All sports that have become widespread in the world are classified according to the characteristics of the subject of competition and the nature of motor activity into six groups (L.P. Matveev, 1977):
First group– sports that are characterized by active motor activity of athletes with the utmost manifestation of physical and mental qualities. Sports achievements in these sports depend on the athlete’s own motor capabilities. Most sports fall into this group.
Second group– sports whose operational basis consists of actions to control special technical means of transportation (car, motorcycle, yacht, airplane, etc.). Sports results in these types are largely determined by the ability to effectively manage the technical equipment and the quality of its manufacture.
Third group– sports in which motor activity is strictly limited by the conditions of hitting a target with a special weapon (shooting, darts, etc.).
Fourth group– sports in which the results of an athlete’s modeling and design activities are compared (aircraft models, car models, etc.).
Fifth group– sports, the main content of which is determined in competitions by the nature of the abstract-logical beating of an opponent (chess, checkers, bridge, etc.).
Sixth group– all-around events, composed of sports disciplines included in various groups of sports (orienteering, biathlon, naval all-around, service all-around, etc.).
Doctor of Pedagogical Sciences Yu.F. Kuramshin draws attention to the fact that “each sport makes its own specific demands on the physical fitness of athletes - the level of development of individual qualities, functionality and physique. Therefore, there are certain differences in the content and methods of physical training in one sport or another, among athletes of different ages and qualifications” (Table 7).
Table 7
The significance of individual indicators of physical fitness
Athletes in various sports (Yu.F. Kuramshin, 2003)
| Sports | Indicators | ||
| presenters | complementary | minor | |
| Acrobatics, gymnastics, diving, figure skating | Coordination and strength abilities, flexibility, body constitution, posture, body weight | Speed abilities | Endurance |
| Fencing, boxing, wrestling | Speed and coordination abilities | Strength abilities, body constitution, endurance | Flexibility, endurance |
| Basketball, volleyball, handball | High body length, coordination, speed-strength and speed abilities | Endurance | Flexibility, actual strength abilities |
| Athletics (sprinting, jumping, hurdles) | Speed, speed-strength and coordination abilities, flexibility, condition of the arches of the feet | Endurance | |
| Athletics (middle and long distance running), cross-country skiing | Endurance, volume and size of the heart, stroke and minute volume of the heart | Coordination, actual strength and speed abilities | Flexibility |
| Football, hockey | Speed and coordination abilities, endurance | Actually strength abilities | Flexibility |
The physical education curriculum provides freedom of choice for sports for students of the basic and sports departments. Students are invited to independently choose a sport or a system of physical exercises for systematic training during their studies at the university. The choice of sports has a certain motivational orientation: health promotion, correction of deficiencies in physical development and physique; increasing the functional capabilities of the body; psychophysical preparation for future professional activity, mastery of vital skills and abilities; active recreation; achieving the highest sports results.
Sports that primarily develop endurance
Sports that focus on developing general endurance include all cyclic sports in which physical activity continues for a relatively long time against the background of a predominant increase in aerobic (oxygen) metabolism in the human body. These sports include: race walking; running for medium, long and ultra-long distances (marathon); cross-country skiing and biathlon; swimming; rowing; cycling (road racing, cross-country, group of classic distances on the track); most of the distances and all-around events in speed skating; mountaineering; orienteering; tourism, etc.
Sports that primarily develop endurance significantly increase the general and special endurance of regularly training athletes, resistance to changing meteorological factors, and improve emotional balance and volitional qualities.
Sports that primarily develop strength
And speed and strength qualities
Sports that primarily develop strength and speed-strength qualities belong mainly to the group of acyclic sports, the characteristic features of which are the ability to demonstrate strength and speed of muscle contraction. The actual strength sports, such as weightlifting, kettlebell lifting, and athletic gymnastics, include those sports in which the maximum force during sports movement varies depending on the size of the predominant mass (weight of the barbell, etc.).
Sports movements in which the force changes in accordance with the magnitude of the acceleration imparted to a constant mass (the athlete’s own weight, a sports equipment) are called speed-strength. A special group consists of acyclic sports that develop primarily speed-strength qualities, i.e. the ability to develop maximum muscle effort in a short period of time. These primarily include athletics jumping and throwing, which in their original form were natural views human movement when overcoming obstacles or throwing objects at a distance. Due to its specificity and increased requirements for speed, which is largely an innate quality, specialization in speed-strength disciplines is the lot of younger athletes.
Sports that promote speed
The greatest demands on the manifestation of speed abilities are placed on sprint distances in athletics (100 m, 200 m, 100 m and 110 m hurdles), speed skating (500 m), and cycling (a number of short distances on the track) . Athletes competing at these distances are required to have a good reaction at the start and speed of cyclic movements along the distance. Naturally, preparation for these sports disciplines increases the speed capabilities of the athlete. One of the main prerequisites for speed (speed abilities) is the mobility of nervous processes and the level of neuromuscular coordination.
Characteristics of sports that develop individual physical qualities
Endurance is developed mainly by cyclic sports.
Developing endurance during sports training in a particular sport is one of the effective means of achieving high general and professional performance, based on increasing the stability of the central nervous system, cardiovascular and other functional systems of the body against fatigue. Actually, endurance refers to the ability of the human body to overcome the onset of fatigue. To demonstrate general endurance, you need a good heart, healthy lungs, a sufficient amount of hemoglobin in the blood, abundant blood supply to working muscles, etc. The main thing is that under the influence of rational and systematic training, these organs and physiological processes can improve their functional characteristics. That is why, in this case, we are more interested in those sports in which, as in most labor processes (during the entire working day), aerobic reactions occur in the body, that is, biological oxidation reactions in the body that occur with the participation of oxygen. Therefore, the greatest importance in everyday life and in professional activities are those sports that develop mainly the aerobic capabilities of the body, ensuring long-term, productive work of relatively low power not only in sports activities, but also for a fairly long working time in production.
General endurance is necessary for representatives of all sports, as it allows them to successfully cope with a large volume of training work and more effectively perform and assimilate specialized training work. This once again emphasizes the special importance of developing general endurance among students, regardless of whether their representative is involved in sports or only physical education, because a high level of general endurance is one of the main evidence of excellent health.
So, sports that focus on developing general endurance include all cyclic sports in which physical activity continues for a relatively long time against the background of a predominant increase in aerobic (oxygen) metabolism in the human body. These sports include: race walking, middle, long and ultra-long distance running (marathon), cross-country skiing and biathlon, swimming, rowing, cycling, most distances and all-around events in speed skating, mountaineering, orienteering, tourism and some other.
Although all cyclic sports associated with the manifestation of endurance differ significantly in the structure of movements from each other, there are also common provisions between them: sporting achievements athletes are based on fairly voluminous training and competitive loads. In the process of regular training, the performing functional “link” - the oxygen - transport system and the regulatory “link” - the central nervous and endocrine systems - develop to the extent necessary for each specific sport.
Athletes specializing in these sports have the ability to perform physical work for a long time and successfully resist fatigue with their will. Their high performance is ensured by various adaptive shifts that have occurred in the body under the influence of training influences: morphological and functional development of the heart muscle, increased elastic properties of the walls of blood vessels, increased reserves of energy-rich substances in the muscles and internal organs, high degree efficiency of the nervous system, etc. Let's take a closer look at sports that develop endurance.
Middle, long and ultra-long distance running – an effective means of improving the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, economizing metabolic processes in the body. All this together significantly increases the endurance of the human body.
Currently, medium distances include segments from 800 to 1500 m, long distances from 3000 to 10000 m, and extra long distances from 20 km to marathon running (42 km 195 m). Nowadays not only men, but also women compete at all distances. Middle and long distance running competitions are held both outdoors and indoors.
When running, large muscle groups are put to work, which causes increased activity of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. The work of the body when running these distances is mainly related to aerobic support. The musculoskeletal system experiences significant stress when running, especially over long distances.
Typically, runners are distinguished not only by their endurance and toughness, but also by their ability to withstand high loads (the ability to “endure”), which is associated with the need to demonstrate strong-willed efforts not only in competitions, but also in a certain part of training sessions. At the same time, it should be noted that during a long run at optimal speed, a feeling of emotional comfort and psychological relief arises, which brings inner satisfaction to runners.
This phenomenon is reflected in the results of special scientific research. Thus, it was found that when running for 20 minutes or longer at an intensity of 60-80% of the maximum age-related heart rate in the blood plasma, the concentration of beta-endorphins and met-encephalamines, pleasure mediators, significantly increases. Not by chance
Millions of people in all corners of the globe have chosen the oldest athletics exercise - running - as the most effective cure for a common disease in the civilized world - physical inactivity. Researchers suggest that a similar response occurs with all cycling exercises.
Ski racing– a sports exercise that is aimed at improving human endurance. Skiing improves the activity of the entire muscular system, cardiovascular and respiratory systems. The speed of skiing depends on the length of the distance (for women 3-20 km, for men 5-20 km), weather conditions, snow cover, terrain, as well as the skiing methods used.
The sports success of a racer, in addition to technical, volitional and tactical readiness, is determined primarily by general and special endurance. The diversified development of the muscular system is ensured through the active work of the arms and legs in the process ski race or training. Regular cross-country skiing well develops the circulatory and respiratory systems, which determine the high overall performance of the human body, body muscles, and activates metabolism.
The health value of this sport is great due to the general hygienic conditions of exercise in the forest, in the field, as well as the energetic hardening effect of frosty air on the body during intense muscular activity. Evenly repeating movements various parts bodies have a calming effect on the nervous system. Skiing with good gliding also has a beneficial effect on the musculoskeletal system - joint functions improve and ligaments are strengthened.
Due to the participation of the overwhelming mass of skeletal muscles when skiing, a large dynamic work is performed per unit of time and, accordingly, a large energy consumption occurs (in well-trained
skiers about 1500 kcal/h with fast movement). In this case, breathing increases significantly: pulmonary ventilation can exceed 100 liters, and oxygen consumption up to 5 liters per minute.
Cross-country skiing is a valuable means of applied physical training. After all, the climatic conditions of most of Russia require the ability to ski. Exercises in a variety of terrain conditions in any weather contribute to the development of determination and perseverance. Cross-country exercises, in addition, promote the development of a variety of motor skills, high coordination of movements, quick motor reactions, and a sense of balance.
Thus, this sport provides good all-round physical training, in addition to the accentuated development of endurance, it improves the functions of the visual, vestibular and motor analyzers. Due to the fact that when skiing, most skeletal muscles are involved in work, skiers are distinguished by proportionally developed muscles with good strength indicators.
Swimming– one of the main sports that has both health-improving and applied significance. There are sport and applied swimming.
Competitive swimming includes competition in various ways at distances from 50 to 1500 m, held in pools, as well as swims in open water at different distances.
