1.1 The history of development and the influence of religion on the DPI of India

In ancient times in India, as well as in other countries, arts and crafts did not stand out as an independent field of art. Creature sculptures and art products, painting and architecture - everything was considered a craft. The works were usually anonymous.

The main, most widespread type of decorative and applied art should be considered the art of an artistically designed thing, that is, art products - everyday objects and tools, sacred ritual accessories and weapons. This art has existed since ancient times.

The form of simple tools was, as a rule, harmonious and artistic, and the images on them had a thematic or purely ornamental character. The decoration has always taken into account the everyday purpose and shape of the object.

Decorative and applied arts were widely used to decorate architectural details, where carving was especially common.

The materials from which the art products were made are extremely diverse, almost everything that nature gives was used: wood, leaves and herbs, vegetable fiber, nutshell; a simple, semiprecious and precious stone; clay, metals, including precious metals; bone, horn, turtle, shell, etc. Of these, the most important are wood, stone, metal, ivory and fiber.

The artistic products of India in different parts of the country are not identical and differ in their specificity and local originality. It is interesting that, for example, in Sri Lanka, even more than in India itself, the traditions of Indian art of ancient times, the period of the spread and flourishing of Buddhism, have been preserved. By the XI century. Buddhism almost disappeared in India, but survived in Sri Lanka, transmitting the ancient Indo-Sinhalese tradition in art monuments. This tradition contributed in the Middle Ages to the distinction of Sinhalese craft from Tamil, which was no longer associated with Buddhism, but with Hinduism. But besides this, the artistic skills and tastes of the Sinhalese, their aesthetic perception, brought originality to the local artistic production, to monumental painting and sculpture.

The bulk of the art products that have survived to us date back to not

Still life as a genre of painting

In the visual arts, still life (from the French natur morte - "dead nature") is usually called the image of inanimate objects, united into a single compositional group ...

The project of creating a social and cultural service enterprise

Gardening art of Japan

Everything alive and inanimate - any creature sings. The whisper of branches, the rustle of sand, the rumble of the wind, the murmur of water. All things are endowed with a heart. "

Creation of creative bright accents in the children's room, made using the batik technique

Batik is a drawing applied in a special way. We are talking about an original way of decorating a fabric by applying patterns with melted wax, followed by painting those areas of the fabric that remained uncovered ...

Technological features of performing a still life in graphics

The history of graphics as an art form goes back several thousand years. Graphics is the oldest of all the visual arts ...

Traditions and innovations in the art of impressionist artists

Until the middle of the 19th century, French painters were part of the system, experiencing the influence of a complex professional institution, which had departments in all major types of art ...

Japanese animation

The Emergence of Anime The first Japanese animated films appeared in 1917. They were small films ranging from one to five minutes long, and they were made by solo artists ...

Japanese minimalism in design

The first beginnings of minimalism in Europe are found already in the 18th century: in 1777, the greatest German poet, philosopher and artist Johann Wolfgang Goethe erected a kind of sculpture in the garden of his summer home in Weimar ...

India is one of the oldest states with a vibrant and diverse culture. Three different religious movements - Buddhism, Hinduism and Islam - influenced the formation of a special, inherent architectural style, as well as sculpture, painting, music and dance. In this regard, historical cultural monuments, able to tell a lot about the life of the country in ancient times.

India architecture

The main religion of India is Hinduism, it is a multifaceted religious doctrine with a diverse pantheon of gods. Hindu temples, or as they are also called mandirs, are an amazing sight, they are stone pillar-like structures covered with the finest stone carvings. The temple is usually dedicated to one of the incarnations of the god or one of the devas, it is he who come to worship. There are also temples dedicated to several gods at once. Hindu temples in India, which have survived to this day, are of great historical or archaeological significance, therefore they are under the protection of the Archaeological Administration of India. Most often, such temples were built of brick and wood, besides architectural style they differ from each other depending on the area where they are located. A huge part of Hindu temples suffered during the Islamic domination.

Buddhist architecture includes Buddhist temples built in the rocks with numerous statues of Buddha in the image of a person. Each of these statues carries an encrypted message to people, therefore, from the various smallest details, a lot can be said about what our ancestors wanted to convey to us. In Buddhist temples there are "stupas", which are round memorial structures. It is assumed that the remains of the deceased were once stored in them. The walls of Buddhist temples are decorated with frescoes depicting scenes from the life of the Buddha, which have been preserved in excellent condition to this day, thanks to the use of special persistent paints.

Since the time when India fell under the influence of Islamic conquerors, many beautiful mosques have been built on its territory. The most famous landmark of India is the mausoleum of the Taj Mahal Mosque. She was a symbol of Shah Jahan's love for his wife Mumtaz, who died in childbirth. The Taj Mahal is made of white marble, decorated with the finest carvings and installed on a huge pedestal, so it resembles a white air cloud. Other mosques located in India are also of great cultural importance.

