of a traditional peripteral temple and despite the traditional for the Peloponnese elongated proportions of the plan and niches along the walls of the cella, the temple had a completely new interior. The extraordinary plan of the temple, as well as all its other features, are understandable only in their mutual connection as elements of a holistic composition. At the heart of this composition and all its constituent elements is a vivid contrast to the traditional restrained appearance of a newly-resolved rich interior, in which the dominant importance of the frieze and the inaccessibility of aditon in the depths of the cella are emphasized.

Comparison of the three structures of Iktin that have come down to us (Parthenon, Telesterion and the temple in Bassa) allows us to outline some of the individual features of this master, in whose work the main tendencies of Greek architecture found their expression at the time of its highest flowering. Iktin's tendency leaves no doubt; to the search for new paths in art, starting with general solutions for the entire composition and plan and ending with individual architectural elements (Corinthian column, three-sided Ionic capitals, etc.); his interest in the interior (expressed in all three of the master's buildings known to us); his technical innovation (Telesterion skylight, U-beam in Bassa); innovative use of a wide variety of artistic and expressive means and the combination of elements of different orders in one structure (in the Parthenon and in the temple in Bass); the desire to organically include sculpture in the composition (the frieze of the Figali temple, which is the next step in this direction in comparison with the frieze of the Parthenon), as well as the consistent development of a number of compositional techniques related to the interior (the use of a centrally located column for the organic completion of the interior - cf. Parthenon). Vitruvius, listing the works he used, names Iktin among other authors of architectural treatises. The artist's interest in the theory of his art, witnessed in this way, is an essential touch that complements the characterization of Iktin as an outstanding representative of the advanced Athenian architecture of the 3rd quarter of the 5th century. BC, in the remarkable monuments of which new tendencies were found the earliest and most vivid expression, which determined the further development of the entire Hellenic architecture.

Despite the clashes between various Greek communities and their associations, the growth of private slave ownership and the strengthening of trade ties between different parts of the Greek world destroyed the internal structure of the classical Greek city-state and broke external economic barriers between individual Greek city-states, contributing to a closer fusion of various currents of Greek culture into the mainstream. These tendencies are reflected in the architecture of the Temple of Apollo in Bassa, in which not only traditional techniques are boldly violated, but also compositional techniques are combined into a single whole. art forms, which were previously the specific features of the architecture of various regions of Greece - Attica and Peloponnese.

Local traditions influenced the interior of the temple, the transverse walls of which resemble such important and ancient religious buildings of the Peloponnese as the Temple of Artemis Orphia in Sparta and Heraion in Olympia *

* The stability of this tradition can also be traced in the monuments of the later era - the temples in Tegea and Lusi.

The features of the Figali temple, allowing it to be brought closer to the Athenian monuments of the time of Pericles, were noted above. This is an increased interest in the interior space and the complication of the composition of the interior, the desire for an organic combination of various order systems in one structure, for the development of new architectural forms and for the new use of old ones, and a number of other features, which reflected the search for such architectural and artistic means that allowed to express a new ideological and artistic content in the typical forms of the Doric peripter sanctified by tradition and cult. Such aspirations are characteristic of the temple in Bassa and the Erechtheion, as well as for contemporary tragedies of Euripides.

Folos at the sanctuary of Athena Pronaia in Delphi, built around 400 BC, is the first of three circular structures in the Peloponnese (Fig. 117, 118). The round cella of the folos was surrounded by twenty Doric columns. The interior reflected the influence of Iktin - on the profiled plinth made of dark Eleusinian stone there should have been 10 Corinthian columns (without one, missed because of the wide doorway) attached to the wall. Their axes were opposite the middle of every second external intercolumnium. The shape of the Corinthian capital (next in time to the capital in Bassa) with its clearly delineated bell and two crowns of low acanthus leaves is clearly reminiscent of Iktin's. However, the corner volutes here began with two large spirals.

Delphic folios were distinguished by their elegance and richness of decoration. Its Doric columns - three of which were restored in 1938, slender (R \u003d 6.3 D) \\ along the edge of the roof, behind the sima, there were a number of additional carved decorations, there was a sculpture in the metopes. The curvature of the surface of the triglyphs, corresponding to the radius of the circle of the entablature, testifies to the high skill of the builder and sculptor.

The architect of folos - Theodore of Phocaea - wrote, according to the testimony of Vitruvius (VII, 12), a treatise about his work.

Temple of Nemesis in Ramnunt was built around 430 BC. e. next to a small temple destroyed by the Persians in antes of the end of the 6th century. BC e. (Temple of Themis). The Temple of Nemesis was a marble Doric peripter, which had six on the front sides, and only twelve on the longitudinal ones. Its dimensions along the stylobate are about 10.1X21.3 m. The cella had a two-column antae pronaos and the same opisthode; the entablature above the antae had a continuous frieze that reached the entablature of the pteron, which testified to the widespread distribution of ionisms in the Attic Doric of this era. Eight damaged columns stand to this day; their flutes were left unfinished.

120. Cape Suny. Sanctuary and Temple of Poseidon. Reconstruction of the general view from the side and front sides of the temple
121. Cape Suny. Temple of Poseidon. Facade, plan, section, entablature over the ant and pteron

Temple of Poseidon at Cape Sunii built, perhaps, a little later than the temple in Ramnunt. Its ruins rise picturesquely on the top of a 60-meter cliff, which marked the sailors' exit to the Aegean Sea and, since the time of Homer, dedicated to the god of the sea. The excellent location of the temple perfectly characterizes the ability of Greek architects to connect the creations of architecture with nature, to whose deified forces they were dedicated (Fig. 119).

It was a Doric peripter with the canonical number of columns (6X13), made (with the exception of the frieze) from local marble and, apparently, repeating the basic forms of the earlier temple, in the place of which it was erected (Fig. 120, 121). The length of the temple along the stylobate is 31.15 m, width 13.48 m. The columns are very slender, they have a height of 6.1 m and a diameter of about 1 m. The number of flutes is 16 instead of the usual 20. In the temple of Poseidon, a continuous Ionic frieze is again used, crossing the pteron at the eastern end of the cella. It is possible that a frieze was also present at the western end of the cella, as in the temple of Nemesis at Ramnunt. A block of architrave still lies in its place, thrown from the north-eastern anta to the third column of the northern facade (Fig. 122, 123). The frieze was made of Parian marble, as in Hephaisteion, but, in contrast, it was covered with a bas-relief on all four inner sides of the part of the pteron located in front of the pronaos.

The Temple at Cape Sunius is one of the most attractive and poetic works of Greek architecture of the heyday.

Boleuterium in Athens - a public building built on the agora by the end of the 5th century. BC e. (it is conventionally called New, in contrast to the Old that replaced it, built at the end of the 6th century BC), anticipates the famous Boleuterium in Miletus (see Fig. 100). It is a rectangular hall with semicircular seating positions that rise in the form of an amphitheater. The roof of the building was supported by internal supports. On one side there was a portico, in which the state laws carved on stone slabs were established.

In addition to the Old and New Athenian buleuteriums, the development of the corresponding types of public structures was played by the Odeilion of Pericles (about 440-435 BC), which has not survived to us, which is attributed to Iktinus, and the above-mentioned Telesterion.

In connection with the development of Greek drama (tragedy and comedy) in the 5th century. BC e. the architecture of the Greek stone theater was also formed. However, its main elements acquire an established, well-developed character already in the 4th century. BC, and therefore this type of structure is considered in the next chapter.

Designated in the State Standard, the student must know / understand:

Know the main types and genres of art; studied directions and styles of world art culture; masterpieces of world art culture.

- Understand the peculiarities of the language of various types of art.

To be able to recognize the studied works and relate them to a certain era, style, direction; to establish stylistic and plot connections between works of different types of art; use various sources of information about world artistic culture; perform educational and creative tasks (reports, messages);

Use the acquired knowledge in practice and everyday life for: choosing the paths of their cultural development; organization of personal and collective leisure; expressing your own judgment about the works of classics and contemporary art; independent artistic creation.