In terms of its effect on the body, swimming occupies a special place among various physical exercises due to the unusual external environment – water. The work of a swimmer's breathing apparatus has its own characteristics. Hydraulic pressure on the upper body and water resistance during movement compress the swimmer's chest and abdomen. A swimmer's exhalation during competitive swimming is also difficult, as it is done into the water. All this contributes to the development of swimmers’ respiratory muscles and mobility.
chest and vital capacity of the lungs. In male swimmers, chest excursion reaches 16 cm, and spirometry reaches 7500 cubic meters. cm or more, which is almost twice the norm. During high-speed swimming, oxygen absorption can even exceed 5 liters per minute. But the vital capacity of the lungs is the most important indicator of human health.
Energy consumption when swimming is 3-4 times more than when walking at the same speed. A swimmer’s energy expenditure depends not only on speed, training, etc., but also on water temperature due to increased heat transfer from the body. The activity of a swimmer’s cardiovascular system is in more favorable conditions compared to those involved in “land” sports. A big role in this is played by the horizontal position of the swimmer’s body, the massaging effect of the water flowing around the body
Swimming also has general health benefits, especially when training in open water. Systematic swimming classes promote proportional development of muscles, increase the functional capacity of the respiratory and circulatory organs, strengthen the uneven system, improve metabolism, and have an effective hardening effect. Swimming is a vital applied skill that protects against death in water accidents.
Competitive swimming requires systematic training. Currently, the swimmer training system includes a significant amount of special strength exercises on land. Therefore, modern swimmers are distinguished not only by a high level of general and special endurance, but also by good strength training.
Facilitated working conditions of the cardiovascular system in a horizontal position, age-related characteristics of the body's specific weight, etc. allow one to achieve high results in competitive swimming even in their youth. This is why the average age of achieving high athletic
results in this sport are somewhat lower than those of representatives of other sports - 18-25 years for men and 15-22 years for women.
Sports that primarily develop strength and speed-strength qualities belong mainly to the group of acyclic sports, the characteristic features of which are the ability to exert strength and the speed of muscle contraction.
To the actual power types, such as weightlifting, kettlebell lifting, and athletic gymnastics, are those sports in which the maximum force during sports movement varies depending on the size of the predominant mass (weight of the barbell, etc.).
Sports movements in which the force changes in accordance with the magnitude of the acceleration imparted to a constant mass (the athlete’s own weight, sports equipment) are called speed-strength.
Despite the fact that modern life and production require less and less physical effort from a person, strength as a physical quality is of significant independent and auxiliary importance for the successful performance of not only sports, but also professional tasks among representatives of many sports and workers of various specialties . Applied experience in proper lifting of weights, acquired through weightlifting classes and exercises with weights, is also important.
It is known that when developing strength, the maximum power tension, which gives the greatest effect, can be created: 1) by a maximum increase in external resistance in dynamic and static mode, 2) by overcoming unlimited weights (resistance) with a maximum number of repetitions. Therefore, it all depends on the goal of strength training. For example, in the professional activities of the vast majority of specialists there are practically no situations that require maximum muscle tension. So, we can assume that the second direction
Strength training is more justified and acceptable for achieving the tasks of professional-applied training of students who, as a rule, have very different levels of physical fitness.
When considering the issue of using different exercise regimes when developing strength, it is also necessary to pay special attention to the significant difference between most sports and professional activities of specialists in the field of production. Thus, if in sports static efforts are required relatively rarely, and only as a component of dynamic motor acts, then in many types of modern work the opposite picture is observed - against the background of prolonged static tension of significant muscle groups, a significant dynamic load of small muscles occurs in micromovements.
The most important muscle groups that determine normal human functioning must have good development. Such muscle groups that require special attention and special local impact are the following: spinal column extensors, leg flexors, arm extensors, pectoralis major muscle. A prerequisite for the development of these muscle groups is the preliminary strengthening of the abdominal and lumbar muscles.
Weightlifting- This is a sport that is based on performing exercises in lifting as heavy as possible. Currently, competitions are held by weight categories in the snatch and clean and jerk, as well as the sum of the results in these two exercises.
When doing weightlifting, the ability to demonstrate maximum muscle efforts of muscle groups of the lower extremities, torso and arm extensors is improved. The technique of performing basic exercises, as in speed-strength types, includes in its structure moments of manifestation of accentuated muscle effort. IN
At these moments, volitional concentration occurs and the athlete strives to develop maximum power in movement.
Athletic gymnastics“athleticism” is a system of exercises with weights. Athleticism is the desire for a healthy, physically strong, harmonious and beautiful body, to maintain proportional forms and youthful posture throughout many years of life. Currently, athletic gymnastics is an independent public sport, which recent years Women are also actively involved. Athletic gymnastics allows you to significantly increase the mass of individual muscle groups, which leads to an increase in their strength and strength endurance, and to improved physique by correcting the size of individual muscle groups and muscle relief. It is during athletic gymnastics that selective development of individual muscle groups and even individual muscles is carried out, emphasizing and determining the shape of each part of the body.
Athleticism experts believe that to ensure progress, a reasonable combination of resistance training with aerobic physical activity associated with increased oxygen consumption (sports games, slow running, jumping ropes, skiing, etc.) is necessary. It is important that aerobic work, regardless of its type, lasts at least 25-30 minutes at a pulse rate that is calculated by the formula 220 - age. The effectiveness of athletic gymnastics is facilitated by the proper nutrition of the athlete, which is carried out taking into account both individual characteristics and the tasks of a specific training period.
A set of competitive exercises in athletic gymnastics includes exercises demonstrating the development of individual muscle groups and the entire figure, as well as strength program exercises testing the main muscle groups of the shoulder girdle, torso, and legs. This is a bench press while lying on
horizontal bench, squatting with a barbell on the shoulders, deadlift.
Kettlebell lifting primarily develops strength and strength endurance, that is, the ability to maintain optimal movement characteristics for a long time. That is why this sport, with its repeated and varied lifting of non-maximum weight, is more applicable to professional activities that require the manifestation of strength than weightlifting (barbell), where training is aimed at one-time lifting of maximum weight. Kettlebell lifting is quite accessible to everyone, since it does not require special conditions for training and expensive equipment, and allows training sessions to be carried out both individually and in small groups. Athletes' competitions are held in weight categories (up to 60 kg, up to 70 kg, up to 80 kg, up to 90 kg, over 90 kg) with weights of 24 and 32 kg. The main exercises of kettlebell biathlon are the snatch (the kettlebell is lifted upward onto a straight arm in one continuous movement) and the push of the kettlebell with both hands from the shoulder.
The main feature of kettlebell lifting is the duration of the strength exercise with constant weight. For example, lifting more than 30 times (32 kg) for athletes weighing 60 kg and more than 155-160 times for a weight category over 90 kg are considered high achievements in the push with two hands. This requires not only strength, but also extraordinary strength endurance. The greatest demands on the manifestation of speed abilities are placed on sprint distances. athletics(100, 200 m running, 100, 110 m hurdles), speed skating (500 m), cycling (a number of short distances on the track). Athletes competing at these distances are required to have a good distance at the start and fast cyclic movements along the distance.
Unique speed capabilities are required not only in cyclic, but also in a number of acyclic sports: fencing, boxing
and other types of martial arts, in a number of sports games. Certain sports - baseball, Russian lapta, American football - are built mainly on very fast short running bursts.
One of the main prerequisites for speed and speed abilities is the mobility of nervous processes and the level of neuromuscular coordination. Of no small importance is the ability of nerve centers to quickly move from a state of excitation to inhibition and vice versa. There are elementary and complex forms of manifestation of speed. Elementary forms manifest themselves in single movements and are characterized by the following indicators: motor reaction time, single movement time and frequency (tempo) of movements per unit time. Complex forms are characterized by many other indicators. For example, in the 100 m race, speed is closely related to stride length, etc.
Dexterity(coordination abilities) and flexibility largely determine the success of mastering new sports and labor movements. Improving coordination abilities is associated with the accumulation of a large number of motor abilities and skills and the development of ways to quickly combine them into complex motor actions. The criterion for dexterity can be the speed of mastering a complex coordination motor task, the accuracy, quality and time of performing a complex movement, the ability to perform a familiar motor action in an unexpectedly changing environment.
Flexibility – This is a person’s ability to perform movements with a large amplitude. There are dynamic flexibility (manifested in movement), static (allowing one to maintain posture and body position), active (manifested through one’s own efforts) and passive (manifested through external forces). To one degree or another, various types of flexibility manifest themselves and develop during training in individual sports disciplines.
High demands on the agility and flexibility of an athlete are placed on complex coordination sports, such as acrobatics, aerobics, sports and artistic gymnastics, diving and trampolining, ski jumping, slalom, freestyle, figure skating, etc.
Exercises, especially gymnastics and acrobatic exercises, have a powerful stimulating effect on the musculoskeletal system. The training effect is expressed in a significant increase in mobility in the joints while simultaneously strengthening the ligamentous apparatus, increasing the strength capabilities of the muscles in dynamic and static loads, and increasing the elasticity of muscle tissue. All these qualities allow you to perform movements with large amplitude and high speed.
Rhythmic gymnastics is characterized by particularly high requirements for the differentiation of spatio-temporal and power indicators during the actions of female athletes with apparatus under conditions of limited visual control. The great emphasis on increasing the range of motion in rhythmic gymnastics highlights the development of such qualities as flexibility and reduces the importance of strength training, while in artistic gymnastics and acrobatics the main training problems are related to the development of strength qualities. It should also be noted that this group of sports has an inherent aesthetic orientation.
Sports games. The variety of sports games (football, hockey, volleyball, handball, tennis, etc.), varying degrees of complexity of technology and competition rules, different requirements for energy expenditure and intensity of muscle activity create the prerequisites for a wide range of youth to play games.
Sports improvement in gaming disciplines contributes to the harmonious education of the basic physical qualities of those involved - strength, endurance, speed, flexibility and coordination abilities. Particularly valuable from an applied point of view is the possibility of developing in athletes such psychological qualities as successful navigation in a rapidly changing environment, maintaining intellectual performance and emotional balance under the influence of powerful interference factors.
Team sports games especially contribute to the development of such positive qualities and character traits as the ability to subordinate one’s personal interests to the interests of the team, mutual assistance, conscious discipline, etc. Thus, the wide educational applied and health-improving possibilities of these sports are obvious.
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- Introduction
- 1. Classifications of muscle activity
- 1.1.4 Moderate power zone
- 2.1 Physiologicalchanges in cardiovascular system
- 3.2 The course of recovery processes in the body of athletes after athletics
- Conclusion
- References
Introduction
In Russia, there is a classification according to which all sports associated with the manifestation of physical activity are divided into five main groups: speed-strength, cyclic, with complex coordination, sports games and martial arts. The basis of such a division is the commonality of the nature of the activity, and, consequently, the commonality of requirements for the sports included in one or another group.