Sculpture of India

In addition to temples, a large number of figurines representing the gods have survived to this day. The main Hindu gods are Brahma (the creator, his incarnation is a seated human figure with several heads and several arms, most often he sits on a lotus flower), Vishnu (the guardian, his incarnation is various avatars: most often he is depicted in blue with with four hands, each of which contains a seashell, disc, mace and lotus, he can also be depicted sitting on a ring of snakes, or on the back of a bird.Other avatars inherent in Vishnu are Fish, Turtle, Man-Man, Boar, Dwarf, Rama , Krishna and Buddha. At the feet of Vishnu may be an image of his wife.) Shiva (the destroyer, he is sometimes depicted in the form of an ascetic, whose body is rubbed with white ash, he himself sits in a meditation position on a tiger skin in the Himalayas. Attached to his hair on the crown is the crescent moon, from which flows the sacred river Ganges. Sometimes he - Nataraj, the master of dance, is depicted in a graceful circle, while he supports the Universe with his endless dance eat. Shiva is often depicted along with his wife Parvati and the bull Nandi, on which he moves), Shakti ( female incarnation wives of the gods Shiva and Vishnu, sometimes they are also called Shaktas. Shiva Shakti is a beautiful woman, she has many incarnations - Durga, Kali, Chandi or Chamundi. Parvati Shakta is most often depicted as beautiful womansitting in a pose of meditation, in some cases she is depicted next to her husband Shiva and the young son of Ganesha). There are many other gods in Hinduism, the most popular of them is Ganesha, they are the son of Shiva and Parvati. He is usually depicted as a figurine of a man with an elephant head. Picturesque images of the gods of the Hindu pantheon, as well as sculptures and sculptures, are of great cultural significance.

Arts and Crafts of India

A large number of valuable art objects that are the legacy of this amazing ancient civilization kept in museums. These include many ancient texts of religious content, poetry and prose, picturesque images and many icons, Mughal miniatures, which are illustrations for books, as well as dishes, jewelry, weapons, carpets, cloths, unique lacquerware, bronze and metal products. and household items. The Russian artist Roerich made a great contribution to the preservation of treasures and architectural monuments of India. Later, his initiative was supported by his son Svyatoslav Roerich, who at one time contributed to the conclusion of the International Pact for the Protection of Cultural Property.

Introduction

Chapter I. History

1History of development and influence of religion on the DPI of India

Chapter II. Types of DPI in India

3 Varnish production in India

4 Metal products

5 Ceramic products

6 Textile art

7 Making masks

Chapter III. Contemporary Indian art

1 Indian contemporary art

2 Problems of Indian art from the point of view of Western criticism

3 Perception of contemporary Indian art in the West

Conclusion

List of references

Introduction

Very often we come across, when considering and characteristics of the art of any country, with complete inattention to decorative and applied art. Usually the analysis of architecture, painting and sculpture is considered to be exhaustive, while decorative and applied art is considered as a secondary art form that does not in itself of great historical and artistic value. That is why I believe that the topic of DPI itself cannot but be relevant. In addition, when talking about the art of India, we usually represent huge sculptural temples or miniature painting, but DPI is that art, the description of which you can often see even in the description of a small country, or a vanished empire. But the DPI of India amazes with its subtle, sensual balance of large and small components, the jewelry skill of the artisans who created these works. The DPI of India amazes with its luxury, the desire to fill the entire space with ornament, vitality, spirituality. It surprises with constant oppositions, stylization, dynamism, and a certain national identity. The colorful coloring makes the works of the Indian arts and crafts industry cheerful. Plot lines are often intertwined so closely that what is most important, intimate in the work is traced, but not intrusive, and their diversity is striking ...

Often, works of decorative and applied art served as household items, functionality was important to them, and beauty comes after it. In addition, it should be noted that the craftsmen who created these products were primarily artisans who possessed tremendous talent and a sense of beauty, and their works remained without the signature of their creator. These works make you admire and proud that people are more connected with the material than painters, nevertheless managed to turn utilitarian and purely functional objects into genuine works of art.

In my coursework, I want to show how diverse the decorative and applied art of India is, to prove that when considering the art of any country, DPI is not a secondary characteristic, but one of the main ones, because where, if not in DPI, one can trace the change of religions, cooperation with other countries, the country's economic situation, and its aesthetic ideals ...

Chapter I. History

1 The history of development and the influence of religion on the DPI of India

In ancient times in India, as well as in other countries, arts and crafts did not stand out as an independent field of art. Sculptural and artistic creation, painting and architecture were all considered craft. The works were usually anonymous.

Decorative and applied arts were widely used to decorate architectural details, where carving was especially common.

The bulk of the art items that have survived to us date back to no earlier than the 18th century. The arts and crafts of Sri Lanka were closely related to the South Indian. Skilled Tamil artisans from South India were imported to Sri Lanka for centuries, and even in the 18th century. they competed with Sinhalese artisans. Visiting weavers from large cities in the south of India, members of local artisan organizations (sreni), called in Sinhalese "salagamayo", weaved fine muslins with gold threads for the garments of the Sinhalese nobility. The Tamil kings of Sri Lanka especially encouraged their native fashion of clothing and jewelry... For centuries, until the English occupation of Kandy in 1815, the shape and decoration of handicrafts remained unchanged from previous centuries. The colonial era in India was disastrous for arts and crafts. The state organization of artisans was destroyed by the British colonialists, traditional art production fell into decay. The development of capitalist relations and the import of foreign manufactured goods finally undermined the folk arts and crafts. The fall of the national arts and crafts actually meant the disappearance of the only art form available to them in general from the everyday life of the people. However, some types of artistic production survived in India until the time of its independence, when a new period began in the development of national art.

Chapter II. Types of DPI in India

1 Bone carving art of India

In India, bone carvers were famous for their art. Ivory is an excellent material for fine carvings due to its strength and fine-grained uniform texture; it is especially pleasing in appearance for its fine, graceful layering and delicate shade.

Local chronicles tell about the high art of the ancient Sinhalese ivory carvers. An interesting testimony has been preserved in the Chulawams that King Jetthatissa (IV century) was famous for his ivory carvings and even taught others his wonderful art. Ancient chroniclers reported that the king made ivory into a bodhisattva figure and parts of his royal throne.