№	the date	Lesson topic	Content elements	Questions Project activities	Tasks
1	September 02-06	ARTISTIC CULTURE OF THE PRIME WORLD - 3 hours Myth is the basis of early ideas about the world. Cosmogonic myths. Ancient images	Reflection of ideas about the world and life in myths. Myth as a fact of attitude. Cosmogonic myths. Ancient images at the heart of the vertical and horizontal model of the world: world tree, world mountain, road. Magic ritual as a way of illusory mastery of the world. The fertility rite is a reproduction of the primary myth.	What role did myths play in the lives of primitive people? What myths belong to the category of cosmogonic ones? What is common in the myth-making of various ancient civilizations?	Lesson 1. P. 14-18
2	09-13	Slavic agricultural rites. Folklore as a reflection of the primary myth.	Reproduction of the primary myths of the ancient Slavs. Pagan fertility rites. Christmastide. Pancake week. Rusal week. Semik. Ivan Kupala. The Tale of Princess Nesmeyana as a Reflection of the Idea of \u200b\u200bFertility.	What modern rites do you know? What does the Maslenitsa rite testify to?	Lesson 2. P. 19-23 Creative task. Find ancient images and symbols in the literature taught in the school curriculum
3	16-17	The origin of art. Artistic image The main means of reflection and knowledge of the world in primitive art. Geometric ornament. Figurativeness of architectural primary elements.	The origin of art. Reflection in artistic images of ideas about the surrounding world. Rock painting of the Paleolithic and Mesolithic in the Altamira and Lasko caves. Neolithic geometric ornament as a symbol of the transition from chaos to form. The cult building is Stonehenge.	What forms of art are characteristic of the primitive world? How do artistic images of the Paleolithic, Mesolithic and Neolithic times reflect living conditions during these periods? Creative question. What superstitions are associated with ancient mythological images? Complete the Primal Culture Final Quest from the ElJour File.	Lesson 3 P. 23-29
	23-27	ARTISTIC CULTURE OF THE ANCIENT WORLD - 14 hours MESOPOTAMIA The Mesopotamian ziggurat is the dwelling of a god. Glazed bricks and rhythmic patterns are the main decorative means.	The Mesopotamian ziggurat is the dwelling of a god. Ziggurats Ette Meniguru in Ur and Etemenanki in Babylon. Glazed bricks and rhythmic patterns are the main decorative means. Ishtar Gate, Processional Road in New Babylon. The realism of images of wildlife is a specificity of the Mesopotamian fine arts.	What are the characteristics of architectural structures in the city-states of Mesopotamia? What are they caused by? What decorative means did the architects use to decorate the temples of Eteienniguru in Ur and Etamenanka in New Babylon? What realities are reflected in the Assyro-Babylonian reliefs?	Lesson 4. P. 32-37
5	October 30-04	ANCIENT EGYPT The embodiment of the idea of \u200b\u200beternal life in the architecture of the necropolises. The ground temple is a symbol of the eternal self-rebirth of the god Ra.	The embodiment of the idea of \u200b\u200bEternal Life in the architecture of the necropolises. Pyramids at Giza. The ground temple is a symbol of the eternal self-rebirth of the god Ra. Temple of Amun-Ra at Karnak.	What was the funeral cult of the ancient Egyptians? How does the architecture of the Egyptian necropolises reflect the idea of \u200b\u200beternal life?	Lesson 5. P. 38-43 Creative task. Compare the Egyptian pyramid and the Mesopotamian ziggurat. What are the similarities and differences (by purpose, decoration, location)?
6	14-18	ANCIENT EGYPT Magic. Tomb decor. Canon of the image of a figure on a plane	The role of magic in the funeral cult. The decor of sarcophagi and tombs as a guarantor of Eternal life. Canon of the image of a figure on a plane. Sarcophagus of Queen Kaui. Tomb of Ramses IX in the Valley of the Kings.	How did the design of the tombs of the nobility change in different periods of Egyptian culture? How do the decorative elements of sarcophagi indicate their role as a guardian of “sacred remains”? What is the novelty of the design of the funeral cult in the era of the New Kingdom?	Lesson 6. P. 44-49
7	21-25	ANCIENT INDIA The Hindu temple is a mystical analogue of the victim's body and the sacred mountain. The role of sculptural decoration	Hinduism as an alloy of beliefs, traditions and norms of behavior. The Hindu temple is a mystical analogue of the body-sacrifice and the sacred mountain. Temple of Kandarya Mahadev in Khajuraho.	How do the architectural forms of the Hindu temple reproduce the mythology of the Hindus? What is the role of the decoration of a Hindu temple?	Lesson 7. P. 50-54 Creative task. Compare the ziggurat in Mesopotamia, the pyramid at Yegita, and the Hindu temple in India. How does architecture reflect the prototype of the world's mountain? What is the difference between myth-making in these regions?
8	28-03	ANCIENT INDIA Buddhist religious buildings - a symbol of space and divine presence	Religious buildings of Buddhism as a symbol of space and divine presence. Big stupa in Sanchi. Features of Buddhist sculpture: the relief of the gates of the Great Stupa in Sanchi. Fresco painting of the cave temples of Ajanta.	What are the main types of Buddhist temple architecture? What is the difference and decoration? Why are Ajanta paintings called encyclopedias of Indian life? How do they correlate (in plots, images, mood) with the stone high relief of Hindu temples?	Lesson 8. P. 55-59
9	November04-08	ANCIENT AMERICA Temple architecture of the Mesamerican Indians as the embodiment of the myth of the sacrifice that gave life	The sacrificial ritual in the name of life is the basis of cult architecture and relief. The Pyramid of the Sun at Teotihuacan is a prototype of the temple architecture of the Mesamerican Indians. Temple of the god Huitzilopochtli in Tenochtitlan. Mayan complex in Palenque.	What myth of the Nahua Indians is the basis of the Festival of the Dead in modern Mexico? Formulate the key idea of \u200b\u200bthe visual arts of the Mesamerican Indians. Give examples. Project activities. Trace the influence of ancient images on modern life. How the aesthetics of the Egyptian, Indian, ancient American	Lesson 9. P. 60-67
10	11-15	CRETO-MIKENA CULTURE Cretan-Mycenaean architecture and decor as a reflection of myth	Cretan-Mycenaean architecture and decor as a reflection of the myth of Europe and Zeus, Theseus and the Minotaur. The Knossos Labyrinth of King Minos in Crete. Palace of King Agamemnon in Mycenae.	Compare the architecture of Knossos and Mycenaean palaces. Find the differences. What kind of decor was used to decorate the palace of King Minos?	Lesson 10. P. 68-73
11	18-22	ANCIENT GREECE Greek temple - an architectural image of the union of people and gods	Mythology is the basis of the worldview of the ancient Greeks. The Acropolis of Athens as an Expression of the Beauty Ideal of Ancient Greece. The Parthenon is an example of high classics.	What are the main signs of architectural orders that arose in Greece during the archaic period? What gods were the Greek temples dedicated to? What are the characteristic features of the classics of the architectural ensemble of the Athenian Acropolis? Why is the Parthenon considered the most perfect temple of the Doric order?	Lesson 11. P. 74-79
12	December 02-06	ANCIENT GREECE Evolution of Greek relief from archaic to high classics	Evolution of Greek relief from archaic to high classics. Temple of Athena at Selinunte. Temple of Zeus at Olympia. Metopes and Ionic frieze of the Parthenon as a reflection of the mythological, ideological, aesthetic program of the Athenian Acropolis.	What new did Phidias bring to the relief? Why is his work the pinnacle of Greek plastic art? What idea was expressed by the Ionic frieze of the Parthenon? How does the appearance of the Parthenon combine the strict forms of the classics with the decorative brilliance of archaia?	Lesson 12. P. 80-83
13	09-13	ANCIENT GREECE Sculpture of Ancient Greece from Archaic to Late Classics	Sculpture of Ancient Greece: Evolution from Archaic to Late Classics. Kuros and barks. The Dorifor statue is an example of the geometric style of Polykleitos. The sculpture of Phidias is the pinnacle of Greek plastic art. New beauty of the late classics. Scopas. Maenad.	What, in your opinion, is the beauty of archaic sculpture? What role does clothing play in the interpretation of the image? How does sculpture allow you to represent the worldview of the Greeks in the era of the early, high, late classics?	Lesson 13. P. 84-88
14	16-20	ANCIENT GREECE A synthesis of oriental and antique traditions in Hellenism. The gigantism of architectural forms. Expression and naturalism of sculptural decoration	A synthesis of oriental and antique traditions in Hellenism. Sleeping hermaphrodite. Agesander. Venus of Melos. The gigantism of architectural forms. Expression and naturalism of sculptural decoration. Pergamon altar.	What features are characteristic of the art of Hellenism? What is the reason for the appearance of two faces of beauty in the plastic arts of Hellenism? What painting techniques did Hellenistic sculptors use to convey drama and expression?	Lesson 14. P. 88-93
15	23-27	ANCIENT ROME Features of Roman urban planning. Public buildings from the periods of the republic and empire	Architecture as a mirror of the greatness of the state. Specificity of Roman urban planning. Roman Forum, Colosseum, Pantheon.	What structures created the appearance of the cities of Ancient Rome? What architectural element constitutes the core of any Roman structure - a bridge, aqueduct, amphitheater, triumphal arch? How do you understand the expression: “Augustus took Rome brick, but left it marble? Give examples.	Lesson 15. P. 94-99
16	January 30.12-09.01	ANCIENT ROME Layout of a Roman house. Fresco and mosaic - the main means of decoration	Layout of a Roman house. Frescoes and mosaics are the main means of decoration. House of the Vettii, home of the Tragic poet in Pompeii. Sculptural portrait. Julius Brutus, Octavian Augustus, Constantine the Great.	What was special about the Roman house? What artistic means did the Romans use to decorate their homes? Give examples. Project activities. Find architectural structures in Moscow built in the Doric, Ionic, Corinthian orders. What decorative elements help to determine their compliance with a particular order. Gather information and explain how the strict observance of proportions inherent in Antiquity affects the creation of everyday clothes, decorating interiors, and planning gardens.	Lesson 16. P. 100-105 Creative task. Compose a story in any genre where imagining yourself a resident of Ancient Rome, you describe your home.
17	13-17	EARLY CHRISTIAN ART Types of Christian temples: rotunda and basilica. Mosaic decor. Christian symbolism	Types of temples: rotunda and basilica. The order of placement of mosaic decor. Christian symbolism. Mausoleums of Constance in Rome, Galla Placidia in Ravenna. Basilica of Santa Maria Maggiore in Rome.	What types of temples became widespread during the early Christian era? What is common in the decor of early Christian temples of any type? What places stand out especially when decorating the interior with mosaics in central domed churches and basilicas? What is the interpretation of the images of ancient Roman mosaics in Christian art? Complete the Final Artistic Culture of the Ancient World from the ElJour File.	Lesson 17. P. 105-111
18	20-24	ARTISTIC CULTURE OF THE MIDDLE AGES - 14 hours Byzantium and Ancient Russia - 7 hours Byzantine central domed temple as the abode of God on earth. Space symbolism	Byzantine central domed temple as the abode of God on earth. St. Sophia Cathedral in Constantinople. Architectural symbolism of the cross-domed church. The order of placement of decor. Cosmic symbolism of the cross-domed church.	What are the features of the Byzantine style? What determines the cosmic symbolism of the Byzantine cathedral? How does the decor of the cross-domed church reflect the symbolic idea of \u200b\u200bthe Eternal Church?	Lesson 18. P. 114-118
