Ruins of Ancient Rome.

In the 1st millennium BC. e. a state arose around the city of Rome, which began to expand its possessions at the expense of neighboring peoples. This world power existed for about a thousand years and lived off the exploitation of slave labor and conquered countries. All the lands adjacent to the Mediterranean Sea belonged to Rome, both in Europe and in Asia and Africa. Therefore, art, especially architecture, was intended to show the whole world the power of state power. Endless wars, a thirst for conquest, in which Rome matured and grew, required the exertion of all forces, therefore, firm discipline in the army, firm laws in the state and firm power in the family became the basis of Roman society. Above all, the Romans put the ability to rule over the world. Virgil stated:

You, Roman, remember to rule the nations with authority!
Behold - yours will be arts: conditions to impose the world,
Spare the inferior and overthrow the proud!
("Aeneid")

The Romans subjugated the entire Mediterranean region, including Hellas, but Greece itself overtook Rome, since it had a powerful influence on the entire culture of Rome - in religion and philosophy, in literature and art.

Etruscan she-wolf, who, according to legend, brought up Romulus and Remus (Etruscan casting)

Legend has it that the usurper Amulius seized the throne of his brother, the king of Alba Longa, Numitor - the grandfather of the twins Romulus and Remus, and ordered the babies to be thrown into the Tiber. The twins' father Mars saved his sons, and they were fed by a she-wolf sent by God. Then the boys were raised by the shepherd Faustul and his wife Akka Larentia. When the brothers grew up, they killed Amulius, returned power to their grandfather, and in the place where the she-wolf found them, they founded a city. During the construction of the walls of the new city, a quarrel broke out between the brothers, and Romulus killed Remus. The city was built and named in honor of Romulus by Rome, and Romulus himself became its first king. Part of the culture was borrowed by the Romans from other peoples. The Etruscans do a lot, but the Greeks do the most. The Romans borrowed from the Etruscans gladiator fights, stage games, the nature of sacrifices, and belief in good and evil demons. The Romans, like the Etruscans, preferred sculpture from the arts, and not sculpting, but modeling - from clay, wax, bronze.

The building is decorated with half columns

However, the main predecessor of Roman art was still Greece. Even the Romans took many of their beliefs and myths from the Greeks. The Romans learned to build arches, simple vaults and domes from stone.
They learned to build more diverse structures, for example, the round building of the Pantheon - the temple of all the gods, it had a diameter of more than 40 meters. The Pantheon was covered with a giant dome. which has been a model for builders and architects for centuries.
The Romans adopted the skill of building columns from the Greeks. In honor of the generals, the Romans built triumphal arches.
The buildings intended for the entertainment of the Roman nobility were of particular splendor. The largest Roman circus - Colisei, held 50 thousand spectators. It was a mf and teatr - in a similar way, circuses and stadiums are being built now.
Roman baths, which were called terms, were also peculiar places of recreation and entertainment. There were washing rooms, changing rooms, swimming pools, promenade halls, sports fields, and even libraries. The spacious halls were covered with vaults and domes, the walls were faced with marble.
On the edge of the squares, large court and commercial buildings were often erected - the basement. In Rome, palaces of rulers and high-rise buildings for the poor were created. The Romans with average incomes lived in separate houses, which surrounded an open courtyard - and at the m. In the middle of the atrium there was a pool for rainwater. Behind the house was a courtyard with columns, a garden, and a fountain.

Triumphal arch of Emperor Titus

In 81, in honor of the Emperor Titus and his victory over Judea, a single-span, 5.33 m wide, Triumphal Arch was erected on the sacred road leading to the Capitol Hill. The marble arch was 20 meters high. An inscription dedicated to Titus was carved above the span; the arch was also decorated with reliefs depicting the victorious procession of the Romans, performed in complex turns and movements.

Pantheon - inside view

The Pantheon was built during the reign of Emperor Hadrian (117-138). The temple is built of stone, brick and concrete. The round building has a height of 42.7 m and is covered with a dome of 43.2 m in diameter. Outside, the building is quite modest, it is decorated only with a portico with Corinthian columns made of red granite. But the interior was a model of technical excellence and luxury. The floor of the temple is paved with marble slabs. The wall is divided in height into two tiers. In the lower tier there were deep niches, in which there were statues of the gods. The upper part is dissected by pilasters (rectangular projections) of colored marble. The illumination of the temple is decided by a hole in the dome, a "window" with a diameter of 9 m, the so-called eye of the Pantheon. The floor under this "eye" has a barely noticeable slope for water drainage.

Pantheon outside

The name of the building speaks for itself - "pantheon", a temple to the pantheon of ancient Roman gods. It should be noted that the building that still stands today is not the first temple on this site. Under Emperor Augustus, the first temple was built, but then it burned down in a fire in Ancient Rome. In memory of the first builder, associate of the Imperator Augustus, Mark Agrippa, the inscription “M. Agrippa l f cos tertium fecit ".

Colosseum outside

Under the emperors Vespasian and Titus, in 75-82. was built a huge amphitheater for gladiatorial battles - Colosseum (from the Latin "colossus" - colossal). In plan it was an ellipse, 188 m long, 156 m wide, 50 m high. The wall is divided into three tiers. In the upper one they pulled up an awning from the rain and the sun. In the lower ones there were statues. The arena could accommodate up to 3000 pairs of gladiators. The arena could be flooded with water and then naval battles were played out.

Colosseum inside

Aqueduct

The Roman Aqueduct is an aqueduct, but at the same time functional and elaborate, perfect art. Above there was a canal, separated by a cornice, below - arches, even lower - visually isolated from the arches supports. Long, continuous horizontal lines hid the height and emphasized the infinity of the water pipe going into the distance.

Equestrian statue of Marcus Aureleus in Rome

The sculpture was initially imported from Greece. Then they began to copy it from Greek. However, there was also an independent, Roman sculpture. These were sculptural portraits and relief images, monuments to emperors and generals.

Portrait of a Roman

Portrait of a young man

Relief sculpture

Statue of Emperor Augustus from Prima Port.

Ancient historians call the period of Octavian Augustus's reign the "golden age" of the Roman state. The established "Roman world" stimulated a high rise in art and culture. The emperor is depicted in a calm, majestic pose, his hand is raised in an inviting gesture; he seemed to appear in the clothes of a general before his legions. August is depicted bareheaded and barefoot, a tradition in Greek art that depicts gods and heroes naked or semi-naked. The face of Augustus bears portrait features, but nevertheless, it is somewhat idealized. The whole figure embodies the idea of \u200b\u200bthe greatness and power of the empire.

Trajan's Column in Rome

A column built by the architect Apollodorus in honor of Emperor Trajan has survived to this day. The column is over 30 meters high and is made up of 17 Carrara marble drums. A spiral staircase runs inside the column. The column ended with a bronze figure of Trajan, which was replaced in the 16th century with a statue of the Apostle Peter. The column is faced with slabs of Parian marble, along which a bas-relief stretches in a spiral of 200 meters, in historical sequence depicting the main events of Trajan's campaign against the Dacians (101 -107): the construction of a bridge over the Danube, the crossing, the battle with the Dacians, their camp, the siege fortresses, the suicide of the Dacian leader, the procession of prisoners, the triumphal return of Trajan to Rome.

Fragment of Trajan's Column

At the end of the 4th and 5th centuries, there was a "great migration of peoples" - a large tribe of Goths settled on the territory of the Roman Empire, they were warmly supported by the rebellious slaves and the peoples enslaved by Rome. Hordes of nomadic Huns sweep through the empire in a destructive whirlwind. The Visigoths, then the vandals capture and destroy Rome itself. The Roman Empire falls apart. And in 476 Rome was dealt the final blow and power passed to the barbarian squads. The Roman Empire fell, but its culture left an indelible mark on human history.