Cyclic sports are sports with a predominant manifestation of endurance ( athletics, swimming, cross-country skiing, speed skating, all types of rowing, cycling and others), are distinguished by the repeatability of the phases of movements underlying each cycle, and the close connection of each cycle with the next and previous ones. The basis of cyclic exercises is a rhythmic motor reflex, which manifests itself automatically. Cyclic repetition of movements to move one's own body in space is the essence of cyclic sports. Thus, the general features of cyclic exercises are:
1. Repeated repetition of the same cycle, consisting of several phases;
2, All phases of movement of one cycle are sequentially repeated in another cycle;
3. The last phase of one cycle is the beginning of the first phase of movement of the subsequent cycle;
During cyclic sports, a large amount of energy is consumed, and the work itself is performed with high intensity. These sports require metabolic support and specialized nutrition, especially during marathon distances, when energy sources switch from carbohydrates (macroergic phosphates, glycogen, glucose) to fat. Control of the hormonal system of these types of metabolism is essential both in predicting and in correcting performance with pharmacological drugs. High results in these sports primarily depend on the functional capabilities of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, the body’s resistance to hypoxic changes, and the athlete’s volitional ability to resist fatigue.
Athletics is a cyclic sport that combines exercises in walking, running, jumping, throwing and all-around events made up of these types.
The ancient Greek word “athletics” translated into Russian means wrestling, exercise. IN Ancient Greece athletes were those who competed in strength and agility. Currently, athletes are called physically well-developed, strong people.
Cyclic sports have a very diverse effect on the human body. They promote uniform muscle development, train and strengthen the cardiovascular, respiratory and nervous systems, the musculoskeletal system, and increase metabolism. Also, athletics exercises develop strength, speed, endurance, improve mobility in joints, and help harden the body. The basis of athletics is natural human movement. The popularity and mass character of athletics is explained by the general accessibility and wide variety of athletics exercises, the simplicity of the technique, the ability to vary the load and conduct classes at any time of the year, not only on sports grounds, but also in natural conditions. The health value of athletics is enhanced by the fact that they are mostly conducted outdoors.
Purpose of the work: To reveal the main physiological characteristics of cyclic sports using the example of athletics. Show the influence of cyclic sports on the human body.
1. Classifications of muscle activity
In cyclic sports, any muscle activity can be performed, and almost all muscle groups are involved. There are a large number of classifications of types of muscle activity. For example, muscle work is divided into static, in which muscle contraction occurs, but no movement occurs, and dynamic, in which both muscle contraction and movement of body parts relative to each other occur. Static work is more tiring for the body and muscles compared to dynamic work of the same intensity and duration, since with static work there is no phase of muscle relaxation, during which the reserves of substances spent on muscle contraction can be replenished.
Based on the number of muscle groups involved in the work, motor activity is divided into work of a local, regional and global nature. When working locally, less than one third of the muscle mass (usually small muscle groups) is involved in the activity. This is, for example, working with one hand or hands. When working regionally, one large or several small muscle groups are included in the activity. This is, for example, working only with your hands or only with your legs (in athletics this can be various exercises on technique). When working globally, more than two-thirds of the muscles of the total muscle mass participate in the activity. Work of a global nature includes all sports of a cyclic nature - walking, running, swimming (with these types of motor activity, almost all muscles work).
The greater the percentage of muscle mass involved in the work, the greater the changes such work causes in the body, and the, accordingly, the higher the training effect. Therefore, strength exercises for individual muscle groups, of course, will help increase the strength of these muscles, but will have virtually no effect on the activity of other organs (heart, lungs, blood vessels, immune system organs).
All of the following classifications of physical exercises imply that the body performs work of a global nature.
One of the most well-known classifications of physical exercises is their division according to the predominant source of energy for muscle contraction. In the human body, the breakdown of substances to produce energy can occur with the participation of oxygen (aerobically) and without the participation of oxygen (anaerobically).
In reality, during muscular work, both variants of the breakdown of substances are observed, however, one of them, as a rule, predominates.
Based on the predominance of one or another method of decomposition of substances, aerobic work is distinguished, the energy supply of which occurs mainly due to the oxygen decomposition of substances, anaerobic work, the energy supply of which occurs mainly due to the oxygen-free decomposition of substances, and mixed work, in which it is difficult to distinguish the predominant method of decomposition of substances.
An example of aerobic work is any low-intensity activity that can be continued for a long time. Including our daily movements. It is generally accepted that aerobic exercise is considered to be that which is carried out within the pulse range of 140-160 beats per minute. Training in this mode is fully provided with the required amount of oxygen, in other words, the athlete can provide his body with the amount of oxygen that is necessary to perform a specific exercise. Performing exercises in the aerobic exercise zone does not lead to the accumulation of oxygen debt and the appearance of lactic acid (lactate) in the athlete’s muscles. In cyclic sports, examples of such work are long walking, long continuous running (for example, jogging), long cycling, long rowing, long skiing, skating, and so on.
An example of anaerobic work is an activity that can only last for a short time (from 10-20 seconds to 3-5 minutes). Anaerobic exercise - exercises performed at a heart rate of 180 beats/min. and above. At the same time, every track and field athlete knows what muscle congestion is, but not everyone understands how this is explained. But in fact, this is an anaerobic lactic load, that is, performing a training program with the accumulation of lactic acid in the muscles. Such “clogged” muscles are caused by lactic acid accumulated during anaerobic exercise. And the reason for the appearance of lactate is very simple. When working with near-maximal and extreme loads, the body cannot be fully provided with all the oxygen it needs, therefore the breakdown of proteins and carbohydrates (fats are used to a minimum) occurs in an oxygen-free mode, which leads to the formation of lactic acid and some other breakdown products. This is, for example, sprinting with maximum speed, swimming short distances at maximum speed, cycling or rowing short distances at maximum speed.
Intermediate activities, which may last more than 5 minutes but less than 30 minutes of continuous activity, are an example of working with a mixed (oxygen-free) type of energy supply.
When the term “aerobic” or “anaerobic work” is uttered, it is meant that this is how the whole body perceives this work, and not individual muscles. In this case, individual muscles can work both in the oxygen energy supply mode (non-working or taking little part in the activity, for example, facial muscles), and in the oxygen-free energy supply mode (performing the greatest load during this type of activity).
Another common classification of physical exercises is the division of muscle work into power zones
1.1 Power of work performed and energy supply to muscle contraction
Physical exercises are performed at different speeds and amounts of external weight. The intensity of physiological functions (intensity of functioning), assessed by the magnitude of shifts from the initial level, changes. Consequently, the relative power of cyclic work (measured in W or kJ/min) can also be judged about the real physiological load on the athlete’s body.
Of course, the degree of physiological load is associated not only with measurable indicators of physical activity that can be accurately counted. It depends on the initial functional state of the athlete’s body, on his level of training and on environmental conditions. For example, the same physical activity at sea level and at high altitude will cause different physiological changes. In other words, if the power of work is measured accurately enough and dosed well, then the magnitude of the physiological changes it causes cannot be accurately quantified. It is also difficult to predict the physiological load without taking into account the current functional state of the athlete’s body.
A physiological assessment of adaptive changes in an athlete’s body is impossible without correlating them with the severity (tension) of muscular work. These indicators are taken into account when classifying physical exercises according to the physiological load on individual systems and the body as a whole, as well as according to the relative power of the work performed by the athlete.
Cyclic exercises differ from each other in the power of work performed by athletes. According to the classification developed by V.S. Farfel, it is necessary to distinguish between cyclic exercises: maximum power, in which the duration of work does not exceed 20-30 seconds (sprint running up to 200 m, round on a cycling track up to 200 m, swimming up to 50 m, etc.); submaximal power, lasting 3-5 minutes (running 1500 m, swimming 400 m, track laps up to 1000 m, skating up to 3000 m, rowing up to 5 minutes, etc.); high power, the possible execution time of which is limited to 30 - 40 minutes (running up to 10,000 m, cycling track, cycling races up to 50 km, swimming 800 m - women, 1500 m - men, race walking up to 5 km, etc.), and moderate power that an athlete can maintain from 30-40 minutes to several hours (road cycling races, marathon and ultra-marathon runs, etc.).
The power criterion that forms the basis for the classification of cyclic exercises proposed by V.S. Farfel (1949), is very relative, as the author himself points out. Indeed, a master of sports swims 400 meters in less than four minutes, which corresponds to the submaximal power zone, while a beginner swims this distance in 6 minutes or more, i.e. actually performs work related to the high power zone.
Despite the certain schematic nature of the division of cyclic work into 4 power zones, it is quite justified, since each of the zones has a specific effect on the body and has its own distinctive physiological manifestations. At the same time, each power zone is characterized by general patterns of functional changes that have little to do with the specifics of various cyclic exercises. This makes it possible to assess the power of work to create a general idea of the impact of the corresponding loads on the athlete’s body.
Many functional changes characteristic of different work power zones are largely associated with the course of energy transformations in working muscles.
Energy supply for muscle contraction
So, any type of physical activity requires the expenditure of a certain amount of energy.
The only direct source of energy for muscle contraction is adenosine triphosphate (ATP). ATP reserves in the muscle are insignificant and are enough to provide several muscle contractions for only 0.5 seconds. When ATP is broken down, adenosine diphosphate (ADP) is formed. In order for muscle contraction to continue further, ATP must be constantly restored at the same rate at which it is broken down.
The restoration of ATP during muscle contraction can be carried out due to reactions that take place without oxygen (anaerobic), as well as due to oxidative processes in cells associated with oxygen consumption (aerobic). As soon as the level of ATP in the muscle begins to decrease and ADP begins to increase, the creatine phosphate source of ATP restoration is immediately activated.
The creatine phosphate source is the fastest way to restore ATP, which occurs without oxygen (anaerobically). It provides instant ATP recovery due to another high-energy compound - creatine phosphate (CrP). The content of CrF in muscles is 3-4 times higher than the concentration of ATP. Compared to other sources of ATP recovery, the KrP source has the greatest power, so it plays a decisive role in the energy supply of short-term explosive muscle contractions. This work continues until the CrP reserves in the muscles are significantly depleted. This takes approximately 6-10 seconds. The rate of CrF breakdown in working muscles is directly dependent on the intensity of the exercise performed or the amount of muscle tension.
Only after the reserves of CrP in the muscles are depleted by about 1/3 (this takes about 5-6 seconds), the rate of ATP recovery due to CrP begins to decrease, and the next source begins to join the process of ATP restoration - glycolysis. This happens with increasing duration of work: by 30 seconds the reaction rate decreases by half, and by the 3rd minute it is only about 1.5% of the initial value.
The glycolytic source ensures the restoration of ATP and CrF due to the anaerobic breakdown of carbohydrates - glycogen and glucose. During the process of glycolysis, intramuscular glycogen reserves and glucose entering cells from the blood are broken down into lactic acid. The formation of lactic acid, the final product of glycolysis, occurs only under anaerobic conditions, but glycolysis can also occur in the presence of oxygen, but in this case it ends at the stage of formation of pyruvic acid. Glycolysis ensures that the given exercise power is maintained from 30 seconds to 2.5 minutes.
The duration of the period of ATP recovery due to glycolysis is limited not by glycogen and glucose reserves, but by the concentration of lactic acid and the athlete’s volitional efforts. The accumulation of lactic acid during anaerobic work is directly dependent on the power and duration of the exercise.
