The formation of French realism, starting with the work of Stend-la, took place in parallel with the further development of romanticism in France. It is significant that Victor Hugo (1802-1885) and Georges Sand (1804-1876), prominent representatives of French romanticism of the era of the Restoration and Revolution of 1830, were the first who came out with support and generally positively assessed the realistic searches of Stendhal and Balzac.

On the whole, it should be emphasized that French realism, especially during the period of its formation, was not a closed and internally completed system. It arose as a natural stage in the development of the world literary process, as an integral part of it, widely using and creatively comprehending artistic discoveries previous and contemporary literary movements and directions, in particular romanticism.

Stendhal's treatise "Racine and Shakespeare", as well as the preface to Balzac's "The Human Comedy", outlined the basic principles of realism, which was rapidly developing in France. Revealing the essence of realistic art, Balzac wrote: "The task of art is not to copy nature, but to express it." In the preface to The Dark Cause, the writer also put forward his own concept of an artistic image (“type”), emphasizing, first of all, its difference from any real person. Typicality, in his opinion, reflects in the phenomenon the most important features of the general, and for this reason alone, "type" can only be "the creation of the artist's creative activity."

"Poetry of fact", "poetry of real reality" became a fertile ground for writers-realists. The main difference between realism and romanticism became clear. If romanticism, in creating the otherness of reality, repelled from the inner world of the writer, expressing the inner aspiration of the artist's consciousness, directed to the world of reality, then realism, on the contrary, repelled from the realities of the surrounding reality. It is to this essential difference between realism and romanticism that Georges Sand drew attention to in his letter to Honore de Balzac: “You take a person as he appears to your eyes, and I feel a vocation in myself to portray him as I would like to see ".

Hence the different understanding by realists and romantics of the image of the author in a work of art. For example, in The Human Comedy, the image of the author, as a rule, is not singled out as a person at all. And this is the fundamental artistic decision of Balzac the realist. Even when the image of the author expresses his own point of view, he only states the facts. The story itself, in the name of artistic plausibility, is emphatically impersonal: "Although Madame de Langeais did not confide her thoughts to anyone, we have the right to assume ..." ("The Duchess de Langeais"); “Perhaps this story brought him back to the happy days of life ...” (Facino Canet); "Each of these knights, if the data is accurate ..." ("Old Maid").

The French researcher of The Human Comedy, a contemporary of the writer A. Wurmser, believed that Honore de Balzac "can be called Darwin's predecessor", for "he develops the concept of the struggle for existence and natural selection." In the writer's works, "the struggle for existence" is the pursuit of material values, and "natural selection" is the principle according to which the strongest wins and survives in this struggle, the one in whom cold calculation kills all living human feelings.

At the same time, Balzac's realism differs significantly from the realism of Stendahl in its accents. If Balzac, as the “secretary of the French society”, “first of all paints his customs, manners and laws, not shying away from psychologism, then Stendhal, as an“ observer of human characters, ”is primarily a psychologist. Material from the site

The core of the composition of Stendhal's novels is invariably the story of one person, from which his favorite "memoir-biographical" development of the narrative begins. In the novels of Balzac, especially of the late period, the composition is "eventful", it is always based on the case, which unites all the characters, involving them in a complex cycle of actions, one way or another connected with this case. Therefore, Balzac the narrator covers with his mind's eye the vast spaces of the social and moral life of his heroes, digging into the historical truth of his century, to those social conditions that form the characters of his heroes.

The originality of Balzac's realism was most clearly manifested in the novel of the writer "Father Goriot" and in the story "Gobsek", connected with the novel by some common heroes.

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Honore de Balzac began writing novels to earn money. And very quickly he surprised the world with the absolute maturity of his style. "Chouans, or Brittany in 1799" - the first work of Balzac, signed by his real name, includes all the constituent works of the writer, who began as the author of commercial novels about vampires ("Biragska heiress", "A hundred years old") and suddenly decided to create serious romance. Balzac took Scott and Cooper as his teacher. Scott was attracted by the historical approach to life, but he did not like the dullness and schematism of characters. The young writer decides to follow Scott's path in his work, but to show readers not so much a moral model in the spirit of his own ethical ideal, but to describe passion, without which there is no truly brilliant creation. In general, Balzac's attitude to passion was contradictory: “killing passion would mean killing society,” he said; and added: "passion is extreme, it is evil." That is, Balzac was fully aware of the sinfulness of his characters, but he did not even think to abandon the artistic analysis of sin, which was very interested in him and, practically, formed the basis of his work. In the way Balzac was interested in human vices, of course, there is a certain part of the romantic thinking that was always characteristic of the great realist. But Balzac understood human vice not as evil, but as a product of a certain historical epoch, a certain segment of the existence of a country and society. The world of Balzac's novels bears within itself a clear definition of the material world. Personal life is very closely connected with the official one, so big political decisions do not descend from the sky, but are pondered and discussed in living rooms and notaries' offices, in the boudoirs of singers, and face personal and family relationships. Society is studied in Balzac's novels in such detail that even modern economists and sociologists study the state of society behind his novels. Balzac showed the interaction between people not against the background of God, as did Shakespeare, he showed the interaction between people against the background of economic relations. Society for him appears as a living being, the only living organism. This creature is constantly moving, changing, like the ancient Proteus, but its essence remains unchanged: the stronger eat the weaker. Hence the paradoxical nature of Balzac's political views: the global realist never concealed his royalist sympathies and sarcastically over revolutionary ideals. In the essay “Two Meetings in One Year” (1831), Balzac disrespectfully responded to the revolution in 1830 and its achievement: “After a fight comes victory, after victory comes distribution; and then there are many more winners than those who were seen on the barricades. " This attitude towards people in general is characteristic of the writer who studied humanity in the same way that biologists study the animal world.

Philosophy has been one of Balzac's most serious passions since childhood. IN school age he was not a little distraught when, in a Catholic boarding house, he became acquainted with the old monastery library. He did not begin serious writing until he studied the works of all the more or less prominent philosophers of old and new times. That is why the "Philosophical Studies" (1830 - 1837) appeared, which can be considered not only works of art, but also quite serious philosophical works. The novel Shagreen Skin, which is fantastic and at the same time deeply realistic, belongs to the "Philosophical Etudes". Science fiction, in general, is a characteristic of the "Philosophical Studies". It plays the role of a deus ex machine, that is, it performs the function of a central plot premise. Like, for example, a piece of old, dilapidated leather, which accidentally goes to poor student Valentin in an antique dealer's shop. Covered with ancient letters, a piece of shagreen leather fulfills all the desires of its owner, but at the same time it shrinks and thus shortens the life of the "lucky one". Shagreen Skin, like many other Balzac's novels, is dedicated to the theme of “lost illusions”. All of Raphael's wishes were fulfilled. He could buy everything: women, valuables, exquisite surroundings, he did not have only natural life, natural youth, natural love, and therefore had no sense in living. When Raphael learns that he has become the heir of six million, and sees that the shagreen skin has decreased again, speeding up his old age and death, Balzac notes: "The world belonged to him, he could do everything - and did not want anything." The search for an artificial diamond, to which Valtasar Klaas sacrifices his own wife and children (“The Search for the Absolute”), and the creation of a super-creation of art, which acquires the meaning of manic passion for the artist Frenhofer and is embodied in a “chaotic combination of strokes,” can also be considered “lost illusions”. ".