INTRODUCTION

The problems of the history of Roman culture have attracted and are attracting close attention of both wide circles of readers and specialists in various fields of science. This interest is largely determined by the enormous value of the cultural heritage that Rome left to subsequent generations.

The accumulation of new material allows us to take a fresh look at a number of well-established, traditional ideas about Roman culture. General cultural changes were reflected in art, respectively, affecting sculpture.

Sculpture of ancient Rome, like ancient greece, developed within the framework of a slave society. And they adhere to the sequence - first Greece, then Rome. Roman sculpture continued the traditions of the Hellenic masters.

Roman sculpture went through four stages of its development:

1. The origins of Roman sculpture

2. Formation of Roman sculpture (VIII - I centuries BC)

3. The heyday of Roman sculpture (1st - 2nd centuries)

4. The crisis of Roman sculpture (III - IV centuries)

And at each of these stages, Roman sculpture underwent changes associated with cultural development country. Each stage reflects the time of its era with its features in style, genre and direction in sculptural art, which are manifested in the works of sculptors.

ORIGINS OF ROMAN SCULPTURE

1.1 Sculpture of Italians

“In ancient Rome, sculpture was limited mainly to historical relief and portraiture. The plastic forms of Greek athletes are always presented openly. Images like the praying Roman, throwing the hem of his robe over his head, are mostly contained within themselves, concentrated. If the Greek masters deliberately broke with the specific uniqueness of features for the sake of conveying the broadly understood essence of the person being portrayed - a poet, orator or commander, then Roman masters in sculptural portraits focused on the personal, individual characteristics of a person. "

The Romans paid less attention to the art of plastics than the Greeks of that time. Like other Italic tribes of the Apennine peninsula, their own monumental sculpture (they brought themselves a lot of Hellenic statues) was rare for them; dominated by small bronze figurines of gods, geniuses, priests and priestesses, kept in home sanctuaries and brought to temples; but the portrait became the main type of plastic.

1.2 Etruscan sculpture

Plastics played a significant role in the everyday and religious life of the Etruscans: temples were decorated with statues, sculptural and relief sculptures were installed in tombs, interest arose in the portrait, and decor was also characteristic. The profession of a sculptor in Etruria, however, was hardly held in high esteem. The names of the sculptors have hardly survived to this day; only known by Pliny, who worked at the end of the 6th - 5th century. master Vulka.

THE FORMATION OF ROMAN SCULPTURE (VIII - I CENTURY BC)

“During the years of the mature and Late republics, various types of portraits were formed: statues of Romans wrapped in a toga and making a sacrifice (the best example is in the Vatican Museum), military leaders in heroic form with the image of a number of military armor (a statue from Tivoli of the Roman National Museum), noble nobles demonstrating antiquity by a kind of busts of ancestors that they hold in their hands (repetition of the 1st century AD in the Palazzo of the Conservatives), orators making speeches to the people (bronze statue of Aulus Metellus, executed by an Etruscan master). In statuary portrait sculpture there were still strong non-Roman influences, in the tombstone portrait sculptures, where, obviously, everything alien was less allowed, there were few of them. And although one must think that the tombstones were first executed under the guidance of Hellenic and Etruscan masters, apparently, the customers dictated their desires and tastes in them more strongly. The tombstones of the Republic, which were horizontal slabs with niches in which portrait statues were placed, are extremely simple. Two, three, and sometimes five people were depicted in a clear sequence. Only at first glance they seem - because of the monotony of poses, the location of the folds, the movement of the hands - similar to each other. There is not a single person like another, and they are related by their characteristic captivating restraint of feelings, a sublime stoic state in the face of death. "

The masters, however, not only conveyed individual characteristics in sculptural images, but made it possible to feel the tension of a harsh era of wars of conquest, civil strife, continuous anxieties and unrest. In the portraits, the sculptor's attention is drawn, first of all, to the beauty of volumes, the strength of the skeleton, the backbone of the plastic image.

THE FLOWER OF ROMAN SCULPTURE (I - II CENTURIES)

3.1 Time of the August principate

During the years of Augustus, portrait painters paid less attention to the unique features of the face, smoothed out individual originality, emphasized in it something common, common to everyone, likening one subject to another, in a type pleasing to the emperor. Typical standards were created.

“This influence is especially evident in the heroized statues of Augustus. The most famous is his marble statue from Prima Porta. The emperor is depicted as calm, majestic, his hand is raised in an inviting gesture; in the clothes of a Roman general, he seemed to appear before his legions. Its shell is decorated with allegorical reliefs, the cloak is thrown over the hand holding a spear or wand. August is depicted bareheaded and with bare legs, which is known to be a tradition of Greek art, conventionally representing gods and heroes naked or half-naked. The staging of the figure uses the motives of the Hellenistic male figures of the school of the famous Greek master Lysippos.

The face of Augustus bears portrait features, but, nevertheless, it is somewhat idealized, which again comes from Greek portrait sculpture. Such portraits of emperors, intended to decorate forums, basilicas, theaters and thermae, were supposed to embody the idea of \u200b\u200bthe greatness and power of the Roman Empire and the inviolability of the imperial power. The era of Augustus opens a new page in the history of the Roman portrait. "

In portrait sculpture, sculptors now liked to operate with large, little-modeled planes of the cheeks, forehead, and chin. This preference for flatness and the rejection of volumetricity, which manifested itself especially clearly in decorative painting, was reflected at that time in sculptural portraits.

During the time of Augustus, more than before, portraits of women and children, which were very rare before, were created. Most often these were images of the wife and daughter of the princeps, the heirs to the throne appeared in marble and bronze busts and statues of boys. The official nature of such works was recognized by everyone: many wealthy Romans installed such statues in their homes to emphasize their disposition to the ruling family.

3.2 Time Julius - Claudius and Flavius

The essence of art in general and sculpture, in particular, of the Roman Empire began to express itself in full measure in the works of this time.

Monumental sculpture took on forms other than Hellenic. The desire for concreteness led to the fact that the masters even gave deities the individual characteristics of the emperor. Rome was decorated with many statues of the gods: Jupiter, Roma, Minerva, Victoria, Mars. The Romans, who appreciated the masterpieces of Hellenic plastic art, sometimes treated them with fetishism.

“During the heyday of the Empire, trophy monuments were created in honor of victories. Two huge marble trophies of Domitian's decorate the balustrade of the Capitol Square in Rome. Also majestic are the huge statues of the Dioscuri in Rome, at the Quirinal. The rearing horses, the mighty youths holding the reins, are shown in a decisive stormy movement. "

The sculptors of those years sought, first of all, to amaze a person. During the first period of flourishing of the Empire's art, it was widely spread,

however, chamber sculptures are marble figurines that adorn the interiors, quite often found during the excavations of Pompeii, Herculaneum and Stabia.

The sculptural portrait of that period developed in several artistic channels. In the years of Tiberius, sculptors adhered to the classicist manner that prevailed under Augustus and remained along with new techniques. Under Caligula, Claudius and especially Flavius, the idealizing interpretation of the appearance began to be replaced by a more accurate rendering of facial features and character of a person. It was supported by the republican manner with its sharp expressiveness, which did not disappear at all, but was muted during the years of Augustus.

“In the monuments belonging to these different trends, one can notice the development of spatial understanding of volumes and the strengthening of the eccentric interpretation of the composition. Comparison of three statues of seated emperors: Augustus from Qom (St. Petersburg, Hermitage), Tiberius from Privynnus (Rome Vatican) and Nerva (Rome Vatican), convinces that already in the statue of Tiberius, which retains the classicist interpretation of the face, the plastic understanding of forms has changed ... The restraint and formality of the pose of the Kumsky Augustus was replaced by a free, unconstrained position of the body, a soft interpretation of volumes, not opposed to space, but already merged with it. The further development of the plastic-spatial composition of the seated figure is seen in the statue of Nerva with his torso leaning back, his right hand raised high, and a decisive turn of his head.