19	27-31	Byzantium and Ancient Russia Topographic and temporary symbols of the temple. Stylistic variety of cross-domed temples of Ancient Russia	Topographic and temporary symbolism of the cross-domed church and its stylistic diversity.	How is the earthly life of Jesus Christ reflected in the architecture of the cross-domed church? Explain how the feeling of the eternal circulation of time is achieved in the decoration of a Byzantine temple? What are the differences typical for local building schools of Ancient Russia?	Lesson 19. P. 119-123
20	February 3-7	Byzantium and Ancient Russia Byzantine style in mosaic decor	Byzantine style: St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev. Vladimir-Suzdal construction school: Church of the Intercession on the Nerl. Novgorod construction school: Church of the Transfiguration of the Savior on Ilyin. Byzantine style in mosaic decor. St. Sophia Cathedral in Constantinople. Church of San Vitale in Ravenna. St. Sophia Cathedral in Kiev.	What pictorial techniques in the Byzantine church created the atmosphere of the supersensible world? What is the reason for the transition from the technique of colorful face sculpting to linear stylization?	Lesson 20. P. 123-126
21	10-14	Byzantium and Ancient Russia Formation of the Moscow school of icon painting. Russian iconostasis	Moscow School of Icon Painting. Russian iconostasis. Andrey Rublev. Savior of the Zvenigorod rank. Rublev's icon "Trinity" is a symbol of the national unity of the Russian lands.	Tell us about the peculiarities of Byzantine icon painting. By what artistic techniques did Theophanes the Greek achieve the impression of complete detachment of the saints from the sinful material world?	Lesson 21. P. 126 - 131 Creative task. Relying on materialCD and the text of the textbook ANALYZE how Theophanes the Greek connects the detached state with the individual characteristics of each character.
22	17-21	Byzantium and Ancient Russia Moscow School of Architecture. Early Moscow architecture. Renaissance features in the ensemble of the Moscow Kremlin. New type of tent-roofed temple	Evolution of the Moscow School of Architecture. Early Moscow school. Spassky Cathedral of the Spa-So-Andronikov Monastery. Renaissance tendencies in the Moscow Kremlin ensemble. Assumption Cathedral. Cathedral of the Archangel. Faceted Chamber. The tent-roofed temple as a figurative synthesis of the civorium temple and Renaissance architectural elements. Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye. Dionysius.	Explain why Andrei Rublev is considered the creator of the Russian iconostasis. Compare Andrei Rublev's Trinity and the early Christian mosaics from the Roman church of Santa Maria Maggiore. By what pictorial means does the artist convey to the viewer the idea of \u200b\u200buniting the Russian lands?	Lesson 22. Pages 132-135
23	March 03-07	Byzantium and Ancient Russia Fresco paintings on the theme of the Majesty of the Virgin. 10-14 Znamenny Chant	Fresco paintings on the theme of Akathist in the Church of the Nativity of the Virgin in Ferapontovo. Znamenny chant.	How does the architecture of the temple reflect the key ideas of the time? What architectural and decorative elements of cathedrals beganXvi century testify to the continuity of Moscow architecture from Vladimir-Suzdal and Renaissance? Complete the Medieval Culture Final Activity from the ElJour File.	Lesson 23. P. 135-140 Creative task. Compose a story in any genre with the obligatory inclusion in it of a description of churches: the Cathedral of St. Sophia in Constantinople, the Church of the Intercession on the Nerl, the Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin, the Church of the Ascension in Kolomenskoye
24	17-21	Western Europe - 4 hours Pre-Romanesque culture. "Carolingian Renaissance". Architecture, mosaic and fresco decoration	Pre-Romanesque culture: "Carolingian Renaissance". Architectural symbolism and mosaic decoration of the Chapel of Charlemagne in Aachen. Evolution of the basilical type of the temple. Church of Saint-Michel de Cuix in Languedoc. Fresco decoration of the pre-Romanesque basilica. Church of St. Johann in Müster.	Why is Dionysius' mural painting on the theme of Akathist in tune with the solemn major appearance of Ivan's churchesIII? How do the church melodies that sounded in the Russian churches of the beginningXvi century, with paintings on the walls? Give examples. Project activities. Find architectural structures in Moscow built in the Byzantine style. What elements of architecture and decor testify to the continuity of Russian churches from Byzantine ones? Highlight elements reminiscent of the influence of the Byzantine style on Russian culture in fashionable clothes, jewelry, theatrical decorations, and fairgrounds.	Lesson 24. P. 140-145
25	24-28	Western Europe Romanesque culture. Display of the life of a person of the Middle Ages in the architecture of the monastery basilicas, bas-reliefs, frescoes, stained glass windows	Creed of the Romanesque culture. Display of the life of a person in the Middle Ages in architecture, bas-reliefs, fresco decoration, stained glass windows of the monastery basilicas. Abbey of Saint-Pierre in Moissac. Church of St. Johann in Müster. Church of the St. Aposteln in Cologne.	On what grounds is the Aachen chapel perceived as a replica of the architecture of ancient Rome? How are the basilicas of the "Carolingian Renaissance" different from the early Christian ones? What are the features of the picturesque decor of pre-Romanesque basilicas?	Lesson 25. P. 146-152
26	April 31.03-04.04	Western Europe Gothic - 2 hours. A gothic temple is an image of the world. Internal decoration of the temple: stained glass windows, sculpture, trellises	A gothic temple is an image of the world. Church of Saint Denis near Paris. The interior decor of a Gothic temple: stained glass windows, sculpture, tapestries. Cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris. Gregorian chant.	How is the main idea of \u200b\u200bthe cultural development of the western and eastern areas expressed in the architecture and decor of the Romanesque basilica and the Byzantine cathedral? What task did the stone decoration of the Romanesque basilica fulfill? How was the Romanesque ideal of spiritual beauty reflected in sculpture and fresco painting?	Lesson 26. P. 152-158
27	14-18	Western Europe Gothic. The main stages of the development of the Gothic style. Regional features of the Gothic. France	The main stages of the development of the Gothic style. Regional features of the Gothic. France: Notre Dame Cathedral in Chartres, Saint Denis Abbey near Paris, Notre Dame Cathedral in Rouen. Germany: St. Peter's Cathedral in Cologne, Frauenkirche Church in Nuremberg. England: Cathedral of Westminster Abbey, London. Spain: Cathedral of Toledo. Italy: Church of Santa Maria Novella in Florence.	What is the difference between a Gothic cathedral and a Romanesque basilica (in terms of ideological content, functions, decor)? What role did stained-glass windows play in the interior of a Gothic cathedral? Complete the final Western European culture assignment from the file in ElJour. Complete the final assignment on the artistic culture of Western Europe from the file in ElJour.	Lesson 27. P. 158-164
28	21-25	New art - Ars no Proto-Renaissance in Italy. Ars new aesthetics in literature wa (3 hours)	Protorennesans in Italy. Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy as a reflection of Ars nova aesthetics in literature. The ancient principle of "imitate nature" in painting. Giotto. Fresco cycle in the Scrovegni Chapel in Padua.	What are the main stages of the development of the Gothic style in France characterized by? What are the features of Gothic in Germany, England, Spain, Italy? Creative question. Compare the decoration of a Byzantine cathedral, an ancient Russian church, a pre-Romanesque and Romanesque basilica, a Gothic cathedral. The answer must be presented in the form of a table.	Lesson 28. P. 165-171
29	may 28.04-02.05	New art - Ars nova Allegorical cycles of Ars nova	Arsnova's allegorical cycles on the theme of the Triumph of Repentance and the Triumph of Death. Fresco cycle by Andrea da Bonaiuti in the Spanish Chapel of the Cathedral of Santa Maria Novella in Florence. Fresco cycle of the Master of the Triumph of Death at the Camposanto cemetery in Pisa. Musical current Ars is new.	How did the new humanistic thinking manifest itself in literature? What is Giotto's innovation?	Lesson 29. P. 172-178
30	05-08	New art - Ars nova Specificity of Arenova in the North	The specificity of Ars is new in the North. Jan Van Eyck. Altar "Adoration of the Lamb" in the Church of St. Bavo in Ghent.	What semantic parallel can be seen between painting and music of Ars nova? Complete the final Ars nova art culture task from the ElJour file.	Lesson 30. Wed 178-184
31	12-16	ARTISTIC CULTURE OF THE FAR AND MIDDLE EAST IN THE MIDDLE AGES - 4 hours China The interaction of yin and yang is the basis of Chinese culture. Architecture as the embodiment of mythological and religious-moral representations of Ancient China Japan Japanese gardens as the quintessence of Shinto mythology and philosophical and religious views of Buddhism	The eternal harmony of yin and yang is the foundation of Chinese culture. The ensemble of the Temple of Heaven in Beijing is an example of a fusion of mythological and religious-moral ideas of Ancient China. The cult of nature is the credo of Japanese architecture. Japanese gardens as a fusion of Shinto mythology and Buddhist philosophical and religious views. Garden of Eden of Byodoin Monastery in Uji. Ryoanji Philosophical Stone Garden in Kyoto. Tea garden "Pines and Lutes" Villa Katsura near Kyoto.	What determines the characteristics of Ars nova in the Netherlands? What features inherent in the Gothic style does the Ghent altarpiece of Jan Van Eyck retain? Why is the Ghent altarpiece of Jan Van Eyck considered an example of Renaissance painting? Complete the final task on the culture of Ars nova from the file attached in ElJour. How is the idea of \u200b\u200bharmony between Heaven and Earth reflected in the architectural forms of the Temple of Heaven? What is the sacred character of the interior design of the Harvest Prayer Hall?	Lesson 31. P. 184-
32	19-23	Middle East - 2 hours The image of paradise in the architecture of mosques. Near East	The image of paradise in the architecture of mosques and public buildings. Column Mosque in Cordoba. Domed Blue Mosque in Istanbul. Registan Square in Samarkand.	Why are gardens a special kind of Japanese art? How does the idea of \u200b\u200bfinding an "empty heart" find expression in the arrangement of philosophical gardens? Complete the final task on the culture of the Far East from the file in ElZhura.	Lesson 32. P. 192-201 Lesson 33. P. 202-209
34	26-30	The image of a Muslim paradise in the architecture of palaces The image of a Muslim paradise in the architecture of palaces	The Umayyad Mosque in Cordoba. Domed Blue Mosque in Istanbul. Registan Square in Samarkand. The image of a Muslim paradise in the architecture of palaces. Alhambra in Granada.	What are the differences in the organization of the interior space and the decor of the columnar mosque and basilica? What decorative means did the architects resort to to create the image of the Garden of Eden in domed mosques? What are the elements of the Garden of Eden in the Alhambra? What ornament, invented by the Arabs, was used to decorate the chambers and inner palaces of the Alhambra? Complete the Middle Eastern Culture Final Activity from the ElJour File. Project activities. Find examples of how Arab-Muslim décor, which influenced the artistic life of Western Europe, is reflected in our everyday life. Show in the World Cup is the specificity of the combination of the Arab-Muslim idea and the national artistic tradition.	Lesson 34. P. 210-216 Lesson 35. P. 216-225