Balzac said that Uncle Toby from L. Stern's novel "Tristram Shandy" became for him a model of how to mold character. Uncle Toby was an eccentric, he had a "horse" - he did not want to get married. The characters of Balzac's heroes - Grande ("Eugenia Grande"), Gobsek ("Gobsek"), Gorio ("Father Goriot") are built on the principle of a "skate". In Grande, such a hobbyhorse (or mania) is the accumulation of money and jewelry, in Gobsek - enrichment of his own bank accounts, with Father Goriot - fatherhood, serving daughters, who demand more and more money.

Balzac described the story "Eugene Grande" as a bourgeois tragedy "without poison, without a dagger, without bloodshed, but more cruel for the characters than all the dramas that took place in the famous family of Atrides." Balzac feared the power of money more than the power of the feudal lords. He viewed the kingdom as the only family in which the king is the father, and where there is a natural state of affairs. As for the rule of bankers, which began after the revolution in 1830, here Balzac saw a serious threat to all life on earth, because he felt the iron and cold hand of monetary interests. And the power of money, which he constantly exposed, Balzac identified with the power of the devil and opposed it to the power of God, the natural course of things. And here it is difficult to disagree with Balzac. Although Balzac's views on society, which he expressed in articles and sheets, can not always be taken seriously. After all, he believed that humanity is a kind of fauna, with its own species, species and subspecies. Therefore, he appreciated the aristocrats as representatives of the best breed, which allegedly was brought to the basis of the cultivation of spirituality, which neglects the benefits and useless calculation. Balzac in the press supported the insignificant Bourbons as "the lesser evil" and promoted an elite state in which class privileges would be inviolable, and the right to vote would apply only to those who have money, intelligence and talent. Balzac even justified serfdom, which he saw in Ukraine, and which he was fond of. The views of Stendhal, who valued the culture of the aristocrats only at the level of aesthetics, look much more fair in this case.

Balzac did not accept any revolutionary actions. During the revolution in 1830, he did not interrupt his vacation in the provinces and did not go to Paris. In the novel "The Peasants", expressing regret for those who are "big through their hard life", Balzac says about the revolutionaries: "We poeticized criminals, we had mercy on executioners, and we almost created an idol from the proletarian!" But it is no coincidence that they say: Balzac's realism turned out to be smarter than Balzac himself. Wise is the one who evaluates a person not according to his political views, but according to her moral qualities. And in the works of Balzac, thanks to an attempt at an objective depiction of life, we see honest republicans - Michel Chretien ("Lost Illusions"), Nizron ("The Peasants"). But the main object of studying Balzac's work is not they, but the most important force of today's time - the bourgeois, the same "money angels" who acquired the significance of the main driving force of progress and whose morals Balzac exposed, exposed in detail and not fussy, like a biologist, which investigates the habits of a certain subspecies of animals. “In commerce, Monsieur Grandet was like a tiger: he knew how to lie down, curl up into a ball, take a long look at his prey, and then rush at it; opening the trap of his wallet, he swallowed another fate and again lay down like a boa constrictor digesting food; he did all this calmly, coldly, methodically. " The increase in capital looks in the character of Grande as something like an instinct: before his death, he "with a terrible movement" grabs the golden cross of the priest, who bent over the swooning man. Another "knight of money" - Gobsek - acquires the meaning of the only god in whom the modern world believes. The expression "money rules the world" is vividly realized in the story "Gobsek" (1835). A small, inconspicuous, at first glance, person, holds the whole of Paris in his hands. Gobsek punishes and pardons, he is just in his own way: he can bring almost to suicide, the one who neglects piety and because of this gets into debt (Countess de Resto), and maybe let go of a pure and simple soul that works day and night, and finds himself in debt not through his own sins, but through difficult social conditions (seamstress Ogonyok).

Balzac liked to repeat: “The historian itself must be French society. I can only serve as his secretary. " These words point to the material, to the object of study of Balzac's work, but they ignore the means of its processing, which cannot be called “secretarial”. On the one hand, in the course of creating images, Balzac relied on what he saw in real life (the names of almost all the heroes of his works can be found in the newspapers of that time), but on the basis of the material of life, he deduced certain laws behind which existed, and, to unfortunately there is a society. He did this not as a scientist, but as an artist. Therefore, the method of typification (from the Greek typos - imprint) acquires such significance in his work. A typical image has a specific design (appearance, character, fate), but at the same time it embodies a certain tendency that exists in society at a certain historical interval. Balzac created typical grievances in different ways. He could be aimed only at typicality, as, for example, in the "Monograph on the Rentiers", and could sharpen certain character traits or create aggravated situations, as, for example, in the stories "Eugene Grande" and "Gobsek". For example, here is a description of a typical rentier: “Almost all persons of this breed are armed with a reed or a snuffbox. Like all individuals of the genus "man" (mammals), it has seven valves on the face and, most likely, owns a complete skeletal system. His face is pale and often in the form of an onion, it lacks the characteristic that is his characteristic feature. " And here is filled with spoiled canned food, never stoked fireplace in the house of a millionaire - Gobsek, of course, is a sharpened feature, but it is this sharpness that emphasizes typicality, exposes a tendency that exists in reality, the ultimate expression of which is Gobseck.

in 1834 - 1836 Balzac issues a 12-volume collection of his own works, which is called "Studies on the customs of the nineteenth century." And in 1840-1841. the decision to generalize all creative activity Balzac called "The Human Comedy", which is often called "the comedy of money." Balzac's relationships between people are mainly determined by monetary relations, but not only they were of interest to the author of The Human Comedy, who divided his gigantic work into the following sections: Studies on Morals, Physiological Studies and Analytical Studies. Thus, the whole of France appears before us, we see a huge panorama of life, a huge living organism that is constantly moving due to the incessant movement of its individual organs.

The feeling of constant movement and unity, the synthetic nature of the picture arises due to the characters who return. For example, we will first meet Lucien Chardon in "Lost Illusions", and there he will try to conquer Paris, and in "Glitter and Poverty of Courtesans" we will see Lucien Chardon, who was conquered by Paris and turned into meek instruments of the devilish ambition of the Abbot Herrera-Vautrin (more one through character). In Father Goriot, we first meet Rastignac, a kind guy who came to Paris to get an education. And Paris provided him with education - a simple and honest guy turned into a rich man and a member of the cabinet, he conquered Paris, understood its laws and challenged him to a duel. Rastignac defeated Paris, but destroyed himself. He deliberately killed a guy from the province in himself, who loved to work in the vineyard and dreamed of getting a law degree in order to improve the lives of his mother and sister. The naive provincial turned into a soulless egoist, because otherwise in Paris it is impossible to survive. Rastignac went through various novels of the "Human Comedy" and acquired the meaning of a symbol of careerism and the notorious "social success". Maxime de Trai, the de Resto family constantly appear on the pages of various works, and we get the impression that there are no dots at the end of individual novels. We are not reading a collection of works, we are looking at a huge panorama of life. "The Human Comedy" is a vivid example of the self-development of a work of art, which never diminishes the greatness of the work, but, on the contrary, provides it with the greatness of something provided by Nature. It is this powerful, far exceeding the personality of the author, that Balzac's brilliant work is.

(based on the analysis of the story "Gobsek")

1. The main features of French realism of the Balzac period.

2. The main requirements of Balzac to art, set forth in the "Preface" to the "Human Comedy".

3. "The Human Comedy" by Balzac and the place in it for the story "Gobsek".

4. Features of the composition of the story, giving it a generalizing meaning.

5. Methods of creating character in Balzac and the ideological content of the image of Gobsek: a) portrait; b) environment, description principles; c) the evolution of the image; d) Gobsek's philosophy, self-disclosure of the character; e) romantic and realistic in the image; f) typical features of the bourgeois, reflected in the image of Gobsek.