Changes also took place in the plastic of erect statues. The statues of Claudius have a lot in common with Augustus of Prima Port, but eccentric tendencies make themselves felt here too. It is noteworthy that some sculptors tried to contrast these spectacular plastic compositions with portrait statues, designed in the spirit of a restrained republican manner: the staging of the figure in a huge portrait of Titus from the Vatican is emphatically simple, the legs rest on full feet, the hands are pressed to the body, only the right one is slightly exposed. "

“If in the classicizing portrait art of the time of Augustus was dominated by the graphic principle, now sculptors recreated the individual appearance and character of nature by voluminous modeling of forms. The skin became denser, more prominent, hiding the structure of the head, distinct in the republican portraits. The plasticity of the sculptural images turned out to be richer and more expressive. This manifested itself even in the provincial portraits of Roman rulers that emerged on the distant periphery ”.

The style of the imperial portraits was also imitated by private ones. Generals, rich freedmen, usurers tried to do everything - by postures, movements, demeanor to be like the rulers; sculptors gave pride to the seating of the heads, and decisiveness to the turns, without softening, however, the sharp, far from always attractive features of the individual appearance; after the harsh norms of August classicism, art began to value the uniqueness and complexity of physiognomic expressiveness. A noticeable departure from the Greek norms that prevailed in the years of Augustus is explained not only by the general evolution, but also by the desire of the masters to free themselves from foreign principles and methods, to reveal their Roman characteristics.

In marble portraits, as before, the pupils, lips, possibly hair were tinted with paint.

In those years, more often than before, female sculptural portraits were created. In the images of wives and daughters of emperors, as well as noble Roman women, the masters

at first they followed the classicist principles that prevailed under Augustus. Then, complex hairstyles began to play an increasing role in women's portraits, and the importance of plastic decor manifested itself more strongly than in men's portraits. The portrait painters of Domitia Longina, using high hairstyles in the treatment of faces, however, often adhered to the classicist manner, idealizing features, smoothing the surface of the marble, softening as much as possible the harshness of the individual appearance. “A magnificent monument to the late Flavian times is a bust of a young Roman woman from the Capitoline Museum. In the depiction of her curly locks, the sculptor moved away from the flatness seen in the portraits of Domitia Longina. In portraits of elderly Roman women, the opposition to the classicist manner was stronger. The woman in the Vatican portrait is depicted by the Flavian sculptor with all impartiality. Modeling a puffy face with bags under the eyes, deep wrinkles on sunken cheeks, squinting, seemingly watery eyes, thinning hair - all reveal frightening signs of old age.

3.3 Time of Troyan and Adrian

During the second period of the heyday of Roman art - during the early Antonines - Trajan (98-117) and Hadrian (117-138) - the empire remained strong militarily and prospered economically.

“Round sculpture in the years of Adrian's classicism in many ways imitated the Hellenic. It is possible that the huge statues of the Dioscuri, dating back to the Greek originals, flanking the entrance to the Roman Capitol, arose in the first half of the 2nd century. They lack the dynamism of the Dioscuri from the Quirinal; they are calm, restrained and confidently lead meek and obedient horses by the reins. Some monotony, lethargy forms make you think

that they are the creation of Hadrian's classicism. The size of the statues (5.50m - 5.80m) is also characteristic of the art of this time, which was striving for monumentalization. "

In the portraits of this period, two stages can be distinguished: Trajan's, characterized by a gravitation towards republican principles, and Adrian's, in the plastic of which there is more adherence to Greek models. Emperors appeared in the guise of generals chained in armor, in the pose of sacrificing priests, in the form of naked gods, heroes or warriors.

“In the busts of Trajan, who can be recognized by the parallel strands of hair descending on his forehead and the volitional fold of his lips, calm planes of the cheeks and some sharpness of features are always prevailing, especially noticeable both in Moscow and in the Vatican monuments. The energy concentrated in a person is clearly expressed in the Petersburg busts: a hunchbacked Roman - Sallust, a young man with a determined look, and a lictor. " The surface of the faces in the marble portraits of Trajan's time conveys the serenity and inflexibility of people; they seem to be cast in metal rather than carved in stone. Subtly perceiving physiognomic shades, Roman portrait painters created far from unambiguous images. The faces were also affected by the bureaucratization of the entire system of the Roman Empire. Tired, indifferent eyes and dry, tightly compressed lips of a man in a portrait from the National Museum

Naples is characterized by a man of a difficult era who subordinated his emotions to the cruel will of the emperor. Women's images are filled with the same feeling of restraint, volitional tension, only occasionally softened by light irony, thoughtfulness or concentration.

The appeal to the Greek aesthetic system under Hadrian is an important phenomenon, but in essence this second wave of classicism after the August wave was even more external than the first. Even under Hadrian, classicism was only a mask, under which it did not die, but the actual Roman attitude to form developed. The uniqueness of the development of Roman art, with its pulsating manifestations of either classicism, or the actual Roman essence, with its spatiality of forms and reliability, called verism, is evidence of the very contradictory nature of artistic thinking in late antiquity.

3.4 Time of the last Antonines

The late heyday of Roman art, which began in last years The reign of Adrian and under Antonin Pius and lasted until the end of the 2nd century, was characterized by the fading of pathos and pomp in artistic forms. This period is marked by the cultural effort of individualistic tendencies.

“The sculptural portrait underwent great changes at that time. The monumental round plastic of the late Antonines, while preserving the Adrian traditions, still testified to the fusion of ideal heroic images with specific characters, most often the emperor or his entourage, about the glorification or deification of an individual person. The faces of the deities in huge statues were given the features of emperors, monumental equestrian statues were cast, a model of which is the statue of Marcus Aurelius, the splendor of the equestrian monument was enhanced by gilding. However, even in the monumental portraits of even the emperor himself, fatigue and philosophical reflection began to be felt. " The art of portraiture, which experienced a kind of crisis in the years of the early Hadrian in connection with the strong classicist trends of the time, entered under the late Antonines in a heyday, which it did not know even in the years of the Republic and the Flavians.

In statuary portraiture, the heroic idealized images that determined the art of the time of Trajan and Adrian continued to be created.

“Since the thirties of the III century. n. e. in portraiture, new artistic forms are being developed. The depth of psychological characteristics is achieved not by detailing the plastic form, but, on the contrary, by the laconicism, the parsimony of the selection of the most important defining personality traits. Such, for example, is the portrait of Philip the Arabian (Petersburg, Hermitage). The rough surface of the stone conveys well the weathered skin of the "soldier" emperors: generalized lenok, sharp, asymmetrically located folds on the forehead and cheeks, treatment of hair and short beard only with small sharp notches focuses the viewer's attention on the eyes, on the expressive line of the mouth. "

“Portrait painters began to interpret the eyes in a new way: the pupils, which they portrayed plastically, cutting into the marble, now gave the look liveliness and naturalness. Slightly covered with wide upper eyelids, they looked melancholy and sad. The look seemed absent-minded and dreamy, obedient submission to the higher, not fully realized mysterious forces dominated. " Hints of the deep spirituality of the marble mass echoed on the surface in the thoughtfulness of views, the mobility of strands of hair, the tremor of the slight curves of the beard and mustache. The portrait painters, performing curly hair, cut hard with a drill into the marble and sometimes drilled deep internal cavities. Lighted by the sun's rays, such hairstyles seemed like a mass of living hair.

The artistic image was likened to the real one;

sculptors and to what they especially wanted to depict - to the elusive movements of human feelings and moods.