In India, figurines, panels, carved door frames (for example, from Ri-divihara, with dancers and animals), caskets (2), book bindings, women's jewelry, combs, knife handles, etc. were made from elephant tusks. Art Traditions the ivory carvings were stable. The surviving examples of the work of the 18th - early 19th centuries clearly testify to the etrm.

The ridges were very graceful and beautiful - panava, two-sided and one-sided. On one of them, for example, kept in a museum in Kandy, a relief rich in forms was created in the middle part with openwork carving. In the center, a goddess sits on a throne, holding tree branches in her hands. On both sides of her are two dancers. A simple frame with a geometric pattern sets off a complex image. At the other double-sided ridge, the space enclosed in an elegant openwork frame is divided into three vertical parts: in the middle is a figurine of a mother sitting with an infant in her arms, on the right is the figure of a standing woman with a child, on the left is a pair of lovers. The clothes are painted with black and red stripes (Colombo Museum). A comparison of both combs shows the artistic flair with which the master changes the shape of the frame depending on the central thread: the first comb has a complex pattern inside, with many small details, demanded to simplify the framework; at the second ridge, figures without detailed details allowed a complex frame that does not compete with internal images... The decorative taste and experience, based on a long tradition, turn out to be impeccable.

Of great artistic value is the skillfully and delicately executed figure of the guardian deity on the plate from the doorframe of the temple (collection of A.-K. Cumaraswamy) (3). In a low relief, a goddess is carved in front, holding a plant shoot and a flower in her bent hands. Fingers are unusually graceful, thin folds of clothing, tightly fitting the figure. Scientists have dated this disc to the 18th century, but one can think that it is much older in time.

Caskets and boxes with thin solid relief carving are interesting. The carved handles of knives of various shapes are very effective - sometimes in the form of "liyya pata" (plant motifs), sometimes in the shape of a monster's head with an open mouth - and many other bone products (4).

2 Artistic wood processing

The wood carving was cramped

The bulk of the art items that have survived to us date back to no earlier than the 18th century. The arts and crafts of Sri Lanka were closely related to the South Indian. Skilled Tamil artisans from South India were imported to Sri Lanka for centuries, and even in the 18th century. they competed with Sinhalese artisans. Visiting weavers from large cities in the south of India, members of local artisan organizations (sreni), called in Sinhalese "salagamayo", weaved fine muslins with gold threads for the garments of the Sinhalese nobility. The Tamil kings of Sri Lanka especially encouraged their own fashion of clothing and jewelry. For centuries, until the English occupation of Kandy in 1815, the shape and decoration of handicrafts remained unchanged from previous centuries. The colonial era in India was disastrous for arts and crafts. The state organization of artisans was destroyed by the British colonialists, traditional art production fell into decay. The development of capitalist relations and the import of foreign manufactured goods finally undermined the folk arts and crafts. The fall of the national arts and crafts actually meant the disappearance of the only art form available to them in general from the everyday life of the people. However, some types of art production survived in India until the time of its independence, when a new period began in the development of national art.

In ancient times in Sri Lanka, as well as in India, arts and crafts did not stand out as an independent field of art. Sculptural and artistic creation, painting and architecture were all considered craft. The works were usually anonymous.

The main, most widespread type of decorative and applied art should be considered the art of artistically designed things, that is, art products - objects of everyday life and tools, accessories of sacred rituals and weapons. This art has existed since ancient times.

Decorative and applied arts were widely used to decorate architectural details, where carving was especially common.

Sri Lanka's artistic products are close to Indian ones, but they, of course, are not identical, differ in their specificity and local originality. It is interesting that in Sri Lanka, even more than in India itself, the traditions of Indian art of ancient times, the period of the spread and flourishing of Buddhism, have been preserved. By the XI century. Buddhism almost disappeared in India, but survived in Sri Lanka, transmitting the ancient Indo-Sinhalese tradition in art monuments. This tradition contributed in the Middle Ages to the distinction of Sinhalese craft from Tamil, which was no longer associated with Buddhism, but with Hinduism. But besides this, the artistic skills and tastes of the Sinhalese, their aesthetic perception, brought originality to the local artistic production, to monumental painting and sculpture.

The bulk of the art items that have survived to us date back to no earlier than the 18th century.

The arts and crafts of Sri Lanka were closely related to the South Indian. Skilled Tamil artisans from South India were imported to Sri Lanka for centuries, and even in the 18th century. they competed with Sinhalese artisans. Visiting weavers from large cities in the south of India, members of local artisan organizations (sreni), called in Sinhalese "salagamayo", weaved fine muslins with gold threads for the garments of the Sinhalese nobility. The Tamil kings of Sri Lanka especially encouraged their own fashion of clothing and jewelry.

For centuries, until the English occupation of Kandy in 1815, the shape and decoration of handicrafts remained unchanged from previous centuries. The colonial era in Sri Lanka was disastrous for arts and crafts. The state organization of artisans was destroyed by the British colonialists, traditional art production fell into decay. The development of capitalist relations and the import of foreign manufactured goods finally undermined the folk arts and crafts. The fall of the national arts and crafts actually meant the disappearance of the only art form available to them in general from the everyday life of the people. However, some types of artistic production survived in Sri Lanka by the time it achieved independence, when a new period in the development of national art began.

Ivory products

In Sri Lanka, as well as in India, bone carvers were famous for their art. Ivory is an excellent material for fine carvings due to its strength and fine-grained uniform texture; it is especially pleasing in appearance for its fine, graceful layering and delicate shade.

79-80. Ivory box and goblet.

Local chronicles tell about the high art of the ancient Sinhalese ivory carvers. An interesting testimony was preserved in Chulawamsa (37.100) that King Jetthatissa (IV century) was famous for his ivory carvings and even taught others his wonderful art. Ancient chroniclers reported that the king made ivory into a bodhisattva figure and parts of his royal throne.