6. The principles of depicting the aristocracy, their connection with the main character.

In what years and under the influence of what factors is classical realism formed in foreign literature? in Russia? What are the objects of criticism of Russian and foreign critical realism? What is the specificity of the study of society by realists and romantics, realists of the 19th century and realists-enlighteners?

List the traits of realism highlighted by Balzac in the Preface to The Human Comedy.

Coming to the consideration of Balzac's "Preface to" The Human Comedy ", which is regarded as a manifesto of realism, let us recall what" The Human Comedy "is. Which scientist, Balzac's contemporaries, suggested to him the idea of \u200b\u200b"The Human Comedy" with his theories? What does Balzac see the similarities and differences between society and nature? What influence did W. Scott have on the concept of "The Human Comedy"? How did Balzac speak of W. Scott?

Write out a quote that talks about the need to create typical characters in typical circumstances. Engels noted objectivity as one of the features of realism. What does Balzac say about this? Does the creator of The Human Comedy think that it is enough for a writer to be a “secretary of the French society,” “an archaeologist of social life,” “a counter of professions”?

How can we reconcile objectivity and tendentiousness with criticism and didacticism of realism?

On the one hand, striving for objectivity, and on the other - educating, what "three forms of being" Balzac decides to embrace in his creation? How do we formulate this principle of realism? Which Russian writer, equal to Balzac in strength and power of talent, widely used this technique and in which work?

Consider the embodiment of some of Balzac's principles of realism in his story "Gobsek". We will set ourselves the following tasks:

a / analyze the features of the composition of the story and the construction of the system of images;

b / to reveal the character of Gobsek through a portrait and things.

What place does the "Gobsek" novel occupy in "The Human Comedy"? How are the individual volumes of the cycle held together? One of the leading themes here is stinginess. Name "the images of misers in the work of Balzac and in world literature.

Draw the character system of the story on the chalkboard, demonstrating its relationship to composition. What is the class composition of the heroes of the story? For what purpose did the author use the regional composition? Prove that all estates depend on the material basis of society - money, gold.

The protagonist of the story, the usurer Gobsek, has a special love for gold. This addiction is emphasized already at the first acquaintance with the hero. Let us trace how the character traits of the hero are revealed through the portrait.

What place does the reception of characterization through things take in Balzac's realistic system? Read the descriptions of Gobsek's house and apartment. What character traits are revealed through these descriptions? Which of the heroes of the story is characterized on the basis of similar techniques?

Literature

1. History of foreign literature of the XIX century: Textbook. for universities / Ed. ON. Solovieva. - M., 2000.S. 450-463.

2. History of Foreign Literature: Western European and American Realism (1830-1860s): Textbook. manual for students of higher. ped. study. institutions / G.N. Khrapovitskaya, Yu.P. Solodub. - M., 2005.S. 421-449.

3. Balzac O. de "Preface to human comedy" // Foreign literature of the 19th century: Realism: Reader of historical and literary materials / Comp. ON. Solovyov and others - M., 1990; or Balzac O. de Sobr. op. in 28 volumes - M., 1992. - T.1.

4. Kuchborskaya E.P. Balzac's work. - M., 1970.

5. Oblomievsky D. D. Balzac. - M., 1961.

6. Practical classes in foreign literature / Under. ed. N.P. Mikhalskaya and B.I. Purisheva. - M., 1981.

7. Reizov B.G. Balzac. - L., 1960.

8. Chicherin A.V. O. Balzac's works "Gobsek" and "Lost Illusions": Textbook. allowance. - M., 1982.

Independent work №4

The novel by C. Dickens "The Adventures of Oliver Twist"

1. The periodization of Dickens's work. The artistic features of the works written in the first period of creativity.

2. Problems of the novel. The theme of the crime in the novel. The world of criminals and the world of gentlemen.

3. The evolution of the image of Oliver Twist

4. The main ways of creating secondary images. The role of romantic motives in the portrayal of these characters

Oliver Twist is Dickens's first parenting novel. Consider the features of the structure of the novel, identify the traditional elements of the plot, characteristic of the works of this genre. How is the relationship of Dickens's works with the mass, entertainment literature of the era manifested?

How does Dickens see the bourgeois in his first works, what features are characteristic of these heroes, what role do they play in the fate of Oliver Twist?

What are the features of the evolution of Oliver Twist? How are these features related to the worldview of the writer himself?

What are the principles of creating negative characters in the works of Dickens' early period?

What is the evolution of Dickens's views, how the ratio of romantic and realistic principles in his books, the understanding of good and evil changes.

Literature

1. History of foreign literature of the XIX century: Textbook. for universities / Ed. N.A. Solovieva. - M., 2000.S. 156-181.

2. History of foreign literature: Western European and American realism (1830-1860-ies): Textbook for students of higher pedagogical educational institutions / GN Khrapovitskaya, YP Solodub. - M., 2005.S. 192-219.

3. Anikin G.V., Mikhalskaya N.P. History of English Literature. - M., 1975.

4. Ivasheva V. V. Creativity of Dickens. - M., 1954.

5. Qatari I. M. Dickens. - M., 1960.

6. Mikhalskaya N.P. Charles Dickens: An Outline of Life and Work. - M., 1959.

7. Practical classes in foreign literature: Textbook. manual / Under. ed. N.P. Mikhalskaya and B.I. Purishev. - M., 1981.

8. Silman T.I. Dickens. Essays on creativity. - M., 1959.

9. Tugusheva M.P. Charles Dickens: A Sketch of Life and Work. - M., 1979.

QUESTIONS TO THE EXAM.

1. Realism as a method and direction in Western European literature. Periodization, representatives. The difference between the first period of realism and the second.

2. The periodization of the creativity of J.P. Beranger. Poet's innovation. The main themes of poetry. Analysis of two poems.

3. Aesthetic views of F. Stendahl. The central problem of creativity, features of works (composition, language).

4. Conflict and composition of the novel "Red and Black" by F. Stendahl. Title problem.

5. Female images in the novel "Red and Black" by F. Stendahl. Stendhal principles of character disclosure.

6. F. Stendhal "Vanina Vanini". Conflict. The peculiarity of the novel method.

7. The originality of the work of O. de Balzac. Aesthetic views of the writer. The structure of the "Human Comedy".

8. Composition and system of images of O. de Balzac's story "Gobsek". The image of the protagonist, the principles of his disclosure.

9. The novel by O. de Balzac "Father Goriot". System of images. Ideological orientation, style features, principles of character disclosure.

10. Periodization, genre diversity of P. Merimee's work. Merimee and romanticism. Features of the genre and composition of the novel "Chronicle of the times of Charles IX".

11. P. Merimee. Exotic and modern novels. Merimee's principles of character development, style features. Analysis of two short stories to choose from.

12. general characteristics German literature 1830-1871.

13. Evolution of the worldview and creative method of G. Heine. The main themes, features of the style of the "Book of Songs" and "Contemporary Poems" Analysis of two poems. Reading by heart.

14. G. Heine "Germany. Winter's Tale". The problem of the poem method. Style features. Reading a passage by heart.

15. English realism of the 19th century - the historical features of its formation. Representatives, their place in world and national literature.

16. Periodization of Charles Dickens' creativity. The evolution of his realistic skill.

17. Place of the novel "Oliver Twist" in the work of Charles Dickens. System of images, moral and aesthetic ideal.

18. Problems of Charles Dickens' novel "Great Expectations". The evolution of Pip's image.

19. The system of images in the novel by Charles Dickens "Great Expectations". The role of minor characters in revealing the character of the main character.