The masters of that era used various, often expensive materials for their portraits: gold and silver, rock crystal, and also widely spread glass. Sculptors rated this - a gentle, transparent, creating beautiful reflections. Even marble under the hands of the masters sometimes lost the strength of the stone, and its surface seemed like human skin. A nuanced sense of reality in such portraits made the hair lush and mobile, the skin silky, the fabric of the clothes soft. They polished the marble of a woman's face more carefully than that of a man's; youthfulness was distinguished by texture from senile.

Crisis Roman sculpture (III - IV BB).

4.1 End of the Principate Era

In the development of the art of Late Rome, two stages can be distinguished more or less clearly. The first is the art of the end of the principate (3rd century) and the second is the art of the dominant era (from the beginning of the reign of Diocletian to the fall of the Roman Empire). "In artistic monuments, especially of the second period, one can see the extinction of ancient pagan ideas and the increasing expression of new, Christian ones."

Sculptural portrait in the 3rd century. He underwent particularly noticeable changes. The statues and busts still retain the techniques of the late Antonines, but

the meaning of the images has changed. Alertness and suspicion replaced the philosophical pensiveness of the characters of the second half of the 2nd century. The tension made itself felt even in female faces that time. In portraits in the second

quarter of the 3rd century The volumes were denser, the masters abandoned the gimbal, performed the hair with notches, achieved especially expressive expressiveness of wide-open eyes.

The desire of innovative sculptors by such means to increase the artistic impact of their works provoked a reaction in the years of Gallien (mid-3rd century) and a return to old methods. For two decades, portrait painters again depicted the Romans with curly hair and curly beards, trying at least in artistic forms to revive the old manners and thus remind of the former greatness of plastic. However, after this short-term and artificial return to Antonin's forms already at the end of the third quarter of the 3rd century. The desire of the sculptors to convey the emotional tension of a person's inner world with the utmost laconic means was again revealed. In the years of bloody feuds and the frequent change of emperors who fought for the throne, portrait painters embodied the shades of complex spiritual experiences in new, then-born forms. Gradually, they were more and more interested not in individual traits, but in those sometimes elusive moods that were already difficult to express in stone, marble, bronze.

4.2 The era of dominance

In the sculptures of the 4th century. pagan and Christian plots coexisted; artists turned to the depiction and glorification of not only mythological, but also Christian heroes; continuing what began in the III century. praising the emperors and their families, they prepared the atmosphere of unbridled panegyrics and worship, characteristic of the Byzantine court ceremony.

Face modeling gradually ceased to occupy portrait painters. The spiritual forces of man, which were especially acutely felt in the age when Christianity conquered the hearts of the pagans, seemed cramped in the rigid forms of marble and bronze. Awareness of this deep conflict of the era, the impossibility of expressing feelings in plastic materials gave artistic monuments of the 4th century. something tragic.

Widely revealed in portraits of the 4th century. the eyes, looking now sadly and imperiously, now questioningly and anxiously, warmed with human feelings the cold, numb masses of stone and bronze. Warm and translucent marble became less and less the material for portrait painters; more and more often they chose to depict faces less similar to qualities human body basalt or porphyry.

CONCLUSION

From all that has been considered, it is clear that sculpture developed within the framework of its time, i.e. she relied very heavily on her predecessors, as well as on the Greek. During the heyday of the Roman Empire, each emperor brought something new to art, something of his own, and along with the art, sculpture changed accordingly.

The antique sculpture is replaced by the Christian one; to replace the more or less unified Greco - Roman sculpture, widespread within the Roman Empire, provincial sculptures, with revived local traditions, already close to the "barbarian" ones coming to replace them. Begins new era history of world culture, in which Roman and Greco-Roman sculpture is only one of the components.

In European art, ancient Roman works often served as a kind of standards, which were imitated by architects, sculptors, glass blowers and ceramists. The priceless artistic heritage of ancient Rome continues to live on as a school of classical craftsmanship for contemporary art.

LITERATURE

1. Vlasov V. Portrait of Antonin Pius.- Art, 1968, No. 6

2. Voshchina A.I. Antique art, M., 1962

3. Voshchinina A. I. Roman portrait. L., 1974

4. Dobroklonsky M.V., Chubova A.P., History of art of foreign countries, M., 1981

5. Sokolov GI Antique Black Sea region. L., 1973

6. Sokolov GI The Art of Ancient Rome, M., 1985.

7. Sokolov GI Art of the East and Antiquity. M., 1977

8. Shtaerman E.M. Crisis of the 3rd century in the Roman Empire - Ref. Stories, 1977, no. 5

The main advantage of ancient Roman sculpture is the realism and reliability of the images. First of all, this is due to the fact that the Romans had a strong cult of ancestors, and from the earliest period of Roman history there was a custom to remove posthumous wax masks, which later were taken as the basis of sculptural portraits by the masters of sculpture.

The very concept of "ancient Roman art" has a very conventional meaning. All Roman sculptors were Greek in origin. In an aesthetic sense, all ancient Roman sculpture is a replica of the Greek one. The innovation was the combination of the Greek desire for harmony and Roman rigidity and the cult of strength.

The history of ancient Roman sculpture is divided into three parts - the art of the Etruscans, the plastic arts of the era of the republic, and the imperial art.

Etruscan art

Etruscan sculpture was intended to decorate the funerary urns. These urns themselves were created in the form of a human body. Realism of the image was considered essential to maintain order in the world of spirits and people. The works of the ancient Etruscan masters, despite the primitiveness and schematic nature of the images, amaze with the individuality of each image, their character and energy.

Sculpture of the Roman Republic

For the sculpture of the time characteristic of the emotional stinginess, detachment and coldness. The impression was created that the image was completely closed. This is due to the exact reproduction of the death mask when creating the sculpture. The situation was somewhat corrected by Greek aesthetics, the canons by which the proportions of the human body were calculated.

Numerous reliefs of triumphal columns and temples dating back to this period are striking in their graceful lines and realism. Especially worth mentioning is the bronze sculpture of the "Roman She-Wolf". The founding legend of Rome, the material embodiment of Roman ideology - this is the significance of this statue in culture. The primitivization of the plot, the wrong proportions, the fantastic, do not in the least prevent one from admiring the dynamics of this work, its special poignancy and temperament.

But the main conquest in sculpture of this era was the realistic sculptural portrait. Unlike Greece, where, creating a portrait, the master somehow subordinated all the individual features of the model to the laws of harmony and beauty, the Roman masters carefully copied all the subtleties of the models' appearance. On the other hand, this often led to a simplification of images, rough lines and a distance from realism.

Sculpture of the Roman Empire

The task of the art of any empire is to exalt the emperor and the state. Rome is no exception. The Romans of the era of the empire could not imagine their home without sculptures of ancestors, gods and the emperor himself. Therefore, many examples of imperial plastic art have survived to this day.

First of all, the triumphal columns of Trajan and Marcus Aurelius deserve attention. The columns are decorated with bas-reliefs telling about military campaigns, exploits and trophies. Such reliefs are not only works of art that amaze with the accuracy of the images, the multi-figured composition, the harmony of lines and the subtlety of work, they are also an invaluable historical source that allows you to restore the everyday and military details of the era of the empire.

Statue of Emperor of Rome in the forums are in harsh, rude manner. There is no longer a trace of that Greek harmony and beauty that was characteristic of early Roman art. The masters, first of all, had to portray strong and tough rulers. There was also a departure from realism. Roman emperors were portrayed as athletic and tall, despite the fact that few of them were distinguished by a harmonious physique.

Almost always during the Roman Empire, sculptures of gods were depicted with the faces of the ruling emperors, so historians know for sure what the emperors of the largest ancient state looked like.

Despite the fact that Roman art, without any doubt, entered the world treasury of many masterpieces, in its essence it is only a continuation of the ancient Greek. The Romans developed ancient art, made it more magnificent, majestic, brighter. On the other hand, it was the Romans who lost the sense of proportion, depth and ideological content of early antique art.