In Sri Lanka, statuettes, panels, carved door frames (for example, from Ridivihara, with dancers and animals), caskets (Fig. 79), book bindings, women's jewelry, combs, knife handles, etc. were made from elephant tusks.

The tradition of the art of ivory carving was enduring. The surviving examples of the work of the 18th - early 19th centuries clearly testify to the etrm.

78. Foundations of the doors of the temple doors.

At the other double-sided ridge, the space enclosed in an elegant openwork frame is divided into three vertical parts: in the middle is a figurine of a mother sitting with an infant in her arms, on the right is the figure of a standing woman with a child, on the left is a pair of lovers. The robes are painted with black and red stripes (Colombo Museum).

Comparison of both ridges shows with what artistic flair the master changes the shape of the frame depending on the central thread: the first ridge has a complex pattern inside, with many small details, demanded a simplification of the frame; at the second ridge, figures without detailed details allowed a complex frame, which by its pattern does not compete with the internal images. The decorative taste and experience, based on a long tradition, turn out to be impeccable.

Of great artistic value is the skillfully and delicately executed figure of the guardian deity on the plate from the doorframe of the temple (collection of A.-K. Cumaraswamy) (ill. 78).

In a low relief, a goddess is carved in front, holding a plant shoot and a flower in her bent hands.

Fingers are unusually graceful, thin folds of clothing, tightly fitting the figure. Scientists have dated this disc to the 18th century, but one can think that it is much older in time.

Caskets and boxes with thin solid relief carving are interesting. The carved handles of knives of various shapes are very effective - sometimes in the form of “liyya pata” (plant motifs), sometimes in the shape of a monster's head with an open mouth - and many other products made of bone (ill. 80).

Artistic wood processing

Wood carving was closely related to architecture, which was mostly wood during the Kandy period. The work of local carpenters, who made various products necessary for household life, was distinguished by its originality. They skillfully made furniture, tools, carved boxes, etc.

81. Playing board. Tree. XIX century.

For example, beautifully ornamented boards for the game - "olinda-colombu", are a real work of art. They are located on low feet and have seven circular indentations along each longitudinal edge.

This is a local national, predominantly female game. Usually it was played by two women who placed five to seven olinda seeds in each cavity. Women from the royal family played with pearls instead of seeds.

The sides of the board were decorated with a geometric pattern, the pits were placed in rectangular sections, in pairs or one at a time. In the center of the board, a relief figure of a fantastic beast was sometimes carved (sample in the Kandy Museum). The composition of seed pits and geometric motifs can be very diverse.

The shape of the rice press is original and complex, but very elegant. In the center, it has the shape of a barrel, close to a cylinder, into which ground boiled rice is poured and squeezed out through holes in the metal bottom. The head of a fantastic bird and (from the opposite side) its tail, made in a stylized form, extend from the cylinder to both sides. The cylinder is decorated with a helical thread, which, as it were, goes over the bird's neck. A comfortable horizontal handle is located above. The whole shape is very effective.

The cuttings of wooden scoops are beautifully and fancifully curved. The head of a monster or ornamental plant motifs were often carved under the scoop. The latter pattern, but in a richer form, was also used on door bolts ("agula").

The Cumaraswamy collection contains a round, flat wooden box, one of those intended to hold royal regalia. She's a turning technique covered

varnish, with concentric stripes. The main ornamental detail is a wide openwork brass loop with intricate floral motifs.

National furniture is very diverse. The legs of stools and armchairs were given a bizarre shape; headboards, etc., were also decorated with rich carvings. According to sources, furniture in rich houses was made of very expensive wood species. The Chulavamsa says that in the palace of King Parakramabahu, furniture was adorned with gold and expensive ivory.

Lucky

Local varnish is obtained from a resinous substance secreted by two types of insects that are found on trees and plants. In addition, imported Indian varnish of similar origin is used in small quantities.

The varnish workers are called i-waduvo, which literally means "arrow maker". These artisans are the lowest class of craftsmen because they mostly work as turners. They sharpen wood and decorate it, making arrows, bows, spears, legs of beds and other furniture, barrel boards, torch handles, flag poles, etc. When rotating an object on a lathe, it can be easily varnished by pressing a varnish stick to it ; then the latter, being heated by friction, softens and fills the grooves cut on the object. A similar Kandyan technique is used in India by Jodhpur varnishers. Kandyan varnishes were especially famous in the 19th - early 20th centuries.

Another technique was in Matale, known as niyapoten veda, that is, working with a fingernail, since the lathe was not used here and varnish was applied with the thumbnail. A dye is added to the varnish: red, yellow, green and black. This varnish is used to cover wooden canes, shafts of ceremonial spears and banners, powder flasks, book bindings, oboes. Colored lacquer is also inlaid on ivory, horn and shell.

Metal products

Metalworking was considered one of the most ancient and respected professions of artisans. The metalworkers were divided into several groups - blacksmiths, coppersmiths and goldsmiths. Chronicles also report on these groups of artisans. Chulavamsa (68.25) tells how Parakramabahu attracted blacksmiths, coppersmiths and even jewelers for the construction, since at that time there was a noticeably lack of stone carvers.

Sri Lanka has always been famous for the wonderful work of jewelers. Excellently executed gold jewelry is mentioned in the chronicles many times. The Sinhalese loved and continue to love various jewelry. In antiquity and the Middle Ages, kings and wealthy courtiers wore gold earrings, bracelets, rings with precious stones.