The oxidative (oxidative) source ensures the restoration of ATP under conditions of continuous supply of oxygen to the mitochondria of cells and uses long-term sources of energy. Such as carbohydrates (glycogen and glucose), amino acids, fats, delivered to the muscle cell through the capillary network. The maximum power of the aerobic process depends on the rate of oxygen absorption in the cells and on the rate of oxygen supply to the tissues.
The largest number of mitochondria (oxygen “uptake” centers) is observed in slow-twitch muscle fibers. The higher the percentage of such fibers in the muscles bearing the load during the exercise, the greater the maximum aerobic power of athletes and the higher the level of their achievements in long-term exercises. The predominant restoration of ATP due to the oxidative source begins when performing exercises whose duration exceeds 6-7 minutes
The energy supply to muscle contraction is the determining factor for identifying 4 power zones.
1.1.1 Maximum operating power zone
This work power is characterized by the achievement of the athlete’s maximum physical capabilities. For its implementation, maximum mobilization of energy supply in the skeletal muscles is necessary, which is associated exclusively with anaerobic processes. Almost all the work is carried out due to the breakdown of macroergs and only partially - glycogenolysis, since it is known that even the first muscle contractions are accompanied by the formation of lactic acid in them.
The duration of work, for example, in a 100 m run is less than the blood circulation time. This already indicates the impossibility of sufficient oxygen supply to working muscles.
Due to the short duration of work, the development of vegetative systems practically does not have time to be completed. We can only talk about the complete development of the muscular system in terms of locomotor indicators (increase in speed, pace and step length after the start).
Due to the short time of work, functional changes in the body are small, and some of them increase after the finish.
Working at maximum power causes minor changes in the composition of the blood and urine. There is a short-term increase in the content of lactic acid in the blood (up to 70-100 mg%), a slight increase in the percentage of hemoglobin due to the release of deposited blood into the general circulation, and a slight increase in sugar content. The latter is due more to the emotional background (pre-start state) than to the physical activity itself. Traces of protein may be found in the urine. After the finish, the heart rate reaches 150-170 or more beats per minute, blood pressure rises to 150-180 mm. rt. Art.
Breathing during maximum power increases slightly, but increases significantly after the end of the load as a result of a large oxygen debt. Thus, pulmonary ventilation after the finish can increase to 40 or more liters per minute.
The oxygen demand reaches extreme values, reaching up to 40 liters. However, this is not its absolute value, but calculated per minute, i.e. for a time exceeding the body’s ability to perform the work of this power. At the end of the work, due to the large oxygen debt that has arisen, the functions of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems remain enhanced for some time. For example, gas exchange after running sprint distances returns to normal after 30-40 minutes. During this time, the restoration of many other functions and processes is largely completed.
1.1.2 Submaximum operating power zone
In contrast to maximum power work, with this longer load, there is a sharp increase in blood circulation and respiration. This ensures the delivery of a significant amount of oxygen to the muscles during physical work. Oxygen consumption reaches maximum or close values at the end of 3-5 minutes of work. (5-6 liters per minute). The minute volume of blood increases to 25-30 liters. However, despite this, the oxygen demand in this power zone turns out to be much greater than the actual oxygen consumption. It reaches 25-26 l/min. Consequently, the absolute value of the oxygen debt reaches 20 or more liters, i.e. maximum possible values. These figures indicate that when working at submaximal power in the body, although to a lesser extent than during sprint distances, anaerobic processes in the release of energy predominate over aerobic ones. As a result of intense glycogenolysis in the muscles, a large amount of lactic acid accumulates in the blood. In the blood, its content reaches 250 mg% or more, which causes a sharp shift in blood pH to the acidic side (up to 7.0-6.9). Sharp changes in the acid-base balance in the blood are accompanied by an increase in osmotic pressure in it, as a result of the transfer of water from plasma to muscles and its loss during sweating. All this creates unfavorable conditions for the activity of the central nervous system and muscles during work, causing a decrease in their performance.
Characteristic of this power zone is that some functional changes increase throughout the entire period of work, reaching maximum values (lactic acid content in the blood, decrease in the alkaline reserve of the blood, oxygen debt, etc.).
Heart rate reaches 190-220 mmHg. Art., pulmonary ventilation increases to 140-160 l/min. After working at submaximal power, functional changes in the body are eliminated within 2-3 hours. Blood pressure is restored faster. Heart rate and gas exchange rates return to normal later.
1.1.3 High power operating area
In this work power zone, lasting 30-40 minutes, in all cases the run-in period is completely completed, and many functional indicators then stabilize at the achieved level, remaining there until the finish.
The heart rate after activation is 170-190 beats per minute, the minute blood volume is within 30-35 liters, pulmonary ventilation is set at 140-180 liters per minute. Thus, the cardiovascular and respiratory systems work at the limit (or almost at the limit) of their capabilities. However, the power of work in this zone slightly exceeds the level of aerobic energy supply. And although oxygen consumption can increase when performing this work to 5-6 liters per minute, the oxygen reserve still exceeds these figures, as a result of which there is a gradual increase in oxygen debt, especially noticeable towards the end of the distance. Stabilization of indicators of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems with a relatively small oxygen debt (10-15% of oxygen demand) is designated as an apparent (false) steady state. Due to the increase in the specific gravity of aerobic processes during high-power work, slightly smaller changes are observed in the blood of athletes than during submaximal power work. Thus, the content of lactic acid reaches 200-220 mg%, the pH shifts to 7.1-7.0. A slightly lower content of lactic acid in the blood during high-power work is also associated with its excretion by the excretory organs (kidneys and sweat glands). The activity of the circulatory and respiratory organs is increased for a long time after high-power work has ended. It takes at least 5-6 hours for the oxygen debt to be eliminated and homeostasis restored.
1. 1.4 Moderate power zone
A characteristic feature of dynamic work of moderate power is the onset of a true steady state. It refers to an equal ratio between oxygen demand and oxygen consumption. Consequently, the release of energy occurs here mainly due to the oxidation of glycogen in the muscles. In addition, only in this zone of work power, due to its duration, lipids are the source of energy. The oxidation of proteins in the energy supply of muscle activity is also not excluded. Therefore, the respiratory coefficient of Marathon runners immediately after the finish (or at the end of the distance) is usually less than one.
The values of oxygen consumption at ultra-long distances are always set below their maximum value (at the level of 70-80%). Functional changes in the cardiorespiratory system are noticeably less than those observed during high-power work. The heart rate usually does not exceed 150-170 beats per minute, the minute blood volume is 15-20 liters, pulmonary ventilation is 50-60 l/minute. The content of lactic acid in the blood at the beginning of work increases noticeably, reaching 80-100 mg%, and then approaches normal. Characteristic of this power zone is the onset of hypoglycemia, usually developing 30-40 minutes after the start of work, in which the blood sugar level by the end of the distance can decrease to 50-60 mg%. Severe leukocytosis is also observed with the appearance of immature forms of leukocytes in 1 cubic meter. mm can reach up to 25-30 thousand.
The function of the adrenal cortex is essential for the high performance of athletes. Short-term intense physical activity causes increased formation of glucocorticoids. When working at moderate power, apparently due to its long duration, after the initial increase, the production of these hormones is suppressed (A. Viru). Moreover, in less trained athletes this reaction is especially pronounced.
It should be noted that if the uniformity of running marathon distances is disrupted or during climbing, oxygen consumption slightly lags behind the increased oxygen demand and a small oxygen debt arises, which is repaid when switching to constant work power. Oxygen debt for marathon runners also usually occurs at the end of the distance, due to acceleration at the finish line. When working at moderate power, due to profuse sweating, the body loses a lot of water and salts, which can lead to disturbances in water-salt balance and decreased performance. Increased gas exchange after this work is observed for many hours. Restoring the normal leukocyte formula and performance continues for several days.
2. Physiological changes in the body under the influence of cyclic sports
2.1 Physiological changes in the cardiovascular system
The heart is the main center of the circulatory system. As a result of physical training, the size and weight of the heart increases due to the thickening of the walls of the heart muscle and an increase in its volume, which increases the power and efficiency of the heart muscle.
During regular exercise or sports:
the number of red blood cells and the amount of hemoglobin in them increases, resulting in an increase in the oxygen capacity of the blood;
the body's resistance to colds and infectious diseases increases due to increased leukocyte activity;
recovery processes are accelerated after significant blood loss.
Indicators of heart performance.
An important indicator of heart performance is systolic blood volume (SB) - the amount of blood pushed out by one ventricle of the heart into the vascular bed during one contraction.
Other informative indicators of heart performance are the number of heart contractions (HR) (arterial pulse).
During sports training, the resting heart rate becomes lower over time due to the increase in the power of each heartbeat.
Indicators of the number of heart contractions. (beats/min)
|
Trained body |
Untrained body |
|||
The heart of an untrained person, in order to provide the required minute volume of blood (the amount of blood ejected by one ventricle of the heart within a minute), is forced to contract at a higher frequency, since it has a lower systolic volume.
The heart of a trained person is more often penetrated by blood vessels; in such a heart, muscle tissue is better nourished and the performance of the heart has time to recover during pauses in the cardiac cycle. Schematically, the cardiac cycle can be divided into 3 phases: atrial systole (0.1 s), ventricular systole (0.3 s) and general pause (0.4 s). Even if we conventionally assume that these parts are equal in time, then the rest pause for an untrained person at a heart rate of 80 beats/min will be equal to 0.25 s, and for a trained person at a heart rate of 60 beats/min, the rest pause increases to 0.33 s . This means that the heart of a trained person has more time for rest and recovery in each cycle of its work.
Blood pressure is the pressure of blood inside blood vessels on their walls. Blood pressure is measured in the brachial artery, which is why it is called blood pressure (BP), which is a very informative indicator of the state of the cardiovascular system and the entire body.
There is a distinction between maximum (systolic) blood pressure, which is created during systole (contraction) of the left ventricle of the heart, and minimum (diastolic) blood pressure, which is observed at the time of its diastole (relaxation). Pulse pressure (pulse amplitude) is the difference between maximum and minimum blood pressure. Pressure is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg).
Normally, for a student at rest, the maximum blood pressure is in the range of 100-130; minimum - 65-85, pulse pressure - 40-45 mm Hg. Art.
Pulse pressure increases during physical work; its decrease is an unfavorable indicator (observed in untrained people). A decrease in pressure may be a consequence of weakened heart function or excessive narrowing of peripheral blood vessels.
|
State |
BP in people |
||
|
trained |
untrained |
||
Intensivephysical |
Maximum blood pressure rises to 200 ml Hg. Art. and more, can last a long time. |
Maximum blood pressure firstrises to 200 ml Hg. Art., then decreases as a result of fatigue of the heart muscle. Fainting may occur. |
|
|
After work |
trained |
untrained |
|
|
The maximum and minimum blood pressure quickly returns to normal. |
The maximum and minimum blood pressure remain elevated for a long time. |
Complete blood circulation through the vascular system at rest takes 21-22 seconds, during physical work - 8 seconds or less, which leads to an increase in the supply of body tissues with nutrients and oxygen.