The most famous sculptures in Rome

The greatest cultural and archaeological heritage of the Eternal City, woven from different historical eras, makes Rome unique. The capital of Italy contains an incredible amount of works of art - real masterpieces, known all over the world, behind which are the names of great talents. In this article, we want to tell you about the most famous sculptures in Rome, which are definitely worth seeing.

For many centuries Rome has been the center of world art. Since ancient times, masterpieces of the creations of human hands have been brought to the capital of the Empire. During the Renaissance, pontiffs, cardinals and members of the nobility built palaces and churches, decorating them with beautiful frescoes, paintings and sculptures. Many newly erected buildings from this period donated new life architectural and decorative elements of antiquity - ancient columns, capitals, marble friezes and sculptures were taken from buildings of the times of the Empire, restored and installed in a new place. In addition, the Renaissance gave Rome an endless number of new ingenious creations, including the works of Michelangelo, Canova, Bernini and many other talented sculptors.

Sleeping Hermaphrodite

Capitoline wolf

The most significant for the Romans is the "Capitoline She-Wolf", which is now kept in the Capitoline Museums. According to the legend about the founding of Rome, the twins Romulus and Remus were nursed by a she-wolf at the Capitol Hill.

It is generally accepted that the bronze statue was made by the Etruscans in the 5th century BC, but modern researchers tend to assume that the "She-Wolf" was made much later - during the Middle Ages. The twins were added in the second half of the 15th century. Their authorship has not been established for certain. Most likely they were created by Antonio del Pollaiolo.

Laocoon and sons

One of the most famous sculptures in Rome is in the Pio Clementine Museum, part of the Vatican Museums complex. This work is a marble Roman copy made between the 1st century BC. and 1st century A.D. after a Greek bronze original. A sculptural group depicting a scene of Laocoon and his sons fighting against snakes is believed to have decorated the private villa of Emperor Titus.

The statue was discovered at the beginning of the 16th century in the vineyards of the Oppio Hill, owned by a certain Felice de Fredis. In the Basilica of Santa Maria in Aracoeli, on the tombstone of Felice, you can see an inscription telling about this fact. Michelangelo Buonarroti and Giuliano da Sangallo were invited to the excavations, who were to evaluate the find.

This sculptural group during the Renaissance made a strong resonance in the circles of creative persons and influenced the development of Renaissance art in Italy. The incredible dynamism and plasticity of the forms of the antique work inspired many masters of that time, such as Michelangelo, Titian, El Greco, Andrea del Sarto, and others.

Sculptures by Michelangelo

The great master of all times, whose name almost everyone knows - Michelangelo Buonarroti - sculptor, architect, artist and poet. Despite the fact that most of the works of this talented man are in Florence and Bologna, in Rome you can also get acquainted with some of his works. In the Vatican, in St. Peter's Basilica, there is a world masterpiece of all eras - the sculptural group Pieta Michelangelo, depicting the Virgin Mary mourning Jesus, taken from the cross after the crucifixion. At the time of this work, the master was only 24 years old. In addition, Pieta is the only work of the master signed with his own hand.

Pieta

Another work of Buonarroti can be admired in the Cathedral of San Pietro in Vincoli. There is a monumental tombstone for Pope Julius II, the creation of which took four decades. Despite the fact that the original project of the funeral monument was never fully implemented, the main figure decorating the monument and personifying Moses makes a strong impression.

Moses

The sculpture looks so realistic that it fully conveys the character and mood of the biblical character.

Sculptures by Lorenzo Bernini

Another genius, whose name is closely associated with Rome - is Jean Lorenzo Bernini. Thanks to his activities, the Eternal City acquired a new look. According to Bernini's designs, palaces and churches were erected, squares and fountains were equipped. Bernini, together with his students, designed the Bridge of Saint Angel, created an incredible number of sculptures, many of which still adorn the streets of Rome.

Bernini. Fountain of the Four Rivers in Piazza Navona. Fragment

Sensual marble figures with graceful soft shapes and special sophistication amaze with their virtuoso performance: cold stone looks warm and soft, and the characters of sculptural compositions - alive.

Among the most famous works by Bernini, which are definitely worth seeing with your own eyes, the first place on our list is occupied by "The Rape of Proserpine" and "Apollo and Daphne", which make up the collection of the Borghese Gallery. Learn more about these works, as well as about other masterpieces of the Borghese Gallery.

Apollo and Daphne

The “Ecstasy of Blessed Ludovica Albertoni” deserves special attention - another masterpiece of the Renaissance. This sculptural statue, created as a funeral monument at the request of Cardinal Paluzzi, depicts a scene of the religious ecstasy of Louis Albertoni, who lived at the turn of the 15th and 16th centuries. The sculpture adorns the Altieri Chapel in the Basilica of San Francesco a Ripa in the Trastevere region.

Ecstasy of the Blessed Ludovica Albertoni

Another similar work is kept in the Basilica of Santa Maria della Vittoria. The Ecstasy of Saint Teresa was sculpted by Lorenzo Bernini by order of the Venetian cardinal at the end of the 17th century. The main character of the work is Saint Teresa, immersed in a state of spiritual illumination. Nearby, against the background of sparkling golden rays, is the figure of an angel directing an arrow into the languid body of the saint. The plot for the sculptural group was the story described by the Spanish nun Teresa of how in a dream she saw an angel piercing her womb with an arrow of divine light, which caused her to experience the torment of lust.

Ecstasy of Saint Teresa

Paolina Borghese by sculptor Antonio Canova

Another world-class masterpiece is the gentle and romantic Paolina Borghese, executed in the first decade of the 19th century in the neoclassical style by the renowned sculptor Antonio Canova. The sculpture depicting Napoleon's sister Paolina Bonaparte was commissioned on the occasion of her marriage to Camillo Borghese, a Roman prince.

The sculptures described in this article are only an insignificant part of the many world masterpieces located in Rome, the genius of which is beyond doubt and which you should definitely see at least once in your life.

Until the 20th century, the history of ancient sculpture was lined up in chronological order - first Greece (the flourishing of art in the 5th – 4th centuries BC), then Rome (the peak of the rise of the 1st – 2nd centuries AD). Art (Roma) was considered a late expression of Greek cultural traditions, the completion of the art of the period of antiquity.

After the publication of the works of art critics Ranuccio Bianchi-Bandinelli, Otto Brendel, antique scholars recognized Roman art as a distinctive and unique phenomenon. The sculpture of ancient Rome came to be seen as a school of classical craftsmanship, the history of which has not yet been written.

In the VIII century. BC e. ancient Roman masters pushed away from the traditions of Hellenic sculptors and began to master independent creativity.

The history of ancient Roman art is divided into four stages:

1. The most ancient era (VIII-V centuries BC)
2. Republican era, the period of formation (V - I centuries BC)
3. The heyday of the Roman imperial art (I - II century AD.)
4. The era of the crisis (III - IV centuries A.D.)

The origins of ancient Roman sculpture are the art of Italics and Etruscans, who created a kind of cultural monuments. The most famous artifact is a warrior from Capestrano (Guerriero di Capestrano).

Sculptors of the most ancient era created portraits, stone bas-reliefs, which differed from Greek works by the average quality of work.

Temple terracotta sculpture with decorative and cult functions was developed. Large statues of gods appeared, surpassing the size of the Greek statues. In 1916, on the territory of the ancient Etruscan city Veii, magnificent terracotta statues of Apollo, Hermes, Venus were found, which were created for the external decoration of the temple of Apollo (550 - 520 BC).

Features of ancient Roman sculpture

The authors of scientific research (Oscar Waldgauer, Grant Michael, V.D.Blavatsky) believe that the sculpture of ancient Rome cannot be called a blind imitation of Hellenic images, because cultural monuments are distinguished by features characteristic of each era of development.