Jewelry art, in particular the processing of precious stones, is still flourishing in the city of Ratnapura, in the area of \u200b\u200bwhich semi-precious and precious gems are mined. Cutting is done mainly by Sinhalese jewelers from Galle. For centuries, Ceylon artisans have made a variety of products from simple and precious metals.

However, by the beginning of the 20th century, according to the testimony of Kumaraswamy, the author of the book "Medieval Sinhalese Art" (54), iron smelting was preserved only in Khatarabagh, near Balangoda, among representatives of the lower caste, and only a few people in Alutnuvar were engaged in production during these years. Steel smiths were called "navandanno". Since ancient times, they have made not only tools for the farmer and carpentry tools, but also swords, spearheads and arrowheads, knives, mortars for betel nut, parts of palanquins, surgical instruments, arrows for elephants, stilettos for writing, locks, keys and plates for them, door hinges, bolts, handles.

(54) Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, Mediaeval Singhalese Art.

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There are three main techniques for decorating metal with gold or silver:

1) the simplest method, when the surface of the metal is incised with light intersecting grooves, and then a layer of noble metal is attached by blows of a hammer. Due to the plasticity and ductility of gold and especially silver, they adhere tightly to the uneven surface of the product and adhere quite firmly to it. In North India, such a notch is called a koftgari;

2) incrustation, when in iron or steel the lines of the pattern are made in the form of a narrow deep groove, the exit side of which is narrower than the bottom, and a noble metal wire is driven into it (or copper, brass - generally of a different color than the metal of the product itself). The wire is driven in with a hammer very firmly, the edges of the groove grip it tightly, and then the surface only needs to be smoothed out with polishing. This method is more difficult, more metal is required for the ornament than for notching. But where special strength is required from the ornament, for example, on weapons, inlay is used more often than notch;

3) an overlay, when the place under it slightly deepens and a groove is made along the contour. Then a thin plate of gold or silver (also copper), cut into the shape of a depression, is inserted into it, and the edges of the plate are driven into a groove, minted and polished. The plate itself can be ornamented with engraving or embossed relief.

All of these forms of decoration are collectively called ridiketayanveda. The work is usually done by blacksmiths, but especially delicate items are handled by the goldsmith.

82-83. Saber handle and knives.

It is not uncommon for Kandyan blacksmiths to blacken the wrought iron to give it a look similar to European blued steel. Then the metal rusts less, and the precious metal and, in general, the notch and inlay stand out more effectively against a dark background. For blackening, the metal surface is treated with a special composition and fired.

Products from brass are minted by goldsmiths, and molds are cast by smelters - locaruvo, belonging to a lower group of artisans.

An example of a brass product is the key plate from Malvatte Pansala. Around the hole there are stylized openwork plant and flower forms, and at the top there is an image of a sacred goose (hansa), and two birds with crossed necks are shown. Such plates are usually decorated with smaller plant motifs made with openwork technique. The iron plate from Danagirigalavihara is also very effective, in the form of two heads of a bird of prey facing in opposite directions.

All kinds of vessels, for example, for water, available in each vihara, are cast from brass and bronze, from which the flowers laid on the altar are watered. They often come with a spout, and then they also drink water from them. Bronze is less commonly used for casting, but elephant bells, musical cymbals, molds for forging brass, silver and gold, and instruments for repussé chasing are almost always cast from bronze.

Lamps, which come in the most varied and very interesting shapes, are more often cast in brass than bronze. They are upright and hanging. The latter includes a fine brass specimen at the Colombo Museum in the form of a bird suspended from a chain. Below there is a spout with a reservoir for oil and a wick, on which a small figure of a bird rises. In the same museum there is a standing lamp adorned at the top with a stylized Hans figure. Below is an expanding saucer for five wicks. The work appears to be Tamil, very typical of South India.

Copper church vessels for water (kendiyya) are sometimes decorated on the neck and lid with cabochon garnets (with rounded grinding). One such jug from Ridivihara has a rounded body, a high neck, rather thick with a slight bell, a convex lid, and a slightly curved nose. At its base there is an engraved floral ornament.

Almost every household item is decorated with amazing invention, artistic taste and skill. Take, for example, the key to the door of Maduvanvelvihara, massive, iron, trimmed with brass, richly ornamented at the ring; ankh (ankuza), brass, with an iron tip (from the Para-natella collection), with a bent point in the form of a monster's head, or torches, where a figurine of a peacock or a rearing lion is added to the bowl with decorative boldness and grace - all things amaze with a skillful combination of practical convenience and fine artistic taste.

After the robbery of Kandy by the British in 1815, few silver and gold items remained in the Kandyan temples. Mostly there were vessels, lamps, trays, fans, for example, in the Hindu temple of Maha Devala and the Buddhist temple of the Buddha's tooth - Dalada Maligawa in Kandy (55).

Here are some of these items. Kendiya is a church vessel for water, silver, of excellent proportions: the body is round in cross section, but flattened vertically, the throat is high, massive, slightly widening downward, at the end there is an expansion and a convex lid, the leg is round, wide, the nose is vertical, high. Light rings on the throat. The forms are massive, even monumental, and this corresponds to the almost complete absence of ornamentation. A large glass for storing pasta made of sandalwood, made of black stone, in a gold frame with inlays of rubies and with four sapphires at the corners of a square leg. The glass was in the possession of Rajadhiraj Sinha and was presented by him to the Maha Devala temple. Along the edges of the glass, a gold border with a geometric pattern in relief is imposed, and gold ornaments of complex shapes hang on four sides. There is a relief ornament on the leg. All of this contrasts beautifully with the black stone.