Physical work contributes to the general expansion of blood vessels, normalization of the tone of their muscle walls, improved nutrition and increased metabolism in the walls of blood vessels. When the muscles surrounding the vessels work, the walls of the vessels are massaged. Blood vessels passing through the muscles (brain, internal organs, skin) are massaged due to the hydrodynamic wave from the increased heart rate and due to the accelerated blood flow. All this contributes to maintaining the elasticity of the walls of blood vessels and the normal functioning of the cardiovascular system without pathological abnormalities.
Cyclic exercises have a particularly beneficial effect on blood vessels: running, swimming, skiing, skating, cycling.
2.2 Physiological changes in the respiratory system
During physical activity, O2 consumption and CO2 production increase on average 15-20 times. At the same time, ventilation increases and the body tissues receive the required amount of O2, and CO2 is removed from the body.
Indicators of the performance of the respiratory organs are tidal volume, respiratory rate, vital capacity, pulmonary ventilation, oxygen demand, oxygen consumption, oxygen debt, etc.
Tidal volume is the amount of air passing through the lungs during one respiratory cycle (inhalation, exhalation, respiratory pause). The amount of tidal volume is directly dependent on the degree of fitness for physical activity and fluctuates at rest from 350 to 800 ml. At rest, in untrained people, the tidal volume is at the level of 350-500 ml, in trained people it is 800 ml or more. During intense physical work, tidal volume can increase to 2500 ml.
Respiratory rate - the number of respiratory cycles in 1 minute. The average respiratory rate in untrained people at rest is 16-20 cycles per 1 minute; in trained people, due to an increase in tidal volume, the respiratory rate decreases to 8-12 cycles per 1 minute. In women, the respiratory rate is 1-2 cycles higher. During sports activity, the respiratory rate in skiers and runners increases to 20-28 cycles per minute, in swimmers - 36-45; cases of increased respiratory rate up to 75 cycles per minute were observed.
Vital capacity is the maximum amount of air that a person can exhale after a full inhalation (measured by spirometry). Average values of vital capacity of the lungs: for untrained men - 3500 ml, for women - 3000; in trained men - 4700 ml, in women - 3500. When engaging in cyclic endurance sports (rowing, swimming, cross-country skiing, etc.), the vital capacity of the lungs can reach 7000 ml or more in men, 5000 in women ml or more.
Pulmonary ventilation is the volume of air that passes through the lungs in 1 minute. Pulmonary ventilation is determined by multiplying the tidal volume by the respiratory rate. Pulmonary ventilation at rest is at the level of 5000-9000 ml (5-9 l). During physical work, this volume reaches 50 liters. The maximum value can reach 187.5 liters with a tidal volume of 2.5 liters and a respiratory rate of 75 respiratory cycles per minute.
Oxygen demand is the amount of oxygen required by the body to ensure vital processes under various conditions of rest or work in 1 minute. At rest, the average oxygen demand is 200-300 ml. When running 5 km, for example, it increases 20 times and becomes equal to 5000-6000 ml. When running 100 m in 12 seconds, when converted to 1 minute, the oxygen demand increases to 7000 ml.
The total, or total, oxygen demand is the amount of oxygen needed to do all the work. At rest, a person consumes 250-300 ml of oxygen per minute. With muscular work this value increases.
The greatest amount of oxygen that the body can consume per minute during specific intense muscular work is called maximum oxygen consumption (MOC). MIC depends on the state of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, the oxygen capacity of the blood, the activity of metabolic processes and other factors.
For each person there is an individual MOC limit, above which oxygen consumption is impossible. For people who do not engage in sports, MOC is 2.0-3.5 l/min, for male athletes it can reach 6 l/min or more, for women - 4 l/min or more. The MIC value characterizes the functional state of the respiratory and cardiovascular systems, the degree of fitness of the body for long-term physical activity. The absolute value of MIC also depends on body size, therefore, to more accurately determine it, the relative MIC per 1 kg of body weight is calculated. For an optimal level of health, it is necessary to have the ability to consume oxygen per 1 kg of body weight: for women at least 42 ml, for men - at least 50 ml.
Oxygen debt is the difference between the oxygen demand and the amount of oxygen consumed during operation in 1 minute. For example, when running 5000 m in 14 minutes, the oxygen demand is 7 l/min, and the limit (ceiling) of this athlete’s MOC is 5.3 l/min; Consequently, an oxygen debt equal to 1.7 liters of oxygen arises in the body every minute, i.e. the amount of oxygen that is necessary for the oxidation of metabolic products accumulated during physical work.
During prolonged intensive work, a total oxygen debt arises, which is eliminated after the end of work. The maximum possible total debt has a limit (ceiling). In untrained people it is at the level of 4-7 liters of oxygen, in trained people it can reach 20-22 liters.
Physical training helps tissue adapt to hypoxia (lack of oxygen) and increases the ability of body cells to work intensively in the absence of oxygen.
The respiratory system is the only internal system that a person can control voluntarily. Therefore, the following recommendations can be made:
a) breathing must be done through the nose, and only in cases of intense physical work is breathing simultaneously through the nose and the narrow gap in the mouth formed by the tongue and palate allowed. With such breathing, the air is cleared of dust, moistened and warmed before entering the lung cavity, which helps to increase breathing efficiency and keep the respiratory tract healthy;
b) when performing physical exercises, it is necessary to regulate breathing:
in all cases of straightening the body, inhale;
when bending the body, exhale;
during cyclic movements, adapt the breathing rhythm to the rhythm of movement with an emphasis on exhalation. For example, when running, inhale by 4 steps, exhale by 5-6 steps, or inhale by 3 steps and exhale by 4-5 steps, etc.
Avoid frequent holding your breath and straining, which leads to stagnation of venous blood in peripheral vessels.
The respiratory function is most effectively developed by physical cyclic exercises involving a large number of muscle groups in clean air (swimming, rowing, skiing, running, etc.).
2.3 Physiological changes in the musculoskeletal system
Skeletal muscles are the main apparatus with the help of which physical exercises are performed. Well-developed muscles are a reliable support for the skeleton. For example, with pathological curvatures of the spine, deformations of the chest (and the reason for this is weakness of the muscles of the back and shoulder girdle), the work of the lungs and heart becomes difficult, the blood supply to the brain deteriorates, etc. Trained back muscles strengthen the spinal table, relieve it, taking part of the load upon themselves, and prevent the “loss” of intervertebral discs and slipping of the vertebrae.
Exercises in cyclic sports have a comprehensive effect on the body. Thus, under their influence, significant changes occur in the muscles.
If muscles are doomed to long-term rest, they begin to weaken, become flabby, and decrease in volume. Systematic athletics classes help strengthen them. In this case, muscle growth occurs not due to an increase in their length, but due to the thickening of muscle fibers. The strength of muscles depends not only on their volume, but also on the strength of nerve impulses entering the muscles from the central nervous system. In a trained person who is constantly engaged in physical exercise, these impulses cause the muscles to contract with greater force than in an untrained person.
Under the influence of physical activity, muscles not only stretch better, but also become stronger. Muscle hardness is explained, on the one hand, by the proliferation of protoplasm of muscle cells and intercellular connective tissue, and on the other hand, by the state of muscle tone.
Athletics contribute to better nutrition and blood supply to the muscles. It is known that with physical stress, not only does the lumen of countless tiny vessels (capillaries) penetrating the muscles expand, but their number also increases. Thus, in the muscles of people involved in athletics, the number of capillaries is much greater than in untrained people, and, therefore, they have better blood circulation in the tissues and brain. Also I.M. Sechenov, a famous Russian physiologist, pointed out the importance of muscle movements for the development of brain activity.
As mentioned above, under the influence of physical activity such qualities as strength, speed, and endurance develop.
Strength grows better and faster than other qualities. At the same time, muscle fibers increase in diameter, energy substances and proteins accumulate in them in large quantities, and muscle mass grows.
Regular physical exercise with weights (exercises with dumbbells, barbells, physical labor associated with lifting weights) quickly increases dynamic strength. Moreover, strength develops well not only at a young age, and older people have a greater ability to develop it.
Cyclic training also helps develop and strengthen bones, tendons and ligaments. Bones become stronger and more massive, tendons and ligaments become stronger and more elastic. The thickness of the tubular bones increases due to new layers of bone tissue produced by the periosteum, the production of which increases with increasing physical activity. More calcium salts, phosphorus, and nutrients accumulate in the bones. But the stronger the skeleton, the more reliably the internal organs are protected from external damage.
The increasing ability of muscles to stretch and the increased elasticity of ligaments improve movements, increase their amplitude, and expand a person’s ability to adapt to various physical work.
2.4 Physiological changes in the nervous system
With systematic exercise in cyclic sports, blood supply to the brain and the general condition of the nervous system at all its levels improves. At the same time, greater strength, mobility and balance of nervous processes are noted, since the processes of excitation and inhibition, which form the basis of the physiological activity of the brain, are normalized. The most useful species sports are swimming, skiing, skating, cycling, tennis.
In the absence of the necessary muscle activity, undesirable changes in the functions of the brain and sensory systems occur, the level of functioning of the subcortical formations responsible for the functioning of, for example, sensory organs (hearing, balance, taste) or those responsible for vital functions (breathing, digestion, blood supply) decreases. As a result, there is a decrease in the overall defenses of the body and an increase in the risk of various diseases. Such cases are characterized by instability of mood, sleep disturbance, impatience, and weakening of self-control.
Physical training has a diverse effect on mental functions, ensuring their activity and stability. It has been established that stability of attention, perception, and memory is directly dependent on the level of versatile physical fitness.
The main property of the nervous system, which can be taken into account when selecting for cyclic sports, is balance. It is believed that the longer the distance, the less the requirements for the strength of nervous processes, and the more for balance.
The main processes occurring in the nervous system during intense physical activity:
· Formation of a model of the final result of an activity in the brain.
· Formation of a program of upcoming behavior in the brain.
· Generation of nerve impulses in the brain that trigger muscle contraction and transmission of them to the muscles.
· Management of changes in systems that provide muscle activity and do not take part in muscle work.
· Perception of information about how muscles contract, the work of other organs, and how the environment changes.
· Analysis of information coming from the structures of the body and the environment.
Making, if necessary, corrections to the behavior program, generating and sending new executive commands to the muscles.
2.5 Physiological changes in the body’s metabolism and endocrine glands
Moderate physical activity has a beneficial effect on metabolic processes in the body.
Protein metabolism in athletes is characterized by a positive nitrogen balance, that is, the amount of nitrogen consumed (mainly nitrogen contained in proteins) exceeds the amount of nitrogen excreted. Negative nitrogen balance is observed during illness, weight loss, and metabolic disorders. People involved in sports use proteins primarily for muscle and bone development. While for untrained people - to obtain energy (in this case, a number of substances harmful to the body are released).
Fat metabolism in athletes accelerates. Much more fat is used during physical activity, which means less fat is stored under the skin. Regular athletics reduces the amount of so-called atherogenic lipids, which lead to the development of severe blood vessel disease - atherosclerosis.
Carbohydrate metabolism accelerates during cyclic sports. At the same time carbohydrates(glucose, fructose) are used for energy rather than stored as fat. Moderate muscle activity restores tissue sensitivity to glucose and prevents the development of type 2 diabetes. To perform fast power movements (lifting weights), mainly carbohydrates are consumed, but during prolonged light exercise (for example, walking or slow running), - fats.