Roman masters moved away from the traditions of Greek sculptors and did not create images of an ideal person. Individuality runs through the history of Roman portraiture, which is based on the religious custom of creating death masks.

Patricians had the right to keep the appearance of a deceased ancestor in their homes. The more portraits, the more noble the family. This explains the characteristic features of Roman sculpture: realism, concreteness, knowledge of facial expressions and musculature.

The Greek sculptor, inspired by the ideas of humanism, sang his gods in marble in the image of the perfect human body. Ancient Roman craftsmen preferred to work with stone, clay and bronze. Their gods had an unpredictable character, inspired fear of becoming a victim of the wrath of higher powers. Allegory and symbolism prevail in sculpture. Only in the 1st century BC. in Rome began to use marble.

The works are distinguished by emotional coldness and detachment. The open plasticity of Greek sculptures is contrasted with the image of a Roman who covered his head with the hem of his clothes during prayer.

The Hellenic masters saw a type of person: an athlete, a philosopher, a commander. Roman sculptors created portraits in the spirit of extreme naturalism, concretized the qualities of a person's character, his individual characteristics.

The sculptors of Rome add a new form of portrait images to the Greek models of plastic art (statue, herme) - a bust.

The Hellenic sculptor associated creativity with a poetic myth. The Roman sculptor perceives the world in distinct forms.

Unlike the Greeks, during the Late Republic (264 - 27 BC), the Romans did little to do with monumental sculpture. Preference was given to bronze figurines of prominent figures and gods.

Senate decrees regulated the size, material, character of the statue. Equestrian and armored portrait could be installed only in case of a military triumph. The task of the sculptors was the need to capture the family, generic traits, social rank and status of the Roman.

Many works are identified or have an inscription on a pedestal with information about the model, but the names of the ancient Roman portrait painters have not survived.

Types and genres

The sculpture of ancient Rome consists of two types:

1. Relief ("high" - high relief; "low" - bas-relief).
2. Round sculpture (statue, bust, composition, figurine)

Scientists of the complex science of antiquity identified the main genres of Roman sculpture:

• historical;
• mythological;
• allegorical;
• symbolic;
• battle;
• portrait.

One of the main types visual arts Rome - relief. Masters are inclined towards analysis, detailed depiction of images, and reliably record historical events. The main fence of the Altar of Peace in Rome (13 - 9 BC), the reliefs of the imperial period - Trajan's Arch in Benevento (114 - 117) are recognized as a masterpiece of the time of the early principate.

Features of sculpture of the heyday

The change of imperial dynasties influenced the stylistic features of ancient Roman sculpture.

Time of the August principate

Antiquities call the time of the reign, nicknamed Augustus (Octavianus Augustus), the "golden age" of the Roman state (27 BC - 14 AD).

Greek sculpture of the classical period with strict forms serves as an example for the ruler in the creation of a magnificent empire. In portrait sculpture, individual features are smoothed out. The general appearance, pleasing to the principate, becomes a typical standard.

The established norm is manifested in the portrait busts of Octavian himself, who demanded to portray himself as a young, athletic ruler.

The idealization of the image is clearly visible in the statues installed on the forum, in front of (Panthevm), the Roman temple of Mars the avenger (Tempio di Marte Ultore nel Foro di Roma). In 1863, a two-meter high bronze statue was found at Prima Porta, made by order of the Roman Senate.

August is represented as a majestic descendant of the gods, at whose feet Cupid is sitting on a dolphin. The relief on the shell tells the people about the emperor's victories in numerous battles. (Chiaramonti Museum - Museo Chiaramonti - Vatican).

Masters create independent female portraits. Sculptural images of children appear for the first time. Depicted on the left relief of the Altar of Peace (Ara Pacis), the beautiful Earth Goddess Tellus (Tellus) holds two babies on her lap, surrounded by figures of well-fed animals.

Art is meant to magnify the prosperity of Rome under the first emperor.

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The time of the Julians - Claudians (27 - 68 BC) and Flavians (69 - 96 BC)

During the reign of Juliev - Klavdiev and Flaviev, monumental sculpture came to the fore. The chanting of power led to the fact that the masters gave even the gods character traits emperors.

For the first time, realism appears in portraits. For example, the statue of Claudius (Tiberius Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus) consists of two different parts: the head with a realistic depiction of the aging face of the great pontiff and the ideal figure of the Greek god Jupiter.

The appearance of the ruler is shown using volumetric sculpting: a wide forehead with wrinkles, a flabby face, protruding ears.

The new style replaced the smoothness of the individual features of the portrait busts with a realistic depiction of the Roman emperors. In marble portraits, paints are used to tint the lips, the eyeballs are tinted with ivory. In bronze busts, to make the eyes shine, semiprecious stones are inserted into the pupils (a portrait of the cunning usurer of Pompeii Cecilius Yukunda).

The genre of female portrait is developing in two directions: classicistic and “veristic”. Merciless truthfulness is reflected in the portrait of an elderly Roman woman (Vatican Museums, Gregorian Secular Museum - Museo Gregoriano Profano).

A thin, restless face, a wrinkled forehead, bags under watery eyes speak of impending old age. The female image is presented in a different way in the statue of a stranger found at the antique gate of St. Sebastian (Porta San Sebastiano).

A half-naked Roman woman is depicted by Aphrodite. The woman proudly bent her waist, put her hips on her hips, put her leg forward, covered with a fixed cloth. The portrait head of a middle-aged domineering Roman woman hardly matches the ideal figure of the goddess (Vatican. Capitoline Museums - Musei Capitolini).

Time of Trajan (98-117) and Hadrian (117-138)

During the reigns of Emperor Trajan and Hadrian, the sculpture continues to express the greatness of the Empire. The use of different forms determined two stages of artistic development: Trajan and Adrian.

Laocoon and sons

The marble sculptural composition depicts the mortal struggle of Laocoon, priest of the god Apollo, and his sons with snakes.

The work was created in 50 I century BC. e., is a copy of a non-preserved bronze monument of Greek sculptors (Pergamum, 200 BC). (Michelangelo Buonarroti), sent by Pope Julius II to evaluate the find, confirmed the reliability of the work and noted the incredible dynamism and plasticity of the creation of the ancient Roman sculptor. One of the most famous sculptures of ancient Rome is kept in (Museo Pio-Clementino), Vatican.

Clay urn of the 6th century BC is an example of burial cult monuments.

The lid is made in the form of a human head, decorated with a bronze mask (Canopus Chiusi). The Etruscan master tried to preserve the appearance of the deceased: large facial features, a large nose, narrow lips, straight hair drawn in clay. Portrait resemblance was a guarantee of otherworldly immortality. The handles of the ritual vessel are made in the form of human hands. The desire to create a reliable image became the basis for the appearance of the Etruscan portrait (Paris, Louvre Museum - Musee du Louvre).

Warrior from Capestrano

Antique statue of the 6th century BC (found in 1934) depicts a quietly standing warrior (Guerriero di Capestrano) of the Piceno tribe.

The author departs from a typical example of ancient Greek plastic art - a kouros (statue of a young athlete), making a step with his left foot. The unknown sculptor, differently from the Greeks, depicts a figure with exaggerated massive hips, broad shoulders, a mask on the face, and a helmet with incredible brims. The construction of a three-dimensional shape with side columns, gaps between the calves and the waist convinces that the statue of a warrior on a pedestal belongs to a round sculpture. The ancient artifact is on display at the National Archaeological Museum (Chieti).

Terracotta Winged Horses

The decoration of the temple of Ara della Regina (Dell'Ara della Regina) in Tarquinia was made in the 4th century BC.

The figures of horses mounted on the pediment of the cult building have arched their necks, spread their wings, and move their legs in readiness to carry the divine rider up. Fairy-tale creatures are close to real images due to muscle tension and nervousness of movements. Winged horses can be seen at the Tarquinia National Archaeological Museum.