EDUCATIONAL PROGRAM OF THE COURSE

WORLD ART

Grade 11

based on the program Emohonova L.G.

Basic level

Textbook: Grade 11: Emohonova L.G. World art culture: textbook for grade 10: secondary (complete) general education (basic level): Publishing Center "Academy". 2009

Compiled by: Slepko Zoya Ivanovna - teacher of fine arts, the highest qualification category

2013 - 2014 academic year

EXPLANATORY NOTE

The work program is based on:

Order of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation of 05.03.2004, No. 1089 "On the approval of the federal component of state educational standards for primary general, basic general and secondary (complete) general education";

Order of the Ministry of Education and Science of the Russian Federation of 09.03.2004, No. 1312 "On the approval of the federal basic curriculum and approximate curricula for educational institutions of the Russian Federation implementing general education programs ”;

L.G.'s programs Emohonova "World art culture" Grade 10-11 // Programs of educational institutions: World art culture "Academic school textbook". 10-11 grades. - M .: "Education", 2008.

The program is designed for 35 teaching hours at the rate of 1 hour per week.

The World Artistic Culture program is based on the State Standard of Secondary (Complete) Education (basic level), taking into account the recommendations of the sample program.

Based on the compulsory part of the training course, fixed in the standard and disclosed in the sample program, the program, observing continuity, offers its own approach to disclosing the content, its own sequence of studying topics and sections of the subject.