The golden fan in the form of a circular disc from Dalad Maligava is a donation made by King Kirti Sri Rajasinha. An ornamented border strip runs along the edges of the disc, and a graceful slightly embossed rosette in the center. A thin profiled fan handle is connected by an ornament with a central rosette, and on the opposite edge of the disk there is a false tip, as if continuing through the entire width of the disk of the handle. This ingenious technique lends a special grace to the fan and creates a coherent visual impression.

77. Silver scoop with ivory handle.

Luxuriously decorated with a silver scoop - "kinissa" - with a carved ivory handle (London Museum "South Kensington" (56)), originating from a Kandyan temple or palace (see Fig. 77). The scoop is hemispherical, richly decorated with a slightly embossed stylized floral ornament.

From the side, a figurine of a man climbs onto the scoop, against whose back the end of an ivory handle, representing a single whole with it, rests. This piece, unexpectedly placed between the scoop and the end of the handle, is unusually effective and shows the original and daring creative imagination of the master.

In form and composition, the human figure is exceptionally successful and is appropriate in its decorative role. The ornament on the handle is of the type of liyya pata with the head of a monster resembling either a sinha (lion) or a dragon-fish, like the Indian monster-makara.

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(55) See: A. M. Hocart, The Temple of the Tooth in Kandy, London, 1931.

(56) Now called the Victoria and Albert Museum.

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Ceramic products

Ceramics, despite its apparent simplicity, was of great artistic importance due to the beautiful forms of vessels and, albeit unpretentious, but skillfully executed ornamentation.

Potter's products were used not only for household needs, but also for sacred rituals, as well as architecture, since clay tiles were required for construction.

Potters themselves made the ornament by carving or stamping. On more expensive items, the ornament was figured. Sometimes colorful paintings were also used.

Village potters skillfully knew how to use the plastic qualities of clay as a material and, giving shape to their products, no doubt, took into account the peculiarities of their practical purpose. The ornament usually also matched the material.

There were potters in every village; sometimes potter settlements arose near rich deposits of clay. From here, the products were transported to different areas. It is not surprising that excellent quality red pots from Nikapata (near Haputale), where Tamils \u200b\u200bworked, went to Balangoda, and vessels from Kelania, decorated with a white carved pattern, ended up in Ratnapura, Kegalla and even in Kandy. Some of the pottery was also imported from South India.

The potters' tools were extremely simple; the main thing is a wheel (shaft), with a stone sleeve, which was inserted into a stone nest, recessed in the ground, so that the wheel rose from the ground by no more than 15 cm.Handwork gave artistic products freedom of form, plasticity, in contrast to dryness, inevitably resulting from the execution of the form with a machine stencil.

For example, here are some pottery.

A massive vase (kalakha), which served as a stand for the lamp, is beautiful in shape. Its body is round in cross-section, flattened vertically, with a thick cylindrical neck, with three annular thickenings; the leg is wide, round, low. All details of the vase are proportional. Light yellow painting on a red background, in the form of stylized foliage motifs.

Another vessel is also of a bizarre shape, with twelve noses sticking out upward and with ring rims on a low wide neck. In full accordance with the complex shape of the vessel, the leg is made very massive, wide and rather high; it visually “holds” a wide body with spouts. The vessel was used for ritual dances and is called "punava".

The cornice tiles from the temple of Dalada Maligawa were richly decorated; on one side there is a magnificent sinha (lion) in relief, on the other - hansa (goose). In Kandy, similar tiles were also made in the form of a leaf of the sacred Bodhi tree and decorated with the image of a lion and a goose.

A very interesting song by the potter is dedicated to the description of the process of work, including decorative painting of vessels.

“Waking up at dawn, taking a basket, [the potter] goes to the clay deposits;

Having emptied the basket and prepared a place among the clay, he honors the guardian deity;

Dressed only in a loincloth, he cheerfully takes a kozin and goes down into the pit;

Without touching the sides of the pit, he digs out the clay from the middle and fills the basket.

After crushing the clay into pieces, he puts the basket on the rocker and pours the clay into the pottery yard;

Then he divides the clay into equal pieces and sets them up on a large mat in the sun;

After drying the clay and removing the stones from it, he pounds it in a mortar and sifts it through the kulla;

Then, taking the powder, he adds the same amount of water to it and makes balls from the mixture.

He takes these balls of clay, puts one on top of the other, and covers them with leaves;

After three days, he again divides them into three parts, and then kneads them again;

Knowing the correct proportion, he adds the finest sand and, sprinkling with water, kneads everything again;

After kneading the mass, he again makes round balls out of it and puts them in a heap; and takes them again after three days.

After preparing them this way, he tramples and kneads the clay again and again;

When she becomes like sticky wax, he knows she is ready;

Then he divides it into separate lumps for vessels of different sizes;

He puts the clods prepared in this way near the workshop and carefully covers them.

On the next day, with split reeds, he separates the clay lumps from one another;

And having divided them properly, he again makes balls of them and holds them together as on the previous day;

The next day, waking up at dawn, he sweeps and tidies up the workshop;

And keeping all the balls of clay close at hand, he sits down in front of the wheel.

He takes the clay balls one by one with his right hand and places them on the wheel;

With his left hand he turns the wheel, with his right hand he molds [the vessel];

Knowing the size and shape [of the vessel], he presses down with his hand;

When the desired shape appears, it shapes the edges.

Leaving [the vessel] as it is and making a rim, he turns the wheel very quickly;

And watching to see if he has become smooth, he corrects all the irregularities with the tip of his finger;

Spraying a little water, he polishes the pot, then gently takes it with his open palm;

Puts it down and then picks it up again thirty hours after making it.