20. Have . Thackeray "Vanity Fair". The meaning of the title and subtitle. Composition and system of images.

21. French literature 50-6O-ies. Features of realism. The main representatives, their place in Russian literature. Reflection of social and aesthetic views in the art of "Parnassians".

22. Evil as a challenge to the bourgeois world in the poems of the collection of S. Baudelaire "Flowers of Evil". Analysis of one poem.

23. G. Flaubert. Philosophical, social and aesthetic views of the writer. Criticism of the philistine vroman: images of Rodolphe, Leon. V.Nabokov about the novel "Madame Bovary".

24. The history of the creation of the novel by G. Flaubert "Madame Bovary". Emma's rebellion, its social meaning and the inevitability of defeat. Character disclosure principles.

25. W. Whitman. Collection "Leaves of Grass". Cycles and themes of the collection. Method problem.

26. N. Hawthorne - short story writer and novelist. Analysis of the novel "The Scarlet Letter".

27. Creativity G. Melville. Problems of the novel "Moby Dick".

28. Features of the development of American literature 50-60-ies.

REQUIRED LITERATURE

(Required texts for the exam)

1. Beranger PJ King Iveto. Marquis de Caraba. No, you are not Lisette. Mr. Iscariot. Sacred Union of Nations. Holy Alliance of the Barbarians. Good god. My carnivore 1829 Death of Satan. the 14 th of July. July graves. To my friends who became ministers. Madmen. Snails. Fairy rhymes. The old banner. Old vagrant.

2. O. Balzac. Gobsek. Father Goriot. Lost illusions. Articles: Preface to "The Human Comedy". Study of Bale.

3. F. Stendhal. Red and black. Parma monastery. Vanina Vanini. Articles: Racine and Shakespeare; Walter Scott and The Princess of Cleves.

4. P. Merimee. Chronicle of the times of Charles IX. Tamango. Matteo Falcone. Carmen. Etruscan vase. Venus Illskaya. Lokis. Letter to Merima Pushkin. Merimee. Guzla (compare with Pushkin's "Songs of the Western Slavs"): Morlach in Venice - Vlach in Venice; Beauty Elena - Fedor and Elena; Ivko - Ghoul; Konstantin Yakubovich - Marko Yakubovich; Thomas's Horse - Horse

5. G. Flaubert. Madame Bovary. Salammbô.

6. C. Dickens. Oliver Twist. Hard times.

7. W. Thackeray. Vanity Fair

8. G. Heine. Lyrics. Sat. "Book of Songs". From the section "Youthful sufferings", "I dreamed a sinister dream", "I ran away from the cruel ...", "Grenadiers", from the section "Lyrical intermezzo", "In the wonderful month of May", "I am you, pennately born .. . "," And roses on the cheeks of my dear "," In the wild north ... "," They tortured me ... "," At the tea table in the living room ... "; from the section "Returning to the Homeland": "This life is too dark", "I don't know what happened to me ...", "Generations are changing", "I called the devil, he came to my house", "My heart is oppressed "," Something I don't like the fragmentation of the universe "," Oh, if you become my wife ... "; from the cycle "North Sea": "Sea vision", "Salutation to the sea", "Questions" "In the harbor". From Sat. "Contemporary Poems": "Michel after March", "Enlightenment", "Silesian Weavers", "Doctrine", "Donkeys-Voters", "Tendency", "New Alexander". Poem: "Germany. A Winter's Tale". Excerpts from the book. "Romantic school" (Book II, Chapter IV, Book III, Chapter I).

9. To choose from:

G. Buchner "Death of Danton";

K. Gutskov "Uriel Acosta";

F.Gebbel "Judith";

V.Raabe "Chronicle of the Bird Settlement";

T. Storm "Rider on a White Horse";

T. Fontane "Effie Brist".

American literature

10. To choose from:

N. Hawthorne "The Scarlet Letter";

G. Melville "Moby Dick, or White Whale".

11.G. Beecher Stowe. Uncle Tom's hut.

12. W. Whitman. Sat. "Leaves of Grass": Song of the Ax. Now full of life. Song about the ax. Song of Joys. Beat, beat, drum! Oh captain, my captain! The banner song at dawn. Pioneers! Oh pioneers! From "Song of the Exhibition". A song about myself.

Unrealistic tendencies of the 40-60s. 19th century

13.T. Gautier. Art. Carmen.

14. Lecomte de Lisle C. Elephants. Burnt-out.

15. Baudelaire S. From collection. "Flowers of Evil": Carrion. Albatross. Rag pickers wine. Old ladies. Dusk. Hymn to beauty. Hair. Abel and Cain.

Textbooks, manuals and anthologies.

1. Elizarova M.E. and other History of foreign literature of the XIX century. - M., 1975.

2. History of foreign literature of the XIX century / Ed. Ya.N. Zasursky, S.V. Turaeva. - M., 1982.

3. History of foreign literature: In 2 hours / Ed. A.S. Dmitrieva. - M., 1983.

4. History of foreign literature of the XIX century: In 2 hours / Ed. N.P. Mikhalskoy. - M., 1991.

5. History of foreign literature of the XIX century: Textbook. for universities / Ed. N.A. Solovieva. - M., 2000.

6. History of foreign literature: Western European and American realism (1830-1860s): Textbook for students of higher educational institutions / GN Khrapovitskaya, YP Solodub. - M., 2005.

7. History of world literature: In 9 volumes - V.6. - M., 1989.

8. Proskurin B.M., Yashenkina R.F. History of foreign literature of the XIX century: Western European realistic prose: Textbook. - M., 1988.

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20 Bakhmutsky V.Ya. "Father Goriot" by Balzac. - M., 1970.

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27. Reizov B.G. Balzac. - L., 1960.

28. Chernyshevsky N.G. Balzac // Chernyshevsky N.G. Collected works - M., 1947. - T.3.- P.369-370.

29. Chicherin A.V. O. Balzac's works "Gobsek" and "Lost illusions": Textbook. - M., 1982.

30. Danilin Y. Prosper Merime // Merime P. Selected works: In 2 volumes - M., 1957. - Vol. 1.

31. Dynnik V. Prosper Merimee // Merimee P. Sobr. cit .: In 6 volumes - M., 1963. - T.1.

32. Lukov V.A. Prosper Merimee. - M., 1984.

33. Reizov B.G. Merimee "Chronicle of the times of Charles IX" // Reizov B.G. French historical novel in the era of romanticism. - L., 1958.

34. Frestier J. Prosper Mérimée. - M., 1987.

35. Belinsky V.G. Russian literature in 1844 // Belinsky V.G. Collected works .. - M., 1948. - T.2. - S. 700-701.

36. Belinsky V.G. Parisian secrets // Ibid. - S.644-645.

37. Belinsky V.G. "Oliver Twist". Novel by Mr. Dickens / 1842 / "// Belinsky V.G. Complete collection of works: In 13 volumes - M.-L., 1959 - V.5.

38. V. V. Ivasheva. 19th century English realistic novel.

39. Katarsky I.M. Dickens. - M., 1960.

40. Katarsky I.M. Dickens and His Time. - M., 1966.

41. Mikhalskaya N.P. Charles Dickens. - M., 1987.

42. Mikhalskaya N.P. Dickens in Russia // Dickens Ch. Collected works: 10 volumes - M., 1987. - T.10.

43. Silman T.N. Dickens. - M., 1970.

44. Tolstoy L.N. in the memoirs of contemporaries: In 2 volumes - M., 1955. - V.2. - S. 181.

45. Tugusheva M.P. Charles Dickens. Essay on life and work. M., 1979.

46. \u200b\u200bWilson E. The World of Charles Dickens. - M., 1975.