The study of the MHC is aimed at achieving the following goals and objectives:

Formation among students of holistic ideas about the historical traditions and values \u200b\u200bof the artistic culture of the peoples of the world.

Studying the masterpieces of world art created in various artistic and historical eras, comprehending the characteristic features of the worldview and style of outstanding artists-creators;

Formation and development of concepts about the artistic and historical era, style and direction, understanding the most important laws of their change and development in historical civilization;

Awareness of the role and place of Man in artistic culture throughout its historical development, reflection of the eternal search for the aesthetic ideal in the best works of world art;

Education of artistic taste;

Development of feelings, emotions, figurative and associative thinking and artistic and creative abilities.

The course on world artistic culture at the basic level systematizes the knowledge about culture and art, obtained at the previous stages of study in educational institutions. It gives a holistic view of world art culture and the logic of its development in a historical perspective.

The oldest layer of culture is characterized by a direct connection between art and mythology, therefore, for the study of the culture of the Ancient World, monuments were chosen that most fully reflected the influence on the creative process of mythological consciousness, the relapses of which are sometimes found in modern life.

The study of the MHC is aimed at developing general educational skills and abilities among students:

Ability to independently and motivated to organize their cognitive activity;

Establish simple real connections and dependencies;

Assess, compare and classify the phenomena of art culture;

Search for the necessary information in sources of various types;

Use multimedia resources and computer technology to design creative works;

To understand the value of art education as a means of developing the culture of an individual; to determine one's own attitude to the works of classics and contemporary art;

In accordance with the requirements specified in the State Standard, the student must:

know / understand:

- the main types and genres of art;

- studied directions and styles of world art culture;

- masterpieces of world art culture;

- features of the language of various types of art;

be able to:

- to recognize the studied works and correlate them with a specific era, style, direction;

- to establish stylistic and plot links between works of different types of art;

- use various sources of information about world art culture;

- to carry out educational and creative tasks (reports, messages);

use the acquired knowledge in practice and everyday life for:

- choosing the ways of their cultural development;

- organization of personal and collective leisure;

- expressing your own judgment about the works of classics and contemporary art;

- independent artistic creation.

Taking into account the ideological nature of the discipline, the ratio between traditional lesson and extracurricular activities aimed at expanding horizons and actively participating in the modern cultural process is decided in favor of the latter. It is no coincidence that the names of cultural monuments are italicized in the standard, familiarity with which is desirable in order to obtain a more complete and colorful picture of artistic development, but the study of which is not necessary in the lesson. The emphasis is on acquiring skills to analyze works of art.

THE MAIN CONTENT OF THE COURSE 11 CLASS (35 HOURS)

RENAISSANCE ART CULTURE (9 HOURS)

Revival in Italy (5 hours)

Humanistic vision of the world as the basis of the Renaissance culture. Florence is the embodiment of the Renaissance idea of \u200b\u200ban “ideal” city in treatises, architecture, and painting. Leon Battista Alberti. "Ten Books on Architecture". Filippo Brunelleschi. Dome of the Cathedral of Santa Maria del Fiore. Shelter of the innocent. Annunziata Square. Church of San Spirito. The image of the square and the street in painting. Masaccio. "The Resurrection of Tovifa and the Healing of the Paralytic", "Distribution of Alms", "Healing with a Shadow". Renaissance realism in sculpture. Donatello. "Flattened" relief "Feast of Herod". Statue of David. High Renaissance. Qualitative changes in painting. New beauty of Leonardo da Vinci. Altarpiece "Madonna with a Flower", "La Gioconda" (portrait of Mona Lisa). Synthesis of painting and architecture. Raphael Santi. Murals of the Stanza della Senyatura in the Vatican: "Parnassus". Sculpture. Michelangelo Buonarroti. Medici Chapel in the Church of San Lorenzo in Florence. Features of the Venetian school of painting. Late Renaissance aesthetics. Titian. "Earthly and Heavenly Love", "Pieta". Renaissance music. The role of polyphony in the development of secular and cult musical genres. Transition from "strict writing" to madrigal. Giovanni da Palestrina. Pope Marcello's Mass. Carlo Gesualdo. Madrigal "I languish without end."

Northern Renaissance (4 hours)

Specificity of the Northern Renaissance. The grotesque carnival character of the Renaissance in the Netherlands. Pieter Bruegel the Elder (Peasant). "The Battle of Maslenitsa and Lent". Picturesque cycle "Months": "Hunters in the Snow". The mystical nature of the Renaissance in Germany. Albrecht Durer. Apocalypse engravings: Four Horsemen, Trumpet Voice. Painting "The Four Apostles". The secular nature of the French Renaissance. Fontainebleau School of Architecture and Visual Arts. Francis I Castle at Fontainebleau. Rosso Fiorentino. Gallery of Francis I. Jean Goujon. Fountain of nymphs in Paris. Renaissance in England. The dramaturgy of William Shakespeare: the tragedy "Romeo and Juliet", the comedy "The Taming of the Shrew".

ARTISTIC CULTURE OF THE XVII CENTURY (5 HOURS)

Baroque (4 hours)

New perception of the world in the Baroque era and its reflection in art. Architectural ensembles of Rome. Lorenzo Bernini. St. Peter's Square. Piazza Navona. St. Angel's Bridge. New interior design. Tent-civorium in St. Peter's Cathedral in Rome. Specificity of the Russian Baroque. Francesco Bartolomeo Rastrelli. Winter Palace and Smolny Monastery in St. Petersburg. The Catherine Palace in Tsarskoe Selo. Baroque ceiling painting. Giovanni Battista Gauli (Baciccia). "Worship of the name of Jesus" in the Church of Il Gesu in Rome. Interaction of baroque and realist tendencies in painting. Peter Powell Rubens. Altar triptychs "Raising the Cross" and "Descent from the Cross" in Notre Dame Cathedral in Antwerp. The Education of Maria Medici. Rembrandt Harmenszoon van Rijn. "Denial of the Apostle Peter". Baroque music. Cl audio Monteverdi. Opera "Orpheus". Arcangelo Corelli. Concerto grosso "For Christmas night". Johann Sebastian Bach. Passion "St. Matthew Passion".

Classicism (1 hour)

"Great royal style" of Louis XIV in architecture. Versailles. Classicism in the visual arts of France. Nicolas Poussin. "Kingdom of Flora", "Orpheus and Eurydice".

ARTISTIC CULTURE XVIII - FIRST HALF OF XIX CENTURY (8 HOURS)

Rococo (1 hour)

"Gallant Festivities" by Antoine Watteau. "Island of Cytera". Rococo interior. Picturesque pastorals by Francois Boucher. Musical bagatelle by Francois Couperin.

Neoclassicism, Empire (5 hours)

Music of the Enlightenment. Joseph Haydn. Sonata-symphonic cycle. Symphony No. 85 "Queen". Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart. Opera "Don Juan". Requiem: "Day of Wrath", "Lacrimosa". Ludwig van Beethoven. Fifth Symphony, Moonlight Sonata. The image of the "ideal" city in the classicist ensembles of Paris and St. Petersburg. Jacques Ange Gabriel. Place Louis XV in Paris. Giacomo Quarenghi. Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg. Andrey Dmitrievich Zakharov. Admiralty in St. Petersburg. Sculptural decor. Ivan Ivanovich Terebnev. "Russia's exit to the sea".

Imperial style in architecture. Specificity of the Russian Empire style. Carl Rossi. Palace Square, Mikhailovsky Palace in St. Petersburg. Empire style interior. The White Hall of the Mikhailovsky Palace in St. Petersburg.

Neoclassicism in painting. Jacques Louis David. "The Oath of the Horatii". Classicistic canons in Russian academic painting. Karl Pavlovich Bryullov. "The last day of Pompeii" . Alexander Andreevich Ivanov. "The Appearance of Christ to the People."

The origin of the classical music school in Russia. Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka. Artistic generalizations in the art of opera. Opera "A Life for the Tsar". Unusual expressive means: march of Chernomor, Persian choir from the opera Ruslan and Lyudmila. The birth of Russian symphony: the overture "Night in Madrid". New features in chamber vocal music: lyric romance "I remember a wonderful moment".