Endocrine glands
Changes in the activity of the endocrine glands during cyclic sports depend on the nature of the work performed, its duration and intensity. In any case, these changes are aimed at ensuring maximum performance of the body.
Even if the body has not yet begun to perform muscular work, but is preparing for its implementation (the athlete’s state before the start), changes in the activity of the endocrine glands are observed in the body, characteristic of the start of work.
Changes with significant muscle loads
|
Change in hormone secretion |
Physiological effect |
|
|
The release of adrenaline and norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla increases. |
The excitability of the nervous system increases, the frequency and strength of heart contractions increases, the respiratory rate increases, the bronchi dilate, the blood vessels of the muscles, brain, heart dilate, the blood vessels of non-working organs (skin, kidneys, digestive tract, etc.) narrow, the rate of breakdown of substances increases. , freeing up energy for muscle contraction. |
|
|
Increased secretion of growth hormone (somatotropic hormone) from the pituitary gland |
The breakdown of fats in adipose tissue is enhanced, and their use as a source of energy for muscle contraction is facilitated. Facilitates the absorption of nutrients by cells. |
|
|
The secretion of the pituitary hormone increases, stimulating the activity of the adrenal cortex (adrenocorticotropic hormone). |
The secretion of hormones from the adrenal cortex increases. |
|
|
The secretion of glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids from the adrenal cortex increases. |
Under the influence of glucocorticoids, the rate of formation of carbohydrates in the liver and the release of carbohydrates from the liver into the bloodstream increases. From the blood, carbohydrates can enter working muscles, providing them with energy. |
|
|
The release of vasopressin from the posterior pituitary gland increases. |
Blood vessels (of non-working organs) narrow, providing an additional blood reserve for working muscles. The excretion of water by the kidneys is reduced, which prevents the body from dehydration. |
|
|
The secretion of glucagon from intrasecretory pancreatic cells increases. |
The breakdown of carbohydrates and fats in cells is facilitated, and the release of carbohydrates and fats from their storage sites into the blood, from where they can be used by muscle cells as an energy source. |
|
|
The release of gonadotropic hormone from the pituitary gland (a hormone that regulates the activity of the sex glands) is reduced. |
The activity of the sex glands decreases. |
|
|
The secretion of sex hormones from the gonads decreases (during strength training, testosterone levels may increase, especially during the recovery period). |
||
|
The release of analogs of sex hormones from the adrenal cortex is reduced. |
The specific effect of sex hormones decreases. |
|
|
The secretion of insulin from intrasecretory pancreatic cells decreases. |
The storage of carbohydrates is blocked, making it easier to use them as an energy source for muscle contraction. |
Changes in the activity of other endocrine glands are insignificant or insufficiently studied.
3. Characteristics of the processes of fatigue and recovery in cyclic sports
3.1 Physiological and biochemical basis of fatigue during athletics
The problem of fatigue is considered an urgent general biological problem, is of great theoretical interest and has important practical significance for the activities of people involved in athletics. The question of the correct interpretation of the fatigue process remained controversial for a long time. Nowadays it is considered as a condition of the body that arises as a result of performing physical work and manifests itself in a temporary decrease in performance, deterioration of motor and autonomic functions, their incoordination and the appearance of a feeling of fatigue.
As studies of recent decades have shown, the structure of a particular muscle is made up of motor units (MUs) that have different functional characteristics and organization of activity, which, like muscle fibers, have their own functional differences. P. E. Burke (1975) proposed dividing the MU based on a combination of two properties - contraction speed and resistance to fatigue. He put forward four types of MU (Table 1).
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Ministry of Education of the Nizhny Novgorod Region
State budgetary educational institution
Nizhny Novgorod State Engineering and Economic Institute
(GBOU VPO NGIEI)
Abstract
on the topic: “Characteristics of the features of the impact of a system of physical exercises on physical development and preparedness, mental qualities and personality traits”
Completed:
student gr. 11 - MO
Shitova N.
Checked:
Kuryatnikova O.A.
Knyaginino, 2013
Introduction
2.1 Middle, long and ultra-long distance running
2.2 Ski racing
2.3 Swimming
2.4 Weightlifting
2.5 Athletic gymnastics
2.6 Gymnastic and acrobatic exercises
2.7 Sports games
Conclusion
List of used literature
Introduction
In the historical development of individual sports and systems of physical exercise, there is an obvious connection with changing environmental conditions, with socio-economic factors of human labor, leisure and everyday life. Changes in the internal structure of each sport often depended on the progress of technology, on the results of scientific discoveries in the sense that in many sports the designs and quality of sports equipment and equipment were improved, and the rules of sports competitions were significantly changed. These same factors are associated with the constant improvement of the theory and methodology, as well as the practice of sports training, medical and biological support of the training process, methods and means of restoring the performance of athletes in macro and micro cycles of sports training, etc.
Changing requirements for the dynamism and entertainment of sports competitions dictate a revision of the rules of competition in certain sports, and, consequently, a change in the methods of training an athlete. Therefore, it is not easy to compare the achievements of athletes of the past and present. Runners who took part in Olympic Games ah Ancient Greece, they raced barefoot along a sandy path, without recording the time, and modern ones - along paths with synthetic turf, wearing special running shoes, their time is recorded to hundredths of a second.
Long-term and regular participation in sports or physical exercise affects the physical development, functional readiness and mental state of a person. This fact can be used to correct indicators of physical development and physique, for the accentuated education and improvement of strength, speed, endurance, flexibility, as well as mental qualities of the individual. The problem of accentuated development of physical qualities is always easier to solve at the initial stages of sports training. If you develop some physical property, then others develop in parallel. However, as training increases, with increasing sports qualifications (from beginner to master athlete), the magnitude of the effect of parallel development of several physical qualities gradually decreases. The higher the athlete’s class, the more contrasting are the physical qualities for which a particular sport makes special demands. In other words, there is an accentuated impact of this sport on the development of a certain physical quality.
1. The nature of the impact of a particular sport (physical exercise system) on a person
Similar processes can be observed in the development and education of mental qualities and personality traits. Sports that require increased courage, willpower, and teamwork always leave an imprint on the athlete’s personality. Systems of physical exercises, as a rule, are aimed at developing a specific physical or mental quality (for example, “stretching” or breathing exercises systems).
Every student must have at least general ideas about the nature of the impact of a particular sport (physical exercise system) on a person.
The proposed division of the main sports into groups can help him with this:
1. Sports that specifically develop individual physical qualities:
Mainly developing endurance (cyclic sports);
Developing mainly strength and speed-strength qualities (weightlifting, track and field throwing and jumping);
Sports that promote speed;
Sports that promote agility and flexibility (gymnastics, acrobatics);
2. Sports with a diverse complex impact on a person (various types of martial arts, sports games, various all-around events).
The following sports are cultivated at our university: volleyball, basketball, table tennis, badminton, football, weightlifting, athletics, cross-country skiing, aerobics, swimming, handball.
The problem of focused education and improvement of a person’s basic physical qualities - strength, speed, endurance, agility, flexibility - is always less complex at the very initial stages of systematic exercise, that is, for beginners, since during this period, as a rule, there is a simultaneous improvement in each of them . If we develop strength, then endurance improves, if we develop flexibility, then strength readiness also improves to some extent. It is no coincidence that at this stage of preparation the greatest effect is achieved by a comprehensive training method, that is, general physical training. However, with a high level of preparedness, the development of a physical quality begins to inhibit the development of another. This is why it is difficult for a high-class weightlifter to achieve high performance in endurance exercises, and for a long-distance runner in strength exercises.
Thus, the accentuated education of individual motor qualities using specific sports should be based on a certain minimum development of all basic motor qualities.
2. Characteristics of sports that develop individual physical qualities
Endurance is developed mainly by cyclic sports. Developing endurance during sports training in a particular sport is one of the effective means of achieving high general and professional performance, based on increasing the stability of the central nervous system, cardiovascular and other functional systems of the body against fatigue. Actually, endurance refers to the ability of the human body to overcome the onset of fatigue. To demonstrate general endurance, you need a good heart, healthy lungs, a sufficient amount of hemoglobin in the blood, abundant blood supply to working muscles, etc. The main thing is that under the influence of rational and systematic training, these organs and physiological processes can improve their functional characteristics. That is why, in this case, we are more interested in those sports in which, as in most labor processes (during the entire working day), aerobic reactions occur in the body, that is, biological oxidation reactions in the body that occur with the participation of oxygen. Therefore, the greatest importance in everyday life and in professional activities are those sports that develop mainly the aerobic capabilities of the body, ensuring long-term, productive work of relatively low power not only in sports activities, but also for a fairly long working time in production.
General endurance is necessary for representatives of all sports, as it allows them to successfully cope with a large volume of training work and more effectively perform and assimilate specialized training work. This once again emphasizes the special importance of developing general endurance among students, regardless of whether their representative is involved in sports or only physical education, because a high level of general endurance is one of the main evidence of excellent health.
So, sports that focus on developing general endurance include all cyclic sports in which physical activity continues for a relatively long time against the background of a predominant increase in aerobic (oxygen) metabolism in the human body. These sports include: race walking, middle, long and ultra-long distance running (marathon), cross-country skiing and biathlon, swimming, rowing, cycling, most distances and all-around events in speed skating, mountaineering, orienteering, tourism and some other.
Although all cyclic sports associated with the manifestation of endurance differ significantly in the structure of movements from each other, there are also common provisions between them: the sports achievements of athletes are based on fairly voluminous training and competitive loads. In the process of regular training, the performing functional “link” - the oxygen - transport system and the regulatory “link” - the central nervous and endocrine system - develops to the extent necessary for each specific sport.
Athletes specializing in these sports have the ability to perform physical work for a long time and successfully resist fatigue with their will. Their high performance is ensured by various adaptive shifts that have occurred in the body under the influence of training influences: morphological and functional development of the heart muscle, increased elastic properties of the walls of blood vessels, an increase in the supply of energy-rich substances in the muscles and internal organs, a high degree of efficiency of the nervous system, etc. Let's take a closer look at sports that develop endurance.
Running over medium, long and ultra-long distances is an effective means of improving the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, and economizing metabolic processes in the body. All this together significantly increases the endurance of the human body.
Currently, medium distances include segments from 800 to 1500 m, long distances from 3000 to 10,000 m, and ultra-long distances from 20 km to marathon running (42 km 195 m). Nowadays not only men, but also women compete at all distances. Middle and long distance running competitions are held both outdoors and indoors.
When running, large muscle groups are put to work, which causes increased activity of the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. The work of the body when running these distances is mainly related to aerobic support. The musculoskeletal system experiences significant stress when running, especially over long distances.
Typically, runners are distinguished not only by their endurance and toughness, but also by their ability to withstand high loads (the ability to “endure”), which is associated with the need to demonstrate strong-willed efforts not only in competitions, but also in a certain part of training sessions. At the same time, it should be noted that during a long run at optimal speed, a feeling of emotional comfort and psychological relief arises, which brings inner satisfaction to runners.