Chimera of Arezzo

The chimera of Arezzo, made in the 5th century BC, is considered the pinnacle of ancient bronze casting.

The fantastic figure of a lion with a goat's head and a snake-shaped tail is an example of symbolism in sculpture. The animal embodies the triune image of the Great Mother of the Gods: the Goat is the symbol of birth and feeding; the symbol of life is Leo; death - Snake. A 79 cm high bronze sculpture found in the 16th century is on display at the Florence Archaeological Museum (Museo Archeologico Nazionale di Firenze).

Head of a sullen man

The head of a sullen man ("Malvolta"), 16.2 cm high, was made in the second half of the 5th century. BC e.

Eyes, both old and young, capricious mouth give an unapproachable look to the sculptural image. Art critics find striking similarities between the Malvolta and the head of St. George sculpture (Donatello), created by the master after millennia. The sculpture found in Veii is kept in the Roman Museum of the Villa Giulia (Museo Villa Giulia).

Marble relief from the Altar of Peace Augustus

Capitoline Brutus

Part of the bronze sculpture (the head of a man), discovered during excavations in Rome in 1564, made a splash with its preservation.

Work done in the years 300 - 275. BC, is considered a masterpiece of Etruscan art in terms of the power of expressiveness of the image and the technique of execution. One of the oldest sculptures found is believed to be a portrait of the founder of the Roman Republic, Lucius Iunius Brutus, Bruto Capitolino. The face seems alive thanks to the inlay with ivory plates and a colored stone inserted into the pupils. The sculptor conveys the character of an extraordinary person. The fighter against tyranny does not give up in the face of difficulties. (Capitoline Museums, Conservative Palace).

Statue of Aulus Metellus

A bronze statue of the orator Aulus Metellus (Arringatore), created around 100 BC, was found in 1566 at the bottom of Lake Trasimene.

The orator, the Roman master Aulus Metellus, stretched out his hand and called for attention. The portrait image is devoid of idealization, frankly reproduces nature: a plump figure, a face with wrinkles, a crooked mouth. The work is the first example of an early Roman portrait. The inscription on the border of the toga informs in honor of whom the statue was erected. (National Archaeological Museum, Florence - Museo archeologico nazionale di Firenze).

Statue of Germanicus

Marble statue of the end of the 1st century BC. represents the heroic figure of the Roman military leader and statesman Germanicus.

The adopted nephew of Tiberius (the second Roman emperor) was a man of rare beauty and courage. At the age of 34, he became a victim of palace intrigue and was poisoned with a slow-acting poison. The eloquent commander, capable of science, enjoyed the well-deserved love of the people. The unknown sculptor conveys the youthful grace of the figure and the idealized image of Germanicus, whose death caused universal grief for the Romans. (Paris, Louvre Museum - Musee du Louvre).

In the 15th century, a gilded bronze sculpture of Hercules was found during the excavation of the oldest trading square in Rome (Forum Bull).

The 241 cm high figure represents the Greek mythological hero Hercules. The work was done in the 2nd century BC. The slender, muscular athlete defeated Kaka, who stole the cows from him. In the right hand of the hero is a lowered club, in the left - the golden apples of the Hesperides. The statue stood in the Temple of Hercules the Victorious, built on the Forum Bull, where cattle were previously sold. (Rome, Capitoline Museums −Musei Capitolini).

Female sculptural portrait of the time of the Flavians

A marble portrait of a young Roman woman (1st century AD) reflects the desire of the wives of emperors, their daughters and noble Roman women to shine with beauty and fashion.

A high complex hairstyle, almond-shaped eyes, fluffy eyebrows, a long neck, beautifully outlined lips give the image a special poetry. The sculptor achieved a softening of the appearance due to the smoothing of the marble surface using the technique of execution with the use of a drill. The work, executed in a special artistic manner, is exhibited at the Capitoline Museums (Musei Capitolini), Rome.

The poetic image of youth and beauty is represented by a marble bust made at the end of the 1st century AD.

The individual features of the young man are emphasized by sad eyes, a strong chin, and a beautifully outlined mouth. The sculptor skillfully conveys thick hair, shine of eyes, elasticity of the skin, but does not idealize the image. The turn of the head, the flexible neck, the athletic turn of the shoulders correspond to the sculptures of Hellenic art. (London, British Museum - British Museum).

Equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius

The only surviving equestrian statue of Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, the last of the five "good emperors" of Rome, was created in the II century. AD The monumental, originally gilded sculpture presents Marcus Aurelius as a thinker whom his contemporaries called the philosopher on the throne.

The emperor, who does not have a warlike character, is dressed in a tunic and sandals on his bare feet. The idealized image of the ruler was identified in the 15th century by minted coins: thick curly hair, protruding cheekbones, bulging eyes. The monument of antiquity survived, because the Christian church took the guise of a horseman for the emperor Constantine. (Capitoline Museums - Musei Capitolini - Palace of the Conservatives).

Hermitage collection

The Roman halls of the State Hermitage Museum display 120 works of ancient masters. One of the best collections in the world has no copies. All exhibits are genuine. The sculptures have kept the prototypes of images "alive" and have shown the essence of human nature. It is impossible to confuse the soldier emperor Philip the Arab (Marcus Iulius Philippus) with the self-righteous co-ruler of Marcus Aurelius - the handsome Lucius Verus.

The halls display not only portraits of emperors and members of their families, but also sculptures of private persons. Unnamed masters perfectly conveyed the social type of nature. The curator of the Roman portrait of the Hermitage, Candidate of Art History AA Trofimova calls the bronze bust of an unknown Roman a rare museum piece.

The emotional, tragic image of a man with a clever ironic gaze still arouses controversy among experts about the prototype of the hero. Figurines, busts, sculptures of ancient Rome amaze with the variety of plastic forms and richness of characters.

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One of the most ancient civilizations in the world - the Holy Roman Empire - gave humanity the greatest culture, which included not only the richest literary heritage, but also the stone chronicle. For a long time there is no people who inhabited this state, but thanks to the preserved architectural monuments, it is possible to recreate the way of life of the pagan Romans. April 21, the day the city was founded on seven hills, I propose to look at 10 sights of Ancient Rome.

Roman forum

The area, located in the valley between the Palatine and Velia on the south side, the Capitol on the west, Esquiline and the slopes of the Quirinal and Viminal, was a wetland in the pre-Roman period. Until the middle of the VIII century BC. e. this area was used for burials, and settlements were located on the nearby hills. The place was drained during the reign of King Tarquikius the Ancient, who stopped it at the center of the political, religious and cultural life of the townspeople. It was here that the famous truce between the Romans and the Sabines took place, elections to the Senate were held, judges sat and divine services were performed.

From west to east, through the entire Roman Forum, runs the sacred road of the empire - Via Appia, or the Appian Way, along which there are many monuments from both ancient and medieval times. The Roman Forum houses the Temple of Saturn, the Temple of Vespasian and the Temple of Vesta.

The temple in honor of the god Saturn was erected around 489 BC, symbolizing the victory over the Etruscan kings of the Tarquinean clan. Several times he died during fires, but was revived. The inscription on the frieze confirms that "The Senate and the people of Rome have been rebuilt, destroyed by fire." It was a majestic building, which was decorated with a statue of Saturn, it included the premises of the state treasury, an aerarium, where documents on state revenues and debts were kept. However, only a few columns of the Ionic order have survived to this day.

The construction of the Temple of Vespasian began by decision of the Senate in 79 AD. e. after the death of the emperor. This holy building was dedicated to Flavias: Vespasian and his son Titus. Its length was 33 m, and in width it stretched to 22 m. Three 15-meter columns of the Corinthian order have survived to this day.