Then holding a stone galiheda in his left hand and a wooden mallet in his right, firmly holding the vessel with his foot;

He pounds [along its lower edges] with the flat surface of a beater, making [of them] the bottom the full width of the pot;

And so having made the bottom completely and polished it, he places [the vessel] in the sun;

After he dries a little, he draws twigs with leaves [liavel], garlands and flower petals around the vessel.

Drawing around the line, petals of flowers, roosters, parrots, pigeons, selikhini;

And in turn the leaves of the [tree] bo, bouquets of flowers and dates, flowers on, flowers of olu and lotuses;

Making discs of sun and moon, makara at the gates [toran] and golden hansu;

Elephants, horses, deer, lions, tigers, wolves, bears, cobras and polongas.

Floating tisaru, flying wildcat, beautiful kinduro and honey bees;

Great boas, many ferocious snakes, sharks, turtles and golden peacocks;

Beautiful young maidens, whose breasts are plump like golden swans;

Not forgetting to draw cute adorable children.

Drawing around nari lat, branches with leaves and also letters of the alphabet with vowel signs;

By placing in the middle a trident with the "om" sign as a talisman;

By painting in the four corners animals with intertwined necks [puttu], peacock, cobra, swan and snake;

Zodiac signs, nine planets and twenty seven stars.

He takes a good red [paint] gurugala and a white one - macula and kneads them in water to a thick solution;

Mixing it with the right amount of oil to make the colors shine;

Then he exposes [the pots] to the sun to dry completely;

And then, having put them in a kiln, he dries them on the first day in smoke.

On the second day, having put as much wood as needed, he maintains a moderate fire;

On the third day he kindles a sufficiently hot flame and burns [the pots] to the end;

After that, he takes out the wood and extinguishes the flame, leaving [the items] to cool for three days;

On the fourth day, having made sure that the oven has completely cooled down, he takes out the vessels one by one " (57)

All the potter's production experience, passed down from generation to generation, is put into this song, and his work is subtly poeticized.

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(57) Ananda K. Coomaraswamy, Mediaeval Singhalese Art.

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Textile art

Since antiquity, weaving, embroidery and mat weaving have been widespread throughout the island.

There were two groups of weavers among the Sinhalese: Salagamayo - craftsmen from South India who made fine and brocade fabrics, and Berawayo - castes of local weavers who simultaneously worked as musicians, astrologers, etc.

According to tradition, King Vijayabahu III (XIII century) from Dambadenia, seeking to revive fine weaving, sent a messenger to South India with a request to send good craftsmen. The messenger returned, bringing with him eight weavers to whom the king granted villages, wives and honors. The descendants of these weavers incurred the disfavor of the Kandyan rulers and were forced to move to the southwestern coast. There they were no longer engaged in weaving, but in the cultivation of cinnamon on the royal lands. The same was their position under the Portuguese and Dutch domination.

The late medieval work Janavamsa reports on the repeated importation of Indian weavers to Sri Lanka. Local production virtually disappeared and had to be constantly supported by the immigration of craftsmen from South India.

During the period of English rule, folk textile production fell into decay. Before Sri Lanka gained independence, according to A.K. Coomaraswamy, homemade cotton yarn weaving, formerly prevalent in all Kandyan provinces, has survived only in Talagun, Uda Dumbar and in places near Vellasa in Uwe.

The caste of local Sinhalese weavers from ancient times made simple cotton fabrics, which were produced until the beginning of the 20th century. The village weavers of the Kandy region were especially famous. Their products were not influenced by changes in court fashions and the art of the South Indian weavers who arrived here.

Local, like Indian, national clothing, as a rule, is not sewn by tailors from various pieces of fabric, its parts are woven in a finished form, and therefore they must come out of the machine different forms and sizes. This is how towels and napkins (indul kada), wearable fabrics for men (tuppoti), for women (pada, hela), men's aprons (diya kachchi), headscarves or shawls (lensu, hurray mala), sashes (party), blankets and sheets (etirili), carpets (paramadana), covers for clay jugs (gahoni) and pillowcases, etc. White, blue or red fabrics without a pattern were made for monks' clothes, hats, pillowcases, betel bags, etc. Thin muslins were never made by these village weavers.

The patterns were predominantly geometric in nature or in the form of highly stylized forms of animals, snakes, birds, the figures of which were collected in strictly decorative compositions.

Interesting and richly decorated, for example, with woven images of a sash that belonged to the highest Buddhist monk from Malvatta, made in the Uva region. In the horizontal belts, there are rows of successive elephants, horses, lions, and highly stylized birds. These belts alternate with stripes filled with geometrized motifs. The colors are also varied: black, red, pink, blue, with green and yellow.

Geometrized shapes are not impersonal: they usually depict plants and flowers, curls from flower cups, etc.

Embroidery, like fabrics, was divided into limited-scale production (for the court and the nobility) with decorative motifs of Indian origin and into local, Sinhalese production itself.

There were few professional tailors (hannali); they served the king and his court with luxurious embroidery; for Buddhist and Hindu temples, they made sacred robes, curtains, temple banners, etc., participated in decorating chariots for sacred processions. For wealthy secular landowners, they made brocade jackets, gold-embroidered rectangular hats (toppiyas), embroidered sweaters for their families. The expensive material for such products was mostly imported from India, for example, red felt, velvet, sequins and tinsel, brocade for jackets, gold thread for embroidering hats and ceremonial fans.

One of them, originating from Maha Devale in Kandy, is made of red velvet, embroidered with gold and silver thread, with applique in green velvet; ornament in the form of geometrized plant forms, in the center there is a rosette, the front side is made of blue velvet, on which the sun, moon and stars are embroidered.