Romanticism (2 hours)

The romantic ideal and its embodiment in music. Franz Schubert. Vocal cycle "Winter way". Richard Wagner. Opera "Tannhäuser". Hector Berlioz. "Fantastic Symphony". Johannes Brahms. "Hungarian Dance No. 1". Painting of romanticism. Religious subjects and literary themes in the painting of the Pre-Raphaelites. John Everett Millais. "Christ is in the house of his parents." Dante Gabriel Rossetti. "Beata Beatrix". Exotic and mystic. Eugene Delacroix. The Death of Sardanapalus. Francisco Goya. "Colossus". The image of a romantic hero in painting. Orest Adamovich Kiprensky. “Portrait of Eugr. V. Davydov ".

ARTISTIC CULTURE OF THE SECOND HALF OF THE XIX - EARLY XX CENTURY (7 HOURS)

Realism (3 hours)

Social themes in painting. Gustave Courbet. Funeral at Ornans. Honore Daumier. Series "Judges and Lawyers". Russian School of Realism. Wanderers. Ilya Efimovich Repin. "Barge Haulers on the Volga". Vasily Ivanovich Surikov. "Boyarynya Morozova". Trends in the development of Russian music. Social theme in music. Modest Petrovich Mussorgsky. "Orphan". Appeal to the Russian rite as a manifestation of nationality in music. Nikolai Andreevich Rimsky-Korsakov. "Seeing off Maslenitsa" from the opera "Snow Maiden". Historical theme in music. Alexander Porfirevich Borodin. "Polovtsian Dances" from the opera "Prince Igor". Lyric and psychological beginning in music. Peter Ilyich Tchaikovsky. Ballet "Nutcracker". The theme of "man and rock" in music. Opera "The Queen of Spades".

Impressionism, symbolism, post-impressionism (2 hours)

The main features of impressionism in painting. Claude Oscar Monet. "Magpie". Pierre Auguste Renoir. Rowers' Breakfast. Impressionism in sculpture. Auguste Rodin. "Citizens of the City of Calais". Impressionism in music. Claude Debussy. "Gardens in the Rain", "Clouds". Symbolism in painting. Gustave Moreau. Salome (Vision). Post-impressionism. Paul Cezanne. "Bathers". Vincent Van Gogh. "Sower". Paul Gauguin. "Landscape with a peacock".

Modern (2 hours)

The embodiment of the idea of \u200b\u200babsolute beauty in modern art. Gustav Klimt. Beethoven Frieze. Modern in architecture. Victor Horta. Tassel's mansion in Brussels. Fedor Osipovich Shekhtel. The building of the Yaroslavl railway station in Moscow. Antonio Gaudi. Cathedral of the Holy Family in Barcelona. Myth-making is a characteristic feature of Russian Art Nouveau in painting. Valentin Alexandrovich Serov. Odysseus and Navzikaya, The Abduction of Europa. Mikhail Alexandrovich Vrubel. "Daemon". The specifics of Russian modernity in music. Alexander Nikolaevich Scriabin. "The Poem of Ecstasy".

ARTISTIC CULTURE OF THE XX CENTURY (6 HOURS)

Modernism (5 hours)

Modernism in painting. A new vision of beauty. Aggression of color in fauvism. Henri Matisse. "Dance". Vibration of a Painted Surface in Expressionism. Arnold Schoenberg. "Red Look". Deformation of forms in Cubism. Pablo Picasso. Avignon Maidens. Refusal to be depictive in abstractionism. Vasily Vasilievich Kandinsky. "Composition number 8". Irrationalism of the subconscious in surrealism. Salvador Dali. "Tristan and Isolde". Modernism in architecture. Constructivism by Charles Edouard Le Corbusier. Villa Savoy in Poissy. "Soviet constructivism" by Vladimir Evgrafovich Tatlin. Tower of the III International. Organic architecture by Frank Lloyd Wright. "House above the waterfall" in Ber Ran. Oscar Niemeyer's functionalism. Ensemble of the city of Brazil. Modernism in music. Stylistic heterogeneity of 20th century music. Dodecaphony of the "novovenskaya school". Anton von Webern. "The light of the eyes". "New simplicity" by Sergei Sergeevich Prokofiev. Ballet "Romeo and Juliet". Philosophical music of Dmitry Dmitrievich Shostakovich. Seventh Symphony (Leningrad). Polystylistics by Alfred Garrievich Schnittke. Requiem.

Synthesis in 20th century art. Director's theater of Konstantin Sergeevich Stanislavsky and Vladimir Ivanovich Nemirovich-Danchenko. Moscow Art Theater. Performance based on the play by Anton Pavlovich Chekhov "Three Sisters". The Epic Theater of Bertolt Brecht. " kind person from Sichuan ". Cinema. Sergei Mikhailovich Eisenstein. "Battleship Potemkin". Federico Fellini. Orchestra Rehearsal.

Postmodernism (1 hour)

Postmodern worldview is a return to mythological origins. New types of art and forms of synthesis. Andy Warhole. Press down on the cover before opening. Fernando Botero. Mona Lisa. Georgy Pusenkov. "Tower of Time Mona 500". Salvador Dali. The May West Room at the Dali Museum Theater in Figueres. Yuri Leiderman. Performance "Hasidic Duchamp".

TOTAL

: 35

TYPOLOGY OF LESSONS

IN THE SYSTEM OF ARTISTIC AND PEDAGOGICAL SUPERTIME OBJECTIVES

The lessons of world art culture are not similar either to each other or to the lessons of other subject areas. When designing lessons, the development of students is indirectly projected. And in this context, the semantic center is extremely important, the idea underlying the interaction of the teacher with children, inspiring and guiding him. This is a kind of artistic and pedagogical super task.

There are four types of artistic and pedagogical super-tasks of the lessons of world artistic culture in the 11th grade. This is immersion, comprehension, comparison, generalization.

The artistic and pedagogical super-task of immersion is set by the teacher in the case when the inspiring idea of \u200b\u200bthe lesson is the emotional-figurative living of an artistic masterpiece, personal and semantic penetration into its aura, its deep essence, its style. In the process of such immersion, the effect of presence is achieved, enhanced by the subjective perception of each participant in the lesson (both students and teachers). The emotional coloring of knowledge allows us to bring the studied epochs and styles as close to us as possible, to experience them “here and now”.

Musical, poetic accompaniment contributes to greater emotional saturation and openness of the boundaries of the lesson, giving rise to a personal vision of the work of art.

The artistic and pedagogical super task of comprehension has a pronounced cognitive and creative character. In the course of the lessons built on this semantic dominant, there is not only development, but also a personal rethinking of works of art and those cultural and historical conditions, thanks to or in spite of which they were created. Such lessons are extremely important for the formation and development of a teenager's worldview.

Comprehension involves the use of the knowledge that children have about the studied cultural phenomenon and the active stimulation of their abilities for reasoning and independent analysis of the features of art monuments.

The artistic and pedagogical super-task of comparison is aimed at emotional and analytical comparison of artistic images, their style-forming features, stages of development of types of art, worldview foundations of cultural eras.

The artistic and pedagogical super-task of generalization is the semantic core of the final lessons in various thematic sections. Lessons based on such a super task allow:

1) to generalize the socio-cultural experience accumulated by students at the time of studying a specific artistic and historical material;

2) activate the emotional and cognitive baggage received in the course of the MHC;

3) to reach a new level of understanding of the central artistic image of the era.

For the successful implementation of the artistic and pedagogical super task, the type of lesson is important. We have chosen four types: image-model, exploration, contemplation, panorama. The flexible ratio of the type of lesson and the set super task has proven its effectiveness in practice, increasing the level of emotional responsiveness and creative activity of students.

In an image-model lesson, it is important to find an emotional and artistic grain that most accurately embodies the semantic dominant of the topic. An architectural detail, pictorial technique, literary or musical form can act as such a grain.

The lesson, built according to the type of image-model, gives the teacher the opportunity to comprehensively embrace both the content and the emotional-figurative context of the material, and the students - to more fully and deeper feel the work, style, era, while finding an echo of their own thoughts and feelings in the object of art.