The Temple of Vesta is dedicated to the goddess of the hearth and in ancient times was connected with the House of the Vestals. The Sacred Fire was constantly maintained in the interior. Initially, it was guarded by the king's daughters, then they were replaced by the Vestal priestesses, who also conducted services in honor of Vesta. In this temple there was a cache with the symbols of the empire. The building was round in shape, the territory of which was bordered by 20 Corinthian columns. Despite the fact that the roof had an outlet for smoke, fires often broke out in the temple. It was rescued several times, reconstructed, but in 394 the emperor Theodosius ordered to close it. Gradually, the building was dilapidated and fell into decay.

Trajan's Column

Monument of ancient Roman architecture, erected in 113 AD. architect Apollodorus of Damascus in honor of the victories of Emperor Trajan over the Dacians. The marble column, hollow inside, rises 38 m above the ground. In the "body" of the structure there is a spiral staircase with 185 steps leading to the observation deck on the capital.

The column's barrel spirals 23 times around a 190 m long ribbon with reliefs depicting episodes of the war between Rome and Dacia. Initially, the monument was crowned with an eagle, later with a statue of Trajan. And in the Middle Ages, the column began to be decorated with a statue of the Apostle Peter. At the base of the column there is a door leading to the hall where the golden urns with the ashes of Trajan and his wife Pompeii Plotina were placed. The relief tells about Trajan's two wars with the Dacians, and the period 101-102. AD separated from the battles of 105–106 by the winged figure of Victoria writing the name of the winner on a shield surrounded by trophies. It also depicts the movement of the Romans, the construction of fortifications, river crossings, battles, the details of weapons, armor of both troops are drawn in great detail. There are about 2,500 human figures on the 40-ton column. Trajan appears on it 59 times. In addition to the Victory, there are other allegorical figures in the relief: the Danube in the form of a majestic old man, Night - a woman with a veiled face, etc.

Pantheon

The Temple of All Gods was built in 126 AD. e. under the Emperor Hadrian on the site of the previous Pantheon, erected two centuries earlier by Mark Vipsanius Agrippa. The Latin inscription on the pediment reads: “M. AGRIPPA L F COS TERTIUM FECIT "-" Marcus Agrippa, son of Lucius, elected consul for the third time, erected this. " Located in Piazza della Rotonda. The Pantheon is distinguished by the classical clarity and integrity of the composition of the internal space, the grandeur of the artistic image. The building, devoid of external decorations of a cylindrical shape, is crowned with a dome covered with discreet carvings. The height from the floor to the opening in the vault exactly matches the diameter of the base of the dome, presenting an amazing proportion to the eye. The weight of the dome is distributed over eight sections that form a monolith of the wall, between which there are niches that give the massive building an airy feeling. Thanks to the illusion of open space, it seems that the walls are not so thick, and the dome is much lighter than in reality. The circular opening in the vault of the temple allows light to illuminate the rich interior decoration. Everything has come down to this day almost unchanged.

Coliseum

One of the most significant buildings in Ancient Rome. The huge amphitheater took eight years to build. It was an oval building with 80 large arches along the perimeter of the arena, on which there were smaller ones. The arena is surrounded by a wall in 3 tiers, and the total number of large and small arches was 240. Each tier was decorated with columns made in different styles. The first is Doric, the second is Ionic, and the third is Corinthian. In addition, the first two tiers contained sculptures made by the best Roman craftsmen.

The amphitheater building included galleries intended for spectators' recreation, and loud merchants sold various goods there. Outside, the Colosseum was decorated with marble, and beautiful statues were located around its perimeter. 64 entrances led into the room, which were located on different sides of the amphitheater.

Below were the privileged places for the noble nobles of Rome and the throne of the emperor. The floor of the arena, where not only gladiatorial battles took place, but also real sea battles, was made of wood.

Today the Colosseum has lost two-thirds of its original mass, but even today it is a majestic structure, a symbol of Rome. No wonder the saying goes: "While the Colosseum is standing, Rome will also stand, disappear the Colosseum - Rome and the whole world will disappear with it."

Arch of Titus

The single-span marble arch, located on Via Sacra, was built after the death of Emperor Titus to commemorate the capture of Jerusalem in 81 AD. Its height is 15.4 m, width - 13.5 m, span depth - 4.75 m, span width - 5.33 m. procession with trophies, among which the main shrine of the Jewish temple is the menorah.

Baths of Caracalla

The baths were built at the beginning of the 3rd century AD. under Marcus Aurelius, nicknamed Caracalla. The luxurious building was intended not only for the washing process, but also for a variety of leisure activities, including both sports and intellectual. There were four entrances to the "bath building"; through two central ones they entered the covered halls. On both sides of it were rooms for meetings, recitation, etc. Among the many different rooms on the right and left intended for washing rooms, two large open symmetrical courtyards surrounded on three sides by a colonnade, the floor of which was decorated with the famous mosaic with the figures of athletes, should be noted. The emperors not only tiled the walls with marble, covered the floors with mosaics and erected magnificent columns: they systematically collected works of art here. In the baths of Caracalla once stood the Farnese bull, statues of Flora and Hercules, the torso of Apollo Belvedere.

The visitor found here a club, a stadium, a recreation garden, and a house of culture. Everyone could choose for himself what he liked: some, having washed, sat down to chat with friends, went to watch the wrestling and gymnastic exercises, could stretch themselves; others wandered in the park, admired the statues, sat in the library. People left with a supply of new strength, rested and renewed not only physically, but also morally. Despite such a gift of fate, the terms were destined to collapse.

Temples of Portun and Hercules

These temples are located on the left bank of the Tiber on another ancient forum of the city - Bych. In early republican times, ships docked here and a brisk livestock trade was conducted, hence the name.

The Temple of Portuna was built in honor of the god of ports. The building has a rectangular shape, decorated with columns of the Ionic order. The temple is well preserved since around 872 A.D. was converted into the Christian church of Santa Maria in Gradelis, in the 5th century it was consecrated into the church of Santa Maria Aegitsiana.

The Temple of Hercules has a monopter design - a round building without internal partitions. The construction dates back to the 2nd century BC. The temple has a diameter of 14.8 m and is decorated with twelve Corinthian columns 10.6 m high. The structure rests on a tuff foundation. Previously, the temple had an architrave and a roof, which have not survived to our times. In 1132 A.D. the temple became a place of Christian worship. The church was originally called Santo Stefano al Carose. In the 17th century, the newly consecrated temple began to be called Santa Maria del Sol.

Field of Mars

"Champ de Mars" - this was the name of the part of Rome, located on the left bank of the Tiber, originally intended for military and gymnastic exercises. In the center of the field was an altar in honor of the god of war. This part of the field remained vacant afterwards, while the rest of the field was built up.

Hadrian's mausoleum

The architectural monument was conceived as the tomb of the emperor and his family. The mausoleum was a square base (side length - 84 m), in which a cylinder (diameter - 64 m, height about 20 m) was installed, topped with a mound, the top of which was adorned with a sculptural composition: the emperor in the form of the sun god controlling a quadriga. Subsequently, this gigantic structure was used for military and strategic purposes. Centuries have changed its original appearance. The building acquired the Angel's courtyard, medieval halls, including the Hall of Justice, the Pope's apartments, a prison, a library, a Treasure Hall and the Secret Archives. From the terrace of the castle, over which the figure of the Angel rises, a magnificent view of the city opens.

Catacombs

The Catacombs of Rome are a network of ancient structures used as burial places, mostly during the early Christian period. In total, Rome has more than 60 different catacombs (150-170 km long, about 750,000 burials), most of which are located underground along the Appian Way. Labyrinths of underground passages, according to one version, arose on the site of ancient quarries, according to the other, they were formed in private land plots. In the Middle Ages, the custom of burying in the catacombs disappeared, and they remained as evidence of the culture of Ancient Rome.