The betel nut bag was embroidered effectively and variedly, most often with plant and floral motifs, always with a richly ornamented border strip. One of these handbags, kept in the Colombo Museum, is embroidered with a particularly delicate and delicate design. In the center is a rosette with four sharp leaves, between which are small flowers on the thinnest stems and figures of birds. Figures of birds are also placed between the central rosette and the circular border, embroidered with delicate plant twists and flowers.

Mats (dumbara), which are woven by weavers of the lower caste - kinaraya (58), are of no less importance for household use. The fiber is made from hemp. Part of the fiber is left in a natural white color, the rest is dyed black, yellow or red.

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(58) See: N. D. Wijesekera, The People of Seoulon, Colombo, 1965.

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The warp threads are spun like cotton on a spindle; for the duck, ready-made natural hemp fibers are taken, the length across the mat. The loom is horizontal, similar to the cotton loom, but more primitive. Mats are also woven from grass and are called "peduru". The main paint for them is patangi, which gives a beautiful shade of red.

The images on the mats are massive, geometrized, even monumental in their form and composition, and are highly suitable for the decorative purpose of mats as inextricably linked with the room, with architecture.

In the collection of A.K.Kumaraswamy there are two interesting examples of such mats. One in the central square, divided into nine rectangular sections, depicts: in the middle - an elephant, in the side rectangles - a naga (cobra), raised with a swollen hood. The upper and lower rows of rectangles have the same filling: on the average - a doe, on the sides - a pair of birds. In the composition of these figures the correct artistic tact is displayed: the fallow deer (upper and lower) are turned in opposite directions; each pair of birds is also separated by setting their heads in different directions. With this finely calculated artistic technique, the master avoids the emphasized monotony.

From the central square with figures there are transverse stripes: the first is ornamented with zigzag lines, then three wide stripes, and then a row of narrow ones. Everything is designed for visual effect.

On the other mat, the overall composition is similar to the previous one. In the center - two birds, also turned in opposite directions, on the sides - nagas. Above and below the belts with fish and birds, three belts at the top and bottom. All figures are directed in a different, but strictly thought-out order, with the correct decorative effect.

Making masks

It is impossible not to touch upon such a unique and vibrant art of Sri Lanka, like masks. They have long been widespread as an integral part of folk drama and dances and have been extremely popular in the country since ancient times (59).

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(59) See: Berge de Zoete, Dance and Magic Drama in Ceylon, London, 1935; E.R. Sarachandra, The Folk Drama in Ceylon, Colombo, 1966.

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In the dramatic kolam performance, everything is based on the use of masks. Masks are also used in demonic tovil dances.

85. The Drummer.

Although the symbolic and religious significance of the dances has now largely been lost, the masks of the dancers and actors themselves remain an attractive sight for the population, especially in the villages.

Carvers of wood masks did not always pursue purely artistic goals, and many masks have only a specifically symbolic meaning. But a number of them can be considered genuine works. folk art due to its external expressiveness. Their ethnographic significance is also great.

The most artistically interesting masks are used in the "rassaya" dance in the prelude to the "kolam" performance. There are very fantastic and monstrous-looking masks depicting semi-divine beings.

Much more realistic are the numerous masks of the Sannia dance used in the tovil performance. They seem to reproduce caricatured images of people.

For example, the mask of an old drummer with a large thick beard and deeply wrinkled wrinkles, an expressive senile face is very peculiar, although its bulging eyes and a bared mouth give it a special grotesqueness (ill. 85).

The concentrated but sly expression on the face with the delicate fold of the lips of a mudali, a tall government official.

86. Mask of the Rajah.

The rajah has a face with a beautiful black mustache and a crown in the form of a complex structure three times the size of the head; on the sides of the face - the muzzles of two fantastic makaras (ill. 86). The bisawa (queen) has a beautiful face with a graceful fold of lips, her eyes are wide open, as if in surprise. The majestic crown is remembered for its plant and floral motif. From her descend on both sides of the pendant on the "pearl" fabric, against which the face of the queen looks especially solemn.

Interesting and the face of a black woman with magnificently wavy hair, a hairstyle that falls behind the ears to the level of the chin. She laughs out loud, showing rows of shiny teeth. It should be noted that this detail is used to caricature characters of a low social rank: they usually have abnormally huge, distorted growing or rare teeth. The black woman, whom the artist clearly tried to show, is attractive, her teeth are even and beautiful.

If the teeth are not shown at all in the higher persons, in the royal couple, in the mudala, in the village headman and the policeman, then in the usurer (Hittiyya) a distorted face, a crooked nose, small predatory eyes and two large teeth in a half-open mouth.

The washerwoman (male) has huge bulging eyes, wide nose, tongue sticking out between the rows of large, tightly set teeth. His assistant is even more caricatured with a flattened nose and an upper row of teeth pushed far forward. The Sannia dance masks are very expressive, they have a lot of creative imagination, but they look much more naturalistic.

87. Mask for ceremonies

The arts and crafts described belong to the end of the colonial era, when the crafts were in decline, both artistic and industrial. But this branch of folk culture, fortunately, did not die: almost all types of art products, although in small quantities, continued to be created, preserving their national characteristics.

After Sri Lanka achieved independence, interest in the local national culture increased, the comprehensive assistance from the government to artistic crafts contributed to their new development, and some types of artistic production literally revived anew.

New types of products have appeared, in particular of a purely decorative nature, while in ancient times all artistic production had only a practical purpose.

Ceramics, made on the basis of ancient traditions, appeared, decorative sculptures began to be made, for example, wooden sculptures from valuable rock trees, decorative wall trays, minted from brass and other metals, which reproduce with great skill the famous ancient "Moon stones".

Reviving folk arts and crafts, the Sinhalese and Tamil population of the island preserves and develops their national traditions; your creative talent and skill.