In an image-model lesson, you can organically combine the emotional and rational aspects of the perception of artistic culture.

As part of a research lesson, it is important not to slip into a didactic tone of presentation. This type of lesson has special requirements for the teacher. The study of the masterpieces of world artistic culture in the classroom is a process of thoughtful study, constant reasoning and reflection of the teacher together with children. The teacher in the context of the lesson (we mean the informative, artistic, and emotional-figurative context) does not declare the truth, but constantly involves the children in the process of discovering it, making only small comments from time to time.

It is proposed to combine group work with independent, individual work in the lessons of this type, which can be organized with the help of individual maps - cognitive and creative map, reflection map, research map.

Just like a lesson of the image-model type, a lesson-contemplation most fully reflects the nature of art and is designed primarily for external, sensory impact. You cannot teach children the art of contemplation with the help of instructions and imposed schemes. This process is as individual and unique as every child, every person on earth is unique. In contemplation lessons, both intonation and a special benevolent atmosphere are important, allowing you to freely express your opinion and ask questions. Any work of art exists not only in its material form (on canvas, in stone, in musical notation, in a word, on film, etc.). It really begins to live and reveal its deep, true meaning at the moment of its perception.

Such artistic and pedagogical techniques include artistic and emotional contemplation, artistic and figurative comparison, artistic and psychological observation.

A broad overview that allows you to look at works of one or more styles, different types of art, in the context of the study of world artistic culture is simply necessary. Such lessons are contained in each thematic section of the course. They are usually appropriate for summary, generalizing topics or for topics that include a wide range of works and images.

Classification by types of lessons of the thematic section "Artistic culture of the Renaissance"

Contemplation

- Lesson 33

Members of the "Name of God" group

Group research topic

"Name of the Gods"

Problem question (research question)

What gods were the Greek temples dedicated to?

Research objectives

1. Find out what gods are the ancient Greek temples?

2. Explain why the Parthenon is considered the most perfect temple of the Doric order?

3. List what features characteristic of the classics did the architectural ensemble of the Athenian Acropolis have?

Results of the study

1. The ancient Greek religion, like the Egyptian and many other religions of the world, had a local character of development. Those. in various localities of Greece, their deities were worshiped, often associated with local relief features or personifying them, on which the life of believers depended: this is how the local river Erimanth was worshiped in Psofida, to which the temple was dedicated; in Orchomenos, the sacred stones that had once fallen from the sky; on Mount Anhesme, Zeus Anhesmius was revered, Zeus Lafistius was the personification of Mount Lafistia. Each locality or city had its own patron patron. This cult was of a state character. Moreover, this cult was very strict: in general, one could be skeptical about the gods, the Greek religion did not know universally binding dogmas, but it was impossible to evade the duties of rituals in honor of the patron god, it was impossible to show disrespect to him. For violation of this law, severe punishment was threatened.

From a multitude of local gods, over time, some images merged into a single common Greek deity, for example, Zeus Lafistius, Zeus Crokeat, the cult of Zeus in Crete and Thessaly, grew into the cult of Zeus - as the riding god, "the father of gods and people." The very name Zeus means a shining sky and goes back to the common Indo-European root (Dyaus among the Indians, Tiu among the Germans). The name of Zeus had about 50 epithets indicating its function: underground, i.e. provides fertility, rain-bearing, all-parent, ruler of destinies, etc.

The image of Hera, the chief of the goddesses, the wife of Zeus, grew out of the image of the cow goddess, patroness of Mycenae. Poseidon was the ancient sea deity of Pelaponess. The cult of Poseidon, having absorbed a number of local cults, became the god of the sea and the patron saint of horses. Athena is an ancient deity - the patroness of cities and city fortifications. Her other name - Pallas - is also an epithet meaning "Shaker of the spear". According to classical mythology, Athena acts as a warrior goddess, she was portrayed in full armor. The goddess Artemis is one of the deities most revered by the Greeks. It is generally believed that the cult of Artemis originated in Asia Minor, where she was considered the patroness of fertility. In classical mythology, Artemis appears as a virgin huntress goddess, usually with her companion, a deer. An extremely complex and obscure figure is Apollo, who had a very prominent place in Greek mythology and religion. In Pelaponesus, Apollo was considered a shepherd deity. Apollo Ismenius was revered near Thebes: this epithet is the name of the local river, which was once deified by the inhabitants. Later, Apollo became one of the most popular gods of Greece. He is considered the embodiment of the national spirit. The main functions of Apollo: divination of the future, patronage of sciences and arts, healing, cleansing from all filth, the deity of light, a correct, ordered world order. God-healer Axlepius was formed on purely Greek soil. The god of the shepherds, Pan, was of Arcadian origin. The Asia Minor goddess of fertility Aphrodite turned among the Greeks into the goddess of beauty, love, the idealized embodiment of femininity. Ares, borrowed from the Francians, became the raging gods of war. Further: Demeter is the goddess of fertility, Hephaestus is the personification of earthly fire and blacksmith's craft, Hestia is also the personification of fire, only home, the deity of the family hearth, Hermes is the patron saint of roads and travelers, the god of trade. Some of the Greek gods are more or less abstract images - the personification of certain abstract concepts: Plutos is the direct personification of wealth, Nemesis is the goddess of retribution, Themis is the goddess of justice, Moira is the goddess of fate, Nike is the goddess of victory, and these are far from all Greek deities.

Cosmogonic themes in popular beliefs did not occupy a prominent place. The idea of \u200b\u200ba creator god was absent in this religion. According to Hesiod, Earth, Darkness, Night were born from Chaos, and then Light, Ether, Day, Sky, Sea and other great forces of nature. The older generation of gods was born from Heaven and Earth, and from them already Zeus and other Olympic gods.

There was no central cult in Greece, but on the basis of a cultural community, some cult centers gained wide, general Greek significance. The sanctuaries of Apollo at Delphi, Zeus at Olympia, Demeter at Epidaurus, and others were widely known and worshiped throughout Greece. On the whole, the religion of Greece was fragmented, although more or less stable.

2. The temple is a peripter of the Doric order of 46 columns (8 along the main facade and 17 along the side). Parthenon is a sample of the Doric order! Perfectly measured proportions Doric order, which appeared at the beginning of the 6th century. BC, can be considered the main one in the development of Greek architecture. A strict and solemnly monumental Doric order, which appeared at the beginning of the 6th century. BC e., consists of the following parts:

three-stage base - stereobath;

bearing column. The column shaft was vertically divided by flutes (vertical grooves) with sharp edges. The column ends with a capital consisting of an echina (flattened pillow) and an abacus (a four-sided slab.)

the part to be carried is an entablature, including an architrave (a horizontal beam lying on the columns), a frieze with alternating triglyphs (a slab with vertical grooves) and metopes (a slab made of stone or ceramics decorated with relief or painting) and a cornice.

3. In contrast to the archaic with its predilection for rigid symmetry, the picturesque panorama of the classics set an exalted and solemn mood. To the left of the central axis of the Propylaea, on the flat plateau of the hill, stood the seventeen-meter colossus of Athena Promachos (Warrior) made of gilded bronze. To the right, architects Ictinus and Callicrates erected the Parfenon (447–438 BC) as a symbol of the victory of Greek democracy over the Eastern despotism, dedicating it to Athena Parthenos (Virgin). At the same time, the temple symbolized the triumph of the organizing, luminous beginnings of religion over the chthonic, unbridled origins of it. This was evidenced by the relief on the Doric metopes and the Ionic frieze, which followed the colonnade along the top of the cella. The eastern pediment was decorated with sculptural compositions on the theme of the birth of Athena 6; western - her dispute with Poseidon7 for power over Attica *. The roof was crowned with stylized lotus petals at the corners. The snow-white massif of the temple made of Pentellic marble, which has the property of acquiring a golden patina of extraordinary beauty over time, looms against the background of the blue sky. Transparent air, bright sunlight with a radiant stream wash the outer colonnades, pour into the open space of the cella, dissolving the marble volumes in themselves.