47. Alekseev M.P. From the history of English literature. - M; L., 1960.

48. Vakhrushev V.S. Thackeray's creativity. - Saratov, 1984.

49. V. V. Ivasheva. Thackeray satirist. - M., 1958.

50. Kettle A. Introduction to the history of the English novel. - M., 1966.

52. Thackeray in the memoirs of contemporaries.- M., 1990.

53. Urnov M.V. Milestones of Tradition in English Literature. - M., 1986.

54. Chernyshevsky N.G. Newcomes, the history of one very venerable surname // Chernyshevsky N.G. Full collection cit .: In 15 volumes - M., 1948. - T.4. - S.511-522.

55. Karelsky A.B. Georg Büchner // Georg Büchner. Play, prose, letters. - M., 1972.

56. Karelsky A.V. From Hero to Man: Two Centuries of Western European Literature. - M., 1990.

57. Neustroev V.P. Goebbel // History of German Literature: In 5 volumes - V.4. - M., 1968.

58. Tronskaya M. Karl Gutskov-playwright // Gutskov Karl. Plays. - M., 1960.

59. S. P. Gizhdeu Heinrich Heine. - M., 1964.

60. S. P. Gizhdeu Lyrics by Heinrich Heine. - M., 1983.

61. Deich A.I. The poetic world of Heinrich Heine. - M., 1963.

62. Deich A.I. The fate of the poets. - M., 1968.

63. Deich A.I. Harry from Dusseldorf. - M., 1980.

64. Dmitriev A.S. Heinrich Heine. - M., 1957.

65. Knipovich E.F. Courage to choose. - M., 1975.

66. K. Marx and F. Engels about art. - T.2. - M., 1976. - S.257-267.

67. Pisarev D.I. Heinrich Heine // Pisarev D.I. Selected philological and socio-political articles. - M., 1949.

68. Pronin V.A. "Poems worthy of a ban ...": The fate of the poem by G. Heine "Germany. A Winter's Tale" .- M., 1986.

69. G.V. Stadnikov. Heinrich Heine. - M., 1984.

70 Schiller F.P. Heinrich Heine. - M., 1962.

71. Balashov N.I. Legend and truth about Baudelaire // Baudelaire S. Flowers of evil. - M., 1970.

72. Nolman M.L. Charles Baudelaire. - M., 1979.

73. Sartre J.-P. Baudelaire // Baudelaire S. Flowers of evil. - M., 1993.

74. Belousov R.S. Flaubert's muse // Belousov R.S. Praise to the Stones. - M., 1982; or Belousov R.S. Jealous Muse // Change. - 1998. - N4.

75. Gorky A.M. About how I learned to write // Gorky about literature. - M., 1955.

76. Zhuravleva G.M. On the problem of studying the creativity of G. Flaubert in the X grade of a comprehensive school // Bulletin of pedagogical experience / Ser. "Philological images." - Issue 7. - Glazov, 1999.

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78. Ivaschenko A.F. Gustave Flaubert. From the history of realism in France. - M., 1955.

79. Kirnoze Z.I. Gustave Flaubert and his novels // Kirnoze Z.I. Pages of French Classics: A Book for High School Students. - M., 1992.

80. Nabokov V.V. Gustave Flaubert "Madame Bovary" // Nabokov V.V. Lectures on foreign literature. - M., 1998; or Nabokov V.V. Two lectures on literature: G. Flaubert and F. Kafka // Foreign Literature. - 1997.- N11.- S.185-233.

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82. Reizov B.G. Flaubert's Creativity. - M., 1955.

83. Khrapovitskaya G.N. G. Flaubert // History of foreign literature of the XIX century. - Textbook for students. : In 2 hours - Part 2 / Ed. N.P. Mikhalskaya. - M., 1991; or Khrapovitskaya G.N. Flaubert G. // Foreign Writers. Biobibliographic Dictionary: In 2 hours - Part 2. / Ed. N.P. Mikhal'skoy. - M., 1997.

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Similar information.

The formation of French realism, starting with the work of Stendhal, took place in parallel with the further development of romanticism in France. It is significant that Victor Hugo (1802-1885) and Georges Sand (1804-1876), prominent representatives of French romanticism of the era of the Restoration and Revolution of 1830, were the first who came out with support and generally positively assessed the realistic searches of Stendhal and Balzac.

On the whole, it should be emphasized that French realism, especially during its formation, was not a closed and internally complete system.

It arose as a natural stage in the development of the world literary process, as an integral part of it, widely using and creatively interpreting the artistic discoveries of previous and contemporary literary movements and trends, in particular romanticism.

Stendhal's treatise Racine and Shakespeare, as well as the preface to Balzac's The Human Comedy, outlined the basic principles of realism, which was rapidly developing in France. Revealing the essence of realistic art, Balzac wrote: "The task of art is not to copy nature, but to express it." In the preface to The Dark Cause, the writer also put forward his own concept of an artistic image (“type”), emphasizing, first of all, its difference from any real person.

Typicality, in his opinion, reflects in the phenomenon the most important features of the general, and for this reason alone, “type” can only be “the creation of the artist's creative activity”.

"Poetry of fact", "poetry of real reality" became fertile ground for realist writers. The main difference between realism and romanticism became clear. If romanticism in creating the otherness of reality repelled from the inner world of the writer, expressing the inner aspiration of the artist's consciousness, directed to the world of reality, then realism, on the contrary, repelled from the realities of the surrounding reality. It is to this essential difference between realism and romanticism that Georges Sand drew attention to in her letter to Honore de Balzac: “You take a person as he appears to your eyes, and I feel a calling to portray him as I would like to see him”.

Hence the different understanding by realists and romantics of the image of the author in a work of art. For example, in "The Human Comedy" the author's image, as a rule, is not singled out as a person at all. And this is the fundamental artistic decision of the Realist Balzac. Even when the image of the author expresses his own point of view, he only states the facts.

The story itself, in the name of artistic plausibility, is emphatically impersonal: “Although Madame de Langeais did not confide her thoughts to anyone, we have the right to assume ...” (“The Duchess de Langeais”); “Perhaps this story brought him back to the happy days of life…” (Facino Canet); “Each of these knights, if the data is accurate…” (“The Old Maid”).

The French researcher of The Human Comedy, a contemporary of the writer A. Würmser, believed that Honore de Balzac “can be called the predecessor of Darwin”, for “he develops the concept of the struggle for existence and natural selection”. In the writer's works, “the struggle for existence” is the pursuit of material values, and “natural selection” is the principle according to which the strongest wins and survives in this struggle, the one in whom cold calculation kills all living human feelings.

At the same time, Balzac's realism differs significantly from Stendhal's realism in its accents. If Balzac, as the “secretary of the French society,” “first of all paints his customs, manners and laws, not shying away from psychologism, then Stendhal, as an“ observer of human characters, ”is primarily a psychologist.

The core of the composition of Stendhal's novels is invariably the story of one person, from which his favorite “memoir-biographical” development of the narrative begins. In the novels of Balzac, especially of the late period, the composition is "eventful", it is always based on a case that unites all the heroes, involving them in a complex cycle of actions, one way or another connected with this case. Therefore, Balzac the narrator encompasses vast spaces of the social and moral life of his heroes in his mind's eye, digging into the historical truth of his century, to those social conditions that shape the characters of his heroes.

The peculiarity of Balzac's realism was most clearly manifested in the novel of the writer "Father Goriot" and in the story "Gobsek", associated with the novel by some common heroes.