This phenomenon is reflected in the results of special scientific research. Thus, it was found that when running for 20 minutes or longer at an intensity of 60-80% of the maximum age-related heart rate in the blood plasma, the concentration of beta-endorphins and met-encephalamines - mediators of pleasure - significantly increases. It is no coincidence that millions of people in all corners of the globe have chosen the oldest athletics exercise - running - as the most effective cure for a common disease in the civilized world - physical inactivity. Researchers suggest that a similar response occurs with all cycling exercises.
Cross-country skiing is a sporting exercise that is aimed at improving human endurance. Skiing improves the activity of the entire muscular system, cardiovascular and respiratory systems. The speed of skiing depends on the length of the distance (for women 3-20 km, for men 5-20 km), weather conditions, snow cover, terrain, as well as the skiing methods used.
The sports success of a racer, in addition to technical, volitional and tactical readiness, is determined primarily by general and special endurance. The diversified development of the muscular system is ensured by the active work of the arms and legs during a ski race or training. Regular cross-country skiing well develops the circulatory and respiratory systems, which determine the high overall performance of the human body, body muscles, and activates metabolism.
The health value of this sport is great due to the general hygienic conditions of exercise in the forest, in the field, as well as the energetic hardening effect of frosty air on the body during intense muscular activity. Evenly repeated movements of various parts of the body have a calming effect on the nervous system. Skiing with good gliding also has a beneficial effect on the musculoskeletal system - joint functions improve and ligaments are strengthened.
Due to the participation of the overwhelming mass of skeletal muscles, when skiing, a large dynamic work is performed per unit of time and, accordingly, a large energy consumption occurs (in well-trained skiers, about 1500 kcal/h when moving quickly). In this case, breathing increases significantly: pulmonary ventilation can exceed 100 liters, and oxygen consumption up to 5 liters per minute.
Cross-country skiing is a valuable means of applied physical training. After all, the climatic conditions of most of Russia require the ability to ski. Exercises in a variety of terrain conditions in any weather contribute to the development of determination and perseverance. Cross-country exercises, in addition, promote the development of a variety of motor skills, high coordination of movements, quick motor reactions, and a sense of balance.
Thus, this sport provides good all-round physical training, in addition to the accentuated development of endurance, it improves the functions of the visual, vestibular and motor analyzers. Due to the fact that when skiing, most skeletal muscles are involved in work, skiers are distinguished by proportionally developed muscles with good strength indicators.
Swimming is one of the main sports that has both health-improving and practical significance. There are sport and applied swimming.
Competitive swimming includes competition in various ways at distances from 50 to 1500 m, held in pools, as well as open water swims over various distances.
In terms of its effect on the body, swimming occupies a special place among various physical exercises due to the unusual external environment - water. The work of a swimmer's breathing apparatus has its own characteristics. Hydraulic pressure on the upper body and water resistance during movement compress the swimmer's chest and abdomen. A swimmer's exhalation during competitive swimming is also difficult, as it is done into the water. All this contributes to the development of swimmers’ respiratory muscles, chest mobility and lung capacity. In male swimmers, chest excursion reaches 16 cm, and spirometry reaches 7500 cc. cm or more, which is almost twice the norm. During high-speed swimming, oxygen absorption can even exceed 5 liters per minute. But the vital capacity of the lungs is the most important indicator of human health.
Energy consumption when swimming is 3-4 times more than when walking at the same speed. A swimmer’s energy expenditure depends not only on speed, training, etc., but also on water temperature due to increased heat transfer from the body. The activity of a swimmer’s cardiovascular system is in more favorable conditions compared to those involved in “land” sports. A big role in this is played by the horizontal position of the swimmer’s body, the massaging effect of the water flowing around the body
Swimming also has general health benefits, especially when training in open water. Systematic swimming classes promote proportional development of muscles, increase the functional capacity of the respiratory and circulatory organs, strengthen the uneven system, improve metabolism, and have an effective hardening effect. Swimming is a vital applied skill that protects against death in water accidents.
Weightlifting is a sport that is based on performing exercises in lifting as heavy as possible. Currently, competitions are held by weight categories in the snatch and clean and jerk, as well as the sum of the results in these two exercises.
When doing weightlifting, the ability to demonstrate maximum muscle efforts of muscle groups of the lower extremities, torso and arm extensors is improved. The technique of performing basic exercises, as in speed-strength types, includes in its structure moments of manifestation of accentuated muscle effort. At these moments, volitional concentration occurs and the athlete strives to develop maximum power in movement.
Athletic gymnastics “athleticism” is a system of exercises with weights. Athleticism is the desire for a healthy, physically strong, harmonious and beautiful body, to maintain proportional forms and youthful posture throughout many years of life. Currently, athletic gymnastics is an independent public sport, which women have also been actively involved in in recent years. Athletic gymnastics allows you to significantly increase the mass of individual muscle groups, which leads to an increase in their strength and strength endurance, and to improved physique by correcting the size of individual muscle groups and muscle relief. It is during athletic gymnastics that selective development of individual muscle groups and even individual muscles is carried out, emphasizing and determining the shape of each part of the body.
Athleticism experts believe that to ensure progress, a reasonable combination of resistance training with aerobic physical activity associated with increased oxygen consumption (sports games, slow running, jumping ropes, skiing, etc.) is necessary. It is important that aerobic work, regardless of its type, lasts at least 25-30 minutes at a pulse rate that is calculated by the formula 220 - age. The effectiveness of athletic gymnastics is facilitated by the proper nutrition of the athlete, which is carried out taking into account how individual characteristics, and tasks of a specific training period.
A set of competitive exercises in athletic gymnastics includes exercises demonstrating the development of individual muscle groups and the entire figure, as well as strength program exercises testing the main muscle groups of the shoulder girdle, torso, and legs. This is a barbell press lying on a horizontal bench, a squat with a barbell on your shoulders, a deadlift.
Kettlebell lifting primarily develops strength and strength endurance, that is, the ability to maintain optimal movement characteristics for a long time. That is why this sport, with its repeated and varied lifting of non-maximum weight, is more applicable to professional activities that require the manifestation of strength than weightlifting (barbell), where training is aimed at one-time lifting of maximum weight. Kettlebell lifting is quite accessible to everyone, since it does not require special conditions for training and expensive equipment, and allows training sessions to be carried out both individually and in small groups. Athletes' competitions are held in weight categories (up to 60 kg, up to 70 kg, up to 80 kg, up to 90 kg, over 90 kg) with weights of 24 and 32 kg. The main exercises of kettlebell biathlon are the snatch (the kettlebell is lifted upward onto a straight arm in one continuous movement) and the push of the kettlebell with both hands from the shoulder.
The main feature of kettlebell lifting is the duration of the strength exercise with constant weight. For example, lifting more than 30 times (32 kg) for athletes weighing 60 kg and more than 155-160 times for a weight category over 90 kg are considered high achievements in the push with two hands. This requires not only strength, but also extraordinary strength endurance. The greatest demands on the manifestation of speed abilities are placed on sprint distances in athletics (100, 200 m running, 100, 110 m hurdles), speed skating (500 m), and cycling (a number of short distances on the track). Athletes competing at these distances are required to have a good distance at the start and fast cyclic movements along the distance.
Exercises, especially gymnastics and acrobatic exercises, have a powerful stimulating effect on the musculoskeletal system. The training effect is expressed in a significant increase in mobility in the joints while simultaneously strengthening the ligamentous apparatus, increasing the strength capabilities of the muscles in dynamic and static loads, and increasing the elasticity of muscle tissue. All these qualities allow you to perform movements with large amplitude and high speed.
Rhythmic gymnastics is characterized by particularly high requirements for the differentiation of spatio-temporal and power indicators during the actions of female athletes with apparatus under conditions of limited visual control. The great emphasis on increasing the range of motion in rhythmic gymnastics highlights the development of such qualities as flexibility and reduces the importance of strength training, while in artistic gymnastics and acrobatics the main training problems are related to the development of strength qualities. It should also be noted that this group of sports has an inherent aesthetic orientation.
Sports games. The variety of sports games (football, hockey, volleyball, handball, tennis, etc.), varying degrees of complexity of technology and competition rules, different requirements for energy expenditure and intensity of muscle activity create the prerequisites for a wide range of youth to play games.
Sports improvement in gaming disciplines contributes to the harmonious education of the basic physical qualities of those involved - strength, endurance, speed, flexibility and coordination abilities. Particularly valuable from an applied point of view is the possibility of developing in athletes such psychological qualities as successful navigation in a rapidly changing environment, maintaining intellectual performance and emotional balance under the influence of powerful interference factors.
Team sports games especially contribute to the development of such positive qualities and character traits as the ability to subordinate one’s personal interests to the interests of the team, mutual assistance, conscious discipline, etc. Thus, the wide educational applied and health-improving possibilities of these sports are obvious.
Conclusion
sport training swimming athletics
The possibilities of various sports in improving health, correcting physique and posture, increasing overall performance, mental stability, and finally, self-affirmation are very great. At the same time, health, i.e. such a state of the body, which ensures the full performance of all vital functions, acts as a leading factor that determines not only the harmonious development young man, but also the success of mastering the profession, the fruitfulness of his future professional activity.
Physical development, which is closely related to health, is the process of change and formation of the natural morphological and functional properties of the human body during his life (height, body weight, chest circumference, vital capacity of the lungs, etc.)
List of used literature
1. Artemyev, V.P. Theory and methods of physical education. Motor qualities: textbook / V.P. Artemyev, V.V. Shutov. - Mogilev: Moscow State University. A.A. Kuleshova, 2004. - 284 p., ill.
2. Bochkareva, S.I. PHYSICAL EDUCATION: Educational and methodological complex / S.I. Bochkareva, O.P. Kokoulina, N.E. Kopylova, N.F. Mitina, A.G. Rostevanov. - M.: Publishing house. EAOI Center, 2008. - 315 p.
3. Weinbaum, Ya.S. Hygiene of physical education / Ya.S. Weinbaum. - M.: Education, 1986. - 240 p., ill.
4. Vilensky, M.Ya. Physical culture for students: Textbook for universities / M.Ya. Vilensky, A.I. Zaitsev, V.I. Ilyinich. - M.: Gardariki, 2001. - 446 p.
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Some of the most ancient sports are athletics and equestrianism. Over time, a large number of new sports emerged. Their appearance occurs as a result of modification of previously established species, mutual influence, and scientific and technological progress. So they arose in due time rhythmic gymnastics, sports acrobatics, freestyle skiing (freestyle), snowboarding, curling, short track speed skating, synchronized swimming, parachuting, hang gliding, sports windsurfing, triathlon and many others.
Sports can be classified according to a number of criteria:
- Based on their place in the international sports movement, a distinction is made between Olympic (included in the Olympic Games program) and non-Olympic sports; generally recognized, cultivated in many countries, and national, which are popular in individual countries and regions. For example, in Russia people have long been involved in gorodoshny sports, in the Caucasus - in various types of wrestling, among the northern peoples - in dog sled and reindeer racing. In the USA, the number one sport is American football, the rules of which were formed in 1880. In the UK and Australia, golf has become widespread.