Output

The peoples of Ancient Greece made many discoveries, created many magnificent works of art, architecture, literature, interesting to us so far, attracting, alluring, teaching, giving the best examples of art and morality.

NON-GOVERNMENTAL EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION

CAPITAL FINANCIAL AND HUMANITIES ACADEMY

FACULTY OF ARTS AND INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

SPECIALTY: DESIGN

COURSE WORK

by discipline:

History of Arts

Topic: “Features of the architecture of ancient Greece. Ensemble of the Athenian Acropolis "

Completed by a 3rd year student

Lystseva N.I.

vologda, 2008

Introduction

1. The system of Greek orders and their origin

1.1 Doric order

1.2 Ionic order

1.3 Corinthian order

1.4 Caryatids and Atlanteans

2. Types of Greek temples

2.1 Features of the architecture of the Homeric period (XI-VIII centuries BC)

2.2 Architecture during the Archaic period (VII-VI centuries BC)

2.3 Ensemble of the Acropolis of Athens

Conclusion

application

List of references

Introduction

In this paper, we will consider the main features of the architecture of Ancient Greece.

The origin of Greek architecture occurs at the end of the 2nd millennium BC. e., and 4 stages are distinguished in its development: 1100-800 BC. e. - Homeric; 700-600 BC BC - archaic; 500-400 BC e. - classic; 300-100 BC e. - Hellenism.

In particular, in the first chapter we describe the origin of the order in Greek architecture, its main distinctive features, in the second, we will find out the features of the main order buildings of the Athenian Acropolis - the famous architectural ensemble, the types of Greek temples formed in the Homeric period and in the archaic period. In all Greek art, we find a combination of subtle intellectual calculation and sensual lifelike. Such deviations from geometric correctness liken the building to an organism - constructive, but alien to abstraction and scheme. In the second chapter, using the example of the Parthenon temple, we will describe this feature of Greek architecture, the geometric correctness of the Parthenon at every step is accompanied by slight deviations from correctness. So the deviations of the horizontal and vertical lines are almost invisible. Knowing the effect of optical distortion, the Greeks used it to achieve the desired effect.

The Order Temple was a kind of pinnacle in Greek architecture and therefore, it had a huge impact on the subsequent history of world architecture. Artistic creativity permeates all the work of the Greek builders, who, as sculpture created each stone block from which the temple was formed.

The architectural forms of the Greek temple did not take shape immediately and underwent a long evolution during the archaic period. However, in the art of the archaic, a well-thought-out, clear and at the same time very diversely applied system of architectural forms was already basically created, which formed the basis of all further development of Greek architecture.

The heritage of ancient Greek architecture underlies all subsequent development of world architecture and the associated monumental art. The reasons for such a stable impact of Greek architecture lie in its objective qualities: simplicity, truthfulness, clarity of compositions, harmony and proportionality of general forms and all parts, in the plasticity of the organic connection between architecture and sculpture, in the close unity of architectural-aesthetic and structural-tectonic elements of structures.

Ancient Greek architecture was distinguished by the complete correspondence of forms and their constructive basis, which constituted a single whole. The main structure is stone blocks from which the walls were laid. The columns, the entablature (the ceiling lying on the column support) were processed with various profiles, acquired decorative details, and enriched with sculpture.

The Greeks brought the processing of architectural structures and all, without exception, decor details to the highest degree of perfection and refinement. These structures can be called gigantic pieces of jewelry art, in which there was nothing secondary for the master.

The architecture of Ancient Greece is closely related to philosophy, because it was based on the concept of the strength and beauty of a person who was in close unity and harmonious balance with the natural and social environment, and since in ancient Greece social life was greatly developed, then architecture and art had a pronounced social character.

It was this unsurpassed perfection and harmony that made the monuments of ancient Greek architecture models for subsequent eras.

The peripter became the classic type of Greek temple, that is, a rectangular temple with a gable roof and surrounded on all four sides by a colonnade. The peripter in its main features took shape already in the second half of the 7th century. BC. The further development of temple architecture proceeded mainly along the line of improving the system of structures and proportions of the peripter.

1. The system of Greek orders and their origin

For many hundreds of years, Greek architects have developed everyonebuilding element. The result of their work was the creation of an order system, the main form of which is a column.

The column with all its details, as well as the parts located above and below the column, constitute a single whole, and its construction is subject to a certain rule, order. The order was called the Latin word "ordo". Hence the name order system, architectural order.

We learned about the order system from the scientific work of the Roman architect Vitruvius. He lived in the 1st century AD. e. When writing his treatise, Vitruvius used the works of Greek architects, which, unfortunately, have not come down to us.

The order (from Latin - "order", "order") was supposed to use a single module (measure) in the construction of buildings - a span, an elbow or a foot. This gave the buildings a special completeness. Thanks to the order system in the architectural structure, the opposing forces of upward growth and downward pressure were balanced. The supporting parts were the base (stereobath) and its upper platform (stylobate), as well as the supports (columns) standing on it. The parts to be carried - the entire upper part of the building, the roof with the entablature - the overlap, lying directly on the columns. The entablature consisted of three subordinate parts: architrave, frieze and cornice. The column, in turn, had a base (base), with which it rested on a stereobath - a trunk consisting of several drums placed on top of each other, and ended with a "head" - a capital in which a "pillow" - echin and a square plate lying on top of it stood out - abacus.

Greek architecture developed under the influence of two order systems: doricand ionic.The names of these order systems originated from the names of the main Greek tribes - the Dorians, who lived in the Peloponnese, in Sicily and the southern part of the Apennine Peninsula, and the Ionians, who lived on the Attica Peninsula, the Aegean islands and in the western part of Asia Minor.

Doryan's character traits, their courage, firmness, endurance are reflected in architecture. The main attention was paid not to decorative elements, but to the strict beauty of the lines.

Unlike the Dorians, the Ionians had a gentle disposition, were inclined towards peaceful pursuits and arts.

Later, a third order appeared in architecture - the so-called corinthian.Its name comes from the city of Corinth, in which, according to legend, a new order was created. This order did not have much impact on the development of architecture.

Let us consider the named order systems in more detail and dwell on their features.

1.1 Doric order

The column in the Doric order (Fig. 1) has no supporting part - baseFor stability, its trunk tapers upwards, decorated with longitudinal grooves - flutesand crowned small capital.The transition from the column to the capital is performed in the form of several rings (anuli). The capital - a structural element - serves to reduce the distance between the columns, and also plays a decorative role - the transition from a round column to straight lines of the span beam - entablature.

The Doric capital consists of a truncated cone echinus, and abacus- square slab. The entablature rests on the abacus. It, in turn, consists of architrave- lower part, frieze- middle part and top part - cornice.The transverse are supported on the architrave. beams.With wooden structures, the ends of the beams were closed with wooden planks, and the gaps were filled with terracotta slabs with paintings or bas-reliefs (sculptural images protruding less than half the volume of the depicted object). In stone structures, wooden planks were replaced by stone slabs with vertical cutouts - triglyphs,the intervals are metopes - stone slabs with sculpture or pictorial decoration. The cornice hangs over the entire structure, protects it from rain and completes the entire composition. In the most ancient buildings, the columns consisted of one solid stone (monolith); later, the column of the column was made up of several separate stone drums. The drums stood firmly on top of each other, due to their considerable weight and the severity of the upper parts, but, in addition, they were fastened to each other with pins (mostly wooden) laid in square sockets in the center of two surfaces of the drums in contact with each other.

1.2 Ionic order

Having originated in Asia Minor, the Ionic order (Figure 2) developed in Greece. In the order, two schools, as it were, united - Asia Minor and Attic.

The example of the Asia Minor school was the Temple of Athena in Priene (320 BC, architect Pytheas), the Attic school was the Erechtheion in Athens (420-393 BC, architect Philokles).

The Ionian order is more complex than the Doric one and has more details. Slender columns generally have a base and a complex capital. The columns are pierced with vertical grooves, but unlike the flutes, they are deep and located so that there are gaps between them - tracks. The order has a capital decorated with decorative details with a spiral volutes.The upper part of the capital is represented by a square slab - abacus.