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26. The image of the miser and accumulator is not new in world literature. A similar type is depicted in the drama “The Merchant of Venice” by W. Shakespeare and in the comedy “The Miser” by J. B. Moliere. Observations of the life of bourgeois society led the author to create the image of Gobsek; certain moments of the story are autobiographical. Balzac's hero studies at the Faculty of Law at the Sorbonne and works as a clerk in the solicitor's office, [...] ...
27. On May 20, 1799, in the ancient French city of Tours, on the street of the Italian Army, in the house of the assistant to the mayor and trustee of charitable institutions Bernard-Frarsua, who changed his plebeian surname Balsa to the noble style de Balzac, a boy was born. The mother of the future writer Laura Salambier, who came from a family of wealthy merchants, named the baby Honore and ... entrusted him to a nurse. Balzac recalled: [...] ...
28. In "Father Goriot", completed in forty days of frenzied work, so much content was concentrated that its three main characters seemed to be cramped in the relatively small space of this novel. A former flour merchant who passionately and blindly loves his two daughters; they sold him crumbs of childish attention while he could still pay, then threw him out; they tormented him, “like [...] ...
29. The authors of the underground (or "underground") set the requirements for themselves. In choosing themes and looking for new aesthetics, they didn't have to adapt to the demands of the editors. The writers are "related" by one very significant circumstance. They are sharply polemic in relation to Soviet reality and to all the recommendations of socialist realism, without exception, on how to portray this reality, first of all [...] ...
30. The peculiarity of Dickens's realism, for example, in comparison with Flaubert's realism, lies in the attempt to combine the ethical and aesthetic ideals of the writer into a kind of organic whole. This desire of the writer is primarily due to the originality of the formation and development of realism in England. If in French literature realism took shape in an independent direction after the era of romanticism, then in English literature romanticism and [...] ...
31. Chapter 1. Characteristics of European literature of the XVII century 1.2. Literary Process: Renaissance Realism The 17th century continues to translate Renaissance traditions into literature in the face of a changing historical picture of the world. Renaissance realism did not form an independent direction in the 17th century, but it had a significant impact on the artistic worldview of the writers of the Baroque and Classicism. In contrast to the humanism of the Renaissance, Renaissance realism [...] ...
32. Balzac is one of the greatest novelists of the 19th century. The most important feature of his work is that he wrote not only a large number of novels, but also the history of an entire society. The characters in his works - doctors, solicitors, statesmen, usurers, ladies of the world, courtesans - look like they create the tangibility and authenticity of the world created by Balzac. In 1834 [...] ...
33. Features of a realistic story in the work of Balzac "Gobsek". Question - The idea of \u200b\u200bwriting "Gobsek". As conceived by the author, the story "Gobsec" was to be included in a large cycle of novels "The Human Comedy", on which Honore de Balzac worked throughout his life. Creating "The Human Comedy", the author strove to copy the society of his day as it was. This led to the style of writing novels and [...] ...
34. Reference. Henriette de Castries (1796-1861), Marquise, then Duchess, Balzac's lover, “The Illustrious Godissard” (1843) is dedicated to her. If you take on faith the testimony of Balzac himself, his story with Madame de Castries was a tragedy that inflicted incurable wounds on him. “I hate Madame de Castries, she ruined my life without giving me a new loan,” he wrote. And to an unknown correspondent [...] ...
35. Balzac is a genius, Balzac is a titanium, Prometheus of literature. The personality of the great French writer constantly excites the imagination of posterity. What was the creator of The Human Comedy really like? What was the impetus for his creativity? How did Balzac manage under the incessant hail of everyday hardships, under the burden of constantly growing monetary debts, personal troubles, in an atmosphere of offensive misunderstanding on the part of a significant part of the criticism [...] ...
36. In the same years, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe goal of creativity also changed. This means that the artistic means, the nature of the image, inevitably change. In Balzac's prose, from year to year, there was less and less room for convention, symbolism, fantasy, more and more life-likeness, precise details of everyday life, and social authenticity became more and more. French writers of the next generation, and above all Emile Zola, will call such a literary method based on [...] ...
37. The story "Gobsek" is a very important link in the ideological and thematic core of the whole "Human Comedy". The novel "Gobsek" is more comedic from the outside than other works of Balzac: in relation to the coverage of vital material, but also more symptomatic, indicative, "visual". It contains a concentrated characteristic of stinginess, and not only realistic and everyday, but, above all, psychological. The protagonist in the story Gobsek is a millionaire, a usurer, one of the shadow [...] ...
38. Description of events in the novels and other works of Lermontov became the subject of deep research during the poet's lifetime. Confirmation of this - two large articles by VG Belinsky (1840-1841), dedicated to the novel "Hero of Our Time" and the lyrics of Lermontov. Many scientists studied Lermontov's work, hundreds of articles and books are devoted to him. Interestingly, since Belinsky noted, [...] ...
39. These words belong to one of the heroes of Honore Balzac - Gobsek. Gobsek is the hero of the novel of the same name. His name has become a household name, as a symbol of the unbridled desire for hoarding. The passion for hoarding drove Gobseck at the end of his life to almost insanity. Lying on his deathbed, he hears that gold coins have rolled somewhere nearby, and is trying to find them. "Zhivoglost", "man-bill", "golden [...] ...
40. PICTURE OF THE DISTRIBUTING POWER OF MONEY IN THE NOVEL OF ONOR DE BALZAC “FATHER GORIO” “All his works form a single book, full of life, bright, deep, where our entire modern civilization moves and acts, embodied in images of quite real, but covered with confusion and horror, - wrote V. Hugo about “The Human Comedy” by O. de Balzac. And further: - An amazing book, which [...] ...

Literature of France in the 1830s reflected those new features of public and cultural development countries that developed in it after the July Revolution. The leading trend in French literature is becoming critical realism. In the 1830-1840s. all significant works of O. Balzac, F. Stendhal, P. Merimee appear. At this stage, realist writers are united by a common understanding of art, which is reduced to an objective displaying the processes taking place in society. For all their individual differences, they are characterized by a critical attitude towards bourgeois society. In the early stages of the creative development of artists, their close connection with the aesthetics of romanticism, (often called "residual romanticism" ("Parma abode" by Stendhal, "Shagreen leather" by Balzac, "Carmen" by Merimee).

Theoretical works played a significant role in the formation of the aesthetics of critical realism Stendhal (1783-1842). In the era of the Restoration, fierce disputes unfolded between romantics and classicists. He took an active part in them, having published two brochures under the same title - "Racine and Shakespeare" (1823, 1825), where he outlined his views on literature, which, in his opinion, is an expression of the interests of the current society, and aesthetic norms should change along with the historical development of society. For Stendhal, epigone classicism, officially supported by the government and imposed by the French Academy of Sciences, is an art that has lost all connection with the life of the nation. The task of the true artist in "giving the peoples such literary works that, given the current state of customs and beliefs, can give them the greatest pleasure." This art Stendhal, not yet knowing the term "realism", called "romanticism". He believed that imitating the masters of previous centuries is to lie to contemporaries. Coming closer to romantics in his rejection of classicism and reverence for Shakespeare, Stendhal, at the same time, understood the term "romanticism" as something different from them. For him, classicism and romanticism are two creative principles that have existed throughout the history of art. "In essence, all great writers were at one time romantics. And the classics are those who, a century after their death, imitate them, instead of opening their eyes and imitating nature." The original principle and the highest purpose of the new art is "truth, bitter truth." The artist must become an explorer of life, and literature - "a mirror with which you walk along the high road. It reflects the azure of the sky, then dirty puddles and bumps." In fact, Stendhal called the emerging trend of French critical realism "romanticism".