- According to the structure of movements, sports are divided into two groups: cyclic, where movements are repeated, and acyclic. The first group includes race walking, running, cycling, swimming, rowing, speed skating, cross-country skiing. The second group includes gymnastics, wrestling, boxing, fencing, weightlifting, figure skating, football, basketball, tennis, etc.
- Based on the intensity of motor activity, high-intensity sports are distinguished, the results in which depend on the direct manifestation of a person’s physical qualities (endurance, strength, speed, agility, flexibility) and mastery of sports equipment; technical types (auto and motor sports, water sports, airplane sports, gliding sports, sailing sports, etc.); technical and design types (auto-, aircraft-, ship-modeling sports); shooting sports (shooting with firearms, pneumatic weapons, and archery); abstract game types (chess, checkers), which are classified as sports only because they contain an element of competition. High-intensity sports have the greatest impact on the body.
Sports that develop endurance
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Sports that develop endurance include all cyclic sports in which physical activity lasts a relatively long time.
- race walking;
- middle (800, 1500 m) and long (5000, 10000 m) distance running, marathon running (42 km 195 m);
- road and track racing, cyclocross;
- swimming at distances of 200, 400, 1500 m;
- rowing on rowing boats, kayaks and canoes;
- cross-country skiing and biathlon;
- skating at distances of 5000 and 10000 m;
- orienteering;
- triathlon.
The latter consists of a 3.8 km swim, a 180 km bike race, a marathon run and places extremely high demands on the athletes. As a result, triathlon competitors are called “iron” men.
The most important feature of these sports is that, compared with others, they contribute most to the promotion of health. It is long-term cyclic exercises performed with relatively low intensity that are recommended
World Health Organization (WHO) for health purposes. This is due, first of all, to strengthening the cardiovascular and respiratory systems, increasing the efficiency of muscle work, and normalizing body weight.
Engaging in endurance sports develops such vital volitional qualities as perseverance and perseverance. They also have practical significance, since the very quality of endurance and the motor skills acquired in the process of its development (swimming, skiing, etc.) underlie the successful performance of many labor operations.
It should be noted that students who choose sports that primarily develop endurance have a chance to achieve high sports results if they begin intensive training during their university studies. The age of greatest achievements in these types is between 22-27 years.
Sports that develop strength and speed-strength abilities
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It is believed that the strongest people are outstanding weightlifters. In addition to weightlifting, the group of strength sports includes athletic gymnastics, powerlifting, kettlebell lifting and various national types of all-around strength sports.
Weightlifting competitions are held in the snatch and clean and jerk. Participants perform in their own weight categories. Athletic gymnastics or athleticism is also called “bodybuilding” and “bodybuilding”, meaning “body building”. At athletics competitions, compulsory positions and a freestyle program are demonstrated, and the degree of development and proportionality of muscles is assessed. Weightlifting and athletic gymnastics are practiced by both men and women.
The main feature of kettlebell lifting is the duration of strength exercises, which requires extraordinary strength endurance. Thus, high-class athletes in the weight category up to 60 kg lift 32 kg weights more than 30 times in the clean and jerk with two hands.
The group of speed-strength sports includes athletics throwing the javelin, discus, hammer, shot put, long and high jumps, pole vaulting, triple jump. Speed-strength abilities, along with other physical qualities, are also developed during running and short-distance swimming, combat sports, and sports games.
The strength demonstrated in the process of practicing sports of this group has always been valued as one of the most important and respected physical qualities among the people. In addition, through, for example, athletic gymnastics, you can selectively increase the mass of individual muscle groups and improve your physique. At the same time, it is necessary to take into account that when doing strength exercises, some negative phenomena are possible, in particular, straining. These exercises do little to develop the cardiovascular and respiratory systems. Thus, to increase the healing effect, it is advisable to supplement strength training with long-term cyclic exercises.
Sports that develop speed
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The development of speed occurs in the process of practicing sprint disciplines of different sports.
- In athletics, this is short-distance running, i.e. 100 and 200 m, 100 and 110 m hurdles. A long sprint is considered to be a 400 m run.
- In speed skating, this is a 500 m race.
- in swimming - 100 m,
- in cycling - track racing.
Various forms of speed are developed in martial arts, sports games, athletics throwing and jumping.
When starting to engage in sports that develop speed, you should keep in mind that this physical quality is largely determined by the innate characteristics of a person and, compared to other qualities, is less trainable. On the other hand, motor talent in manifestations of speed is detected relatively early and easily and may indicate the prospect of achieving high sports results.
It is also important that successful practice in some sports associated with the manifestation of specific forms of speed does not mean the same success in other sports. For example, a boxer may react quickly to an opponent's actions but run relatively slowly over 100 m.
Sports that develop speed are not an effective means of improving health. With their help, it is difficult to correct the physique and maintain the required body weight. However, they are of practical importance in preparing for a number of professions that require a rapid response to a changing situation.
Sports that develop agility
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Sports that develop agility, or, in other words, complexly coordinated sports include artistic and rhythmic gymnastics, acrobatics, diving, trampolining, ski jumping, slalom and freestyle skiing, figure skating, water sports. skiing, synchronized swimming, as well as some sports and athletics disciplines.
Many of the highly coordinated sports are multi-event sports. For example, artistic gymnastics includes competitions on apparatus (for men - high bar, parallel bars, pommel horse, rings; for women - balance beam, uneven bars), floor exercises and vault. Water skiers compete in slalom, figure skating and ski jumping (1.8 m for men; 1.5 m for women).
As a rule, sports that develop agility also require the development of another physical quality - flexibility. First of all, this applies to gymnastics, acrobatics, diving and trampoline. Flexibility is also developed by other sports, such as swimming, especially breaststroke and dolphin, tennis, and volleyball.
The coordination of movements developed by these sports is very important for various aspects of life. An uncoordinated person often finds himself in the most ridiculous situations and is visible against the background of those around him, as they say, with the naked eye.
A negative feature of sports that develop agility is the lack of a significant impact on the cardiovascular and respiratory systems and, consequently, a low healing effect. In this regard, it is advisable to supplement them, like strength sports, with long-term cyclic exercises.
The foundation of complexly coordinated exercises is laid in childhood, and due to the complexity and duration of their improvement, it does not make sense to begin in-depth specialization in these sports during student years.
Complex impact sports
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Complex development of physical qualities occurs during all-around sports. Combat sports and sports games have a diverse impact on those involved to varying degrees.
All-around sports include the athletics decathlon (for men) and heptathlon (for women), modern pentathlon, Nordic combined, and all-around national sports. These all-around events have the same content and, unlike, for example, gymnastics or speed skating, cover different sports disciplines.
The athletics decathlon (decathlon) includes the 100, 400, 1500 m and 110 m hurdles; long, high and pole jumps; discus and javelin throwing, shot put. The heptathlon includes the 200m, 800m and 100m hurdles; long and high jumps; javelin throw and shot put. The modern pentathlon, also called the officers' all-around, combines fencing, pistol shooting, equestrian show jumping, 300 m swimming and 3 km cross-country. Nordic combined consists of ski jumping and cross-country skiing. The northern all-around event includes jumping over sleds, throwing a hatchet, throwing a lasso onto a pole, and running over rough terrain with a stick. The result in all-around events is determined by the amount of points calculated using special tables.
The group of martial arts includes wrestling (classical or Greco-Roman, freestyle, judo, sambo, sumo, etc.), boxing, kickboxing, martial arts, fencing (epee, saber, rapier). These sports are characterized by direct contact opposition between opponents.
Sports games are divided into team and individual. Team games include basketball, volleyball, rugby, ice and bandy hockey, water polo; for individual - tennis, table tennis, badminton. In tennis and badminton, competitions are held in both singles and doubles.
Practicing complex sports, especially all-around events, leads to the development of all physical qualities in athletes and the formation of a variety of motor skills. A person who can perform numerous movements has so-called motor experience. He is able to easily master new motor actions, which is important not only in sports, but also in everyday life, as well as in professional activities. Multiathletes, as a rule, have proportionately developed muscles, and they are harmoniously built. At the same time, it must be borne in mind that one can count on some success in all-around events if one starts practicing them at student age only if one has preliminary training in at least one or more component sports disciplines.
The main practical value of martial arts is mastery of self-defense techniques. Martial arts cultivate such strong-willed qualities as courage and determination. Currently, the popularity of these sports has increased dramatically.
Sports games, among other things, can solve health problems and are a means of active recreation. Football and hockey have a relatively greater health-improving effect, table tennis and volleyball have a lesser effect. Players are characterized by initiative and independence.
General classification of physical exercise systems
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A system of physical exercises is specially selected exercises, methods and conditions for their implementation, aimed at a comprehensive or selective impact on the physical and mental state of a person. In some cases, physical exercise systems have developed as independent sports. Some of them involve not only physical, but also spiritual improvement.
Various systems of physical exercises developed in the ancient world and in the Middle Ages. The most famous of them are the Spartan and Athenian systems, which were common in Ancient Greece, and the system of training knights. More precisely, they should be called systems of physical education, since they covered many aspects of people's lives.
The basis of the Spartan system was military physical education. From the age of 7, young Spartans were in state educational institutions and were engaged there mainly in physical exercises: throwing a spear and discus, running, wrestling, jumping, as well as war games and hunting wild animals. From the age of 18, young men were enrolled in ephebe units, where physical and military training continued. Girls were also required to exercise.
The Athenian system provided more diversified development. From 7 to 12-14 years old, young men attended a music school and then a gymnastics school called a palaestra. Greek gymnastics consisted of three sections: palestrika, orchestrika and games. Palestrics included running, jumping, throwing, wrestling, pankration, swimming, horse riding and other exercises. The orchestra consisted mainly of dance exercises to music. The games included exercises with a stick, a wheel, and a ball. Physical education did not extend to girls.
The physical training system of medieval knights was of a purely military-applied nature. To test preparedness, knightly tournaments were held in the form of single and mass battles.
At the beginning and middle of the 19th century. In Europe, the German, Swedish, French, and in the Slavic countries - the Sokol gymnastic systems became famous. They used both gymnastic exercises themselves and other exercises, in particular running, jumping, defense and attack techniques, swimming and diving, vaulting, shooting, etc. In the second half of the 19th century. in Russia, P.F. Lesgaft created a doctrine of physical education, the essence of which was a system of teaching movements.
Physical exercise systems that are currently widespread can be divided into two groups:
- those that came to us from time immemorial are mainly eastern systems, and
- developed in recent years are modern systems.
Eastern systems include yoga, wushu, karate; as an integral part, physical exercises are included in Ayurveda, Nishi systems, Reiki, etc. Modern systems include athletic gymnastics, aerobics, fitness, shaping, stretching, callanetics, medical and health systems of A. A. Levshinova, A. N. Strelnikova, K. P. Buteyko, G. S. Shatalova, M. S. Norbekova. Some of them, such as stretching and callanetics, are, strictly speaking, not systems, but only special sets of physical exercises.