In the artistic work of Stendhal, for the first time in the literature of the 19th century. proclaimed a new approach to a person. The novels "Red and Black", "Lucien Levey", "Parma Cloister" are full of deep psychological analysis with an inner monologue and reflections on moral problems. In Stendhal's psychological skill arises new problem - the problem of the subconscious. His work is and the first attempt at artistic generalization of the national character ("Italian Chronicles", "Parma Cloister").

The generally recognized peak of critical realism in France was creativity Balzac's support (1799-1850). Early stage his work (1820-1828) passes under the sign of closeness to the romantic school of the "frantic", and at the same time, some of his works reflect the experience of the "gothic novel" in a peculiar way. The first significant work of the writer - the novel "Shuana" (1829), in which the romantic uniqueness of the characters and the dramatic development of the action are combined with the utmost objectivity of the image, was subsequently included by the author in "Scenes of Military Life".

Second period creativity Balzac (1829-1850) is marked by the formation and development of the realistic method of the writer. At this time, he creates such significant works as "Gobsek", "Shagreen Skin", "Eugene Grande", "Father Goriot", "Lost Illusions" and many others. The dominant genre in his work was the socio-psychological novel of a relatively small volume. At this time, the poetics of these novels underwent significant changes, where a socio-psychological novel, a novel-biography, sketch sketches and much more are combined into an organic whole. The most important element in the artist's system was the consistent application the principle of realistic typing.

Third period begins in the mid-1830s, when Balzac conceived the idea of \u200b\u200ba cycle for the future "Human Comedy". In a memorable for the history of the creation of the cycle of 1842, the author prefaced the first volume of the collected works, which began to be published under the general title "The Human Comedy," a preface that became the manifesto of the writer's realistic method. In it, Balzac reveals his titanic task: "My work has its own geography, as well as its genealogy, its families, its localities, setting, characters and facts; it also has its own coat of arms, its nobility and bourgeoisie, its artisans and peasants , politicians and dandies, his army - in a word, the whole world "".

This monumental cycle, which has acquired its complete structure - as a kind of parallel and at the same time opposition to Dante's "Divine Comedy" from the point of view of a modern (realistic) understanding of reality, includes the best of the already written and all new works. Seeking to combine in "The Human Comedy" the achievements of modern science with the mystical views of E. Swedenborg, to explore all levels of people's life from everyday life to philosophy and religion, Balzac demonstrates the impressive scale of artistic thinking.

One of the founders of French and European realism, he thought of "The Human Comedy" as single work on the basis of the principles of realistic typification developed by him, setting himself the majestic task of creating a socio-psychological and artistic analogue of contemporary France. Dividing "The Human Comedy" into three unequal parts, the writer created a kind of pyramid, the basis of which is a direct description of society - "etudes on morals". Above this level are a few "philosophical studies", and the top of the pyramid is "analytical etudes ". Calling his novels, novellas and short stories included in the cycle "sketches", the realist writer considered his work to be research. "Studies on Morals" consisted of six groups of "scenes" - scenes of private life, provincial, Parisian, political, military and rural. Balzac considered himself the "secretary of the French society" depicting "modern history". Not only the very difficult subject, but also the methods of its implementation made a huge contribution to the formation of a new artistic system, thanks to which Balzac is considered the "father of realism".

The image of the usurer Gobsek - "the ruler of life" in the novel of the same name (1842) becomes a household name for the miser, personifying the forces prevailing in society and superior to Harpagon from Moliere's comedy "The Miser" ("Scenes of Private Life").

The first work in which Balzac consistently embodied the features of critical realism as an integral aesthetic system was the novel Eugene Grandet (1833). In the characters derived in it, the principle of personality formation under the influence of circumstances is realized. The author acts as an outstanding psychologist, enriching psychological analysis with the techniques and principles of realistic art.

For "Scenes of Parisian Life" the novel "Father Goriot" (1834) is very indicative, which became the key in the cycle of "studies on morals": it was in it that about thirty characters of previous and subsequent works had to "come together", which was the reason for the creation of a completely new the structure of the novel: multicenter and polyphonic. Without singling out a single protagonist, the writer made the central image of the novel, as if in contrast to the image of Notre Dame in Hugo's novel, the modern Parisian boarding house of Madame Boquet - a model of the modern French Balzac.

One of the centers along the descending line is formed around the image of Father Goriot, whose life story resembles the fate of Shakespeare's King Lear. Another, ascending, line is associated with the image of Eugène Rastignac, who came from a noble but impoverished provincial noble family who came to Paris to make a career. With the image of Rastignac, who is also an acting character in other works of The Human Comedy, the writer laid the theme of fate, which is relevant for French and European literature. young man in society, and later the character's name became a household name for an upstart who achieved success. Based on the principle "openness" cycle, "overflow" of characters from novel to novel, the author depicts the flow of life, movement in development, which creates a complete illusion of the reliability of what is happening and forms the integrity of the picture of French life. Balzac found a compositional means of connecting heroes not only in the finale, but also throughout the novel and subsequent works, preserving it polycentricity.

In the novels of "The Human Comedy" various facets of Balzac's colossal talent, including the unprecedented richness of the vocabulary, were manifested. Insightful analytical thought, the desire to systematize observations of the surrounding life, to express its laws historically and socially through the typification of characters were embodied in an immortal cycle - a whole world built on the basis of a serious scientific and aesthetic study of society, close observation and synthesizing work of thought, which explains the many-sided and at the same time a single panorama. Balzac's work is the highest point of the versatile possibilities of realism as artistic method.

The defeat of the 1848 revolution, on which the creative intelligentsia pinned many hopes, largely determines the nature of the development of the literary process in France. The atmosphere of timelessness tragic hopelessness led to the spread of the theory "pure art". In French literature, a poetic group called Parnassus (1866) was formed. Representatives of this group (G. Gauthier, L. de Lisle, T. de Bamville and others) opposed the social tendentiousness of romanticism and realism, preferring the dispassionateness of "scientific" observation, the apolitism of "pure art". Pessimism, retreat into the past, descriptiveness, enthusiasm for the careful finishing of a sculptural, impassive image, which turns into an end in itself with the external beauty and euphony of the verse, are characteristic of the work of the Parnassian poets. The contradiction of the era was reflected in its own way in the tragic pathos of the poems of the greatest poet of the 1850-1860s. Charles Baudelaire (1821 - 1867) - collections "Flowers of Evil" (1857) and "Fragments" (1866).

Method and style as the most important artistic direction naturalism (fr. naturalisme from lat. natura - nature) took shape in the last third of the 19th century. in the literature of Europe and the United States. The philosophical basis of naturalism was positivism. The literary prerequisites for naturalism were the work of Gustave Flaubert, his theory of "objective", "impersonal" art, as well as the activities of "sincere" realists (G. Courbet, L.E. Duranty, Chanfleury).

Naturalists set themselves a noble task: from the fantastic inventions of romantics, who in the middle of the 19th century. more and more departing from reality into the realm of dreams, to turn art face to truth, to real fact. O. Balzac's work becomes a model for naturalists. Representatives of this trend turn mainly to the life of the lower strata of society, they are inherent in genuine democracy. They expand the scope of what is depicted in the literature, there are no taboo topics for them: if the ugly is depicted authentically, it acquires for naturalists the meaning of genuine aesthetic value.

Naturalism has a positivist understanding of certainty. The writer must be an objective observer and experimenter. He can only write about what he has learned. Hence the image of only a "piece of reality" reproduced from photographic accuracy, instead of a typical image (as a unity of the individual and the general); refusal to depict the heroic personality as "atypical" in the naturalistic sense; replacement of the plot ("fiction") with description and analysis; aesthetically neutral position of the author in relation to the depicted (for him there is no beautiful or ugly); analysis of society on the basis of strict determinism, which denies free will; showing the world in static, as a heap of details; the writer does not seek to predict the future.

Naturalism was influenced by other methods, closely related to impressionism and realism.

Since the 1870s. at the head of naturalists is Emile Zola (1840-1902), who in his theoretical works developed the basic principles of naturalism, and his works of art combine features of naturalism and critical realism. And this synthesis makes a strong impression on the readers, thanks to which naturalism, at first rejected by them, receives later recognition: the name Zola has become almost synonymous with the term "naturalism". His aesthetic theory and artistic experience attracted young contemporary writers who formed the core of the naturalistic school (A. Seard, L. Ennik, O. Mirbo, C. Huysmans, P. Alexis and others). The most important stage in their joint creative activity was the collection of stories "Medan Evenings" (1880).

The work of E. Zola constitutes the most important stage in the history of French and world literature of the 19th century. His legacy is quite extensive: apart from his early works, it is a twenty-volume cycle "Rougon-Maccara", a natural and social history of one family in the era of the Second Empire, the trilogy "Three Cities", an unfinished cycle of novels "The Four Gospels", several plays, a huge number of articles dedicated to literature and art.

The theories of I. Taine, C. Darwin, C. Bernard, and C. Letourneau had a huge influence on the formation of views and the formation of Zola's creative method. That is why Zola's naturalism is not only aesthetics and artistic creation: it is a worldview, scientific and philosophical study of the world and man. By creating experimental novel theory, he motivated the likeness of the artistic method to the scientific method in the following way: “The novelist is both an observer and an experimenter. As an observer, he depicts facts as he observed them, sets a starting point, finds a solid ground on which his characters will act and events unfold. he becomes an experimenter and performs an experiment - i.e. sets in motion characters within the framework of this or that work, showing that the sequence of events in it will be exactly what the logic of the phenomena under study requires ... The ultimate goal is the knowledge of a person, scientific knowledge of him as a separate individual and as a member of society. "

Influenced by new ideas, the writer created his first naturalistic novels "Teresa Raken" (1867) and "Madeleine Ferrat" (1868). Family stories served the writer as the basis for a complex and deep analysis of human psychology, considered from a scientific and aesthetic standpoint. Zola wanted to prove that human psychology is not a separate "life of the soul", but the sum of diverse interacting factors: hereditary properties, environment, physiological reactions, instincts and passions. In order to denote a complex of interactions, Zola instead of the usual term "character" suggests the term "temperament". Focusing on the theory of I. Taine, he describes in detail "race", "environment" and "moment", provides a brilliant example of "physiological psychology". Zola develops a slender, well-thought-out aesthetic system, which hardly changes until the end of his life. It is based on - determinism, those. the conditionality of the inner world of a person by hereditary inclinations, environment and circumstances.

In 1868, Zola conceived a series of novels, the purpose of which was to study the issues of heredity and the environment using the example of one family, to study the entire Second Empire from the coup d'etat to the present, to embody the modern society of scoundrels and heroes in types (Rougon-Maccars,

1871 -1893). Zola's large-scale plan is only perceived in the context of the entire cycle, although each of the twenty novels is complete and quite independent. But Zola achieves literary triumph by publishing the novel The Trap (1877), which was included in this cycle. The first novel of the series "The Career of the Rugons" (1877) revealed the direction of the entire narrative, both its social and physiological aspects. It is a novel about the establishment of the Second Empire regime, which Zola calls "an extraordinary era of madness and shame", and about the roots of the Rugon and Maccar family. The coup d'état of Napoleon III is depicted indirectly in the novel, and the events in the inert and far from politics provincial Plassans are shown as a fierce battle between the ambitious and selfish interests of the local masters of life and the common people. This struggle is no different from what is happening in all of France, and Plassan is the social model of the country.

The novel "The Career of the Rugons" is a powerful source of the entire cycle: the history of the emergence of the Rugon and Makkar family with a combination of hereditary qualities, which will then give an impressive variety of options in descendants. The ancestor of the clan, Adelaide Fook, the daughter of the Plassan gardener, from her youth distinguished by soreness, strange manners and actions, will pass on to her descendants the weakness and instability of the nervous system. If in some descendants this leads to degradation of the personality, its moral death, then in others it turns into a tendency to exaltation, lofty feelings and striving for the ideal. Adelaide's marriage to the farm laborer Rougon, who possesses vital practicality, mental stability and the desire to achieve a strong position, gives subsequent generations a healthy start. After his death, Adelaide's first and only love for the drunkard and vagrant smuggler McCar appears in Adelaide's life. From him, descendants will inherit drunkenness, love of change, selfishness, unwillingness to do anything serious. The descendants of Pierre Rougon, the only legitimate son of Adelaide, are successful businessmen, and Maccara are alcoholics, criminals, madmen, and also creative people ... But both of them are united by one thing: they are children of the era and they have a desire to rise at any cost.

The entire cycle and each group of novels is permeated with a system of leitmotifs, symbolic scenes and details, in particular, the first group of novels - "Booty", "The Belly of Paris", "His Excellency Eugene Rougon" - is united by the idea of \u200b\u200bbooty shared by the winners, and the second - " Trap "," Nana "," Scum "," Germinal "," Creativity "," Money "and some others - characterize the period when the Second Empire seems to be the most stable, magnificent and triumphant, but behind this appearance there are glaring vices, poverty, the death of the best feelings, the collapse of hopes. The novel "Trap" is a kind of core of this group, and its leitmotif is the approaching catastrophe.

Zola was passionately in love with Paris and he can be called the main character of "Rougon-Makarov", linking the cycle together: the action of thirteen novels takes place in the capital of France, where readers are presented with a different look of the great city.

Several of Zola's novels reflect another side of his worldview - pantheism, that "breath of the universe", where everything is interconnected in a wide stream of life ("Earth", "Abbot Mouret's deed"). Like many of his contemporaries, the writer does not consider man as the ultimate goal of the universe: he is as much a part of nature as any living or inanimate object. This is a kind of fatal predetermination and a sober view of the goal of human life - to fulfill its purpose, thereby contributing to the overall process of development.

The last, twentieth novel of the cycle - "Doctor Pascal" (1893) is a summing up of the final results, first of all, an explanation of the problem of heredity in relation to the Rougon-Maccar family. The curse of the family did not fall on the old scientist Pascal: only obsession and emotionality make him related to other Rougons. He, as a doctor, reveals the theory of heredity and explains in detail its laws using the example of his family, thereby giving the reader the opportunity to cover all three generations of the Rugons and Maccars, to understand the vicissitudes of each individual fate and to create a family tree of the clan.

Zola did a lot for the development of modern theater. Articles and essays, dramatizations of his novels, staged on the stage of the leading Free Theater and on many stages of the world, formed a special direction within the movement of European playwrights for a “new drama” (G. Ibsen, B. Shaw, G. Hauptmann, etc. ).

Without the work of Zola, who combined the entire palette of styles (from romanticism to symbolism) on the basis of the aesthetics of naturalism developed by him, it is impossible to imagine either the movement of French prose from the 19th to the 20th and 21st centuries, or the formation of the poetics of the modern social novel.

The largest writer of French literature in the second half of the 19th century. was Gustave Flaubert (1821 -1880), despite the deep skepticism and tragic pessimism of his worldview. Affirming the principles of impersonal and impassive art, his aesthetic program was close to the theory of "art for art" and partly to the theory of Zola the naturalist. Nevertheless, the artist's powerful talent allowed him, despite the classic example of the "objective manner" of storytelling, to create novel masterpieces Madame Bovary (1856), Salammbo (1862), Education of the Senses (1869).