EVERYDAY CULTURE OF PETERSBURGS (XVIII century)
horizontally
2. A country whose fashion influenced the noble outfits in Russia.
8. Architect of the City Duma building at 33/1 Nevsky Prospect.
9. Architect of the Armenian Church and the Catholic Cathedral of St. Catherine.
11. An institution created for the poor or people unable to feed themselves.
14. A sentry guarding the night peace of Petersburgers.
15. Architect of the building of the Main Post Office and the "Easter cake and Easter" church.
16. Club owner for business people.
17. The type of punishment for citizens for failure to fulfill their duties, fraud, theft, public scandals, fights.
18. The meadow where the private theater was located.
19. Patroness of St. Petersburg, who has become a symbol of loyalty and kindness.
vertically
1. Owner of the first English club for merchants in Russia.
3. An enterprise for which an "alien" person could get a job.
4. The Empress, the first in Russia to vaccinate herself against smallpox.
5. The institution, the opening of which Catherine II allowed after the fire in Gostiny Dvor.
6. The owner of the first "dance hall" in St. Petersburg for ordinary citizens.
7. Chin responsible for order and peace in St. Petersburg.
10. Scope of activity of city government.
12. A merchant, with whose money the church of the Assumption of the Mother of God on Sennaya Square was pledged.
13. The name of the first free hospital in Russia for ordinary Petersburgers.
On the subject: methodological developments, presentations and notes
Summaries of the MHC lessons. Western European culture of the 17th-18th centuries
The material contains developments for lessons on the topic "Western European culture of the 17-18 centuries" - new trends in culture, the concept of classicism, the main aesthetic trends of Classicism in architecture (Versailles ...
This presentation reveals the following questions: - How did the nobles live? - What features of the noble upbringing, education and behavior were worthy of imitation? - Which areas of the capital city are not ...
Description of the presentation for individual slides:
1 slide
Slide Description:
2 slide
Slide Description:
1. Who lived in St. Petersburg? At the end of the 18th century. The first generation of native Petersburgers appeared. Their grandparents were born in the families of the first Petersburgers - the founders of the city. These were courtiers and ordinary people, rich and poor, Russians and foreigners. Look at the table and answer the questions: Why did the population grow so fast? By whom did it grow? years 1750 1782 1800 Number of inhabitants 95 000 170 000 220 000
3 slide
Slide Description:
Working with the textbook p. 173 Read the text and tell about the composition of the population. Working with illustrations. What do they report on the composition of the population? Armenian Church English Church in St. Petersburg Catholic Church of St. Catherine Cathedral of the Life-Giving Trinity, St. Petersburg.
4 slide
Slide Description:
5 slide
Slide Description:
3. Who ruled the city? Remember Who ruled the city in the middle. XVIII century: City Chief of Police Private bailiffs Police Empresses were more interested in the entertainment and life of the courtiers than in the life of the city.
6 slide
Slide Description:
Empress Catherine II was the true mistress of St. Petersburg. Every morning the chief of police came to Catherine II and reported on the incidents that had happened in the capital. It was he who was responsible for order and tranquility in St. Petersburg.
7 slide
Slide Description:
The number of private bailiffs increased to 10, since the city was already divided into 10 parts. PA Fedotov: "The front of a private bailiff on the eve of a big holiday"
8 slide
Slide Description:
9 slide
Slide Description:
Independent work: Draw up a scheme for managing the city using the text on page 175 Empress Pay attention to the formation of governing bodies Chief police chief Private bailiffs Police City self-government City mayor
10 slide
Slide Description:
Along with the police department, there was self-government in the city. According to the "Charter to the cities", the City Duma was established in St. Petersburg. The citizens themselves elected the Duma deputies. However, only 6% of St. Petersburg residents took part in the elections.
11 slide
Slide Description:
At the head of the City Duma was the mayor. But he was in fact subordinate to the Chief of Police, who could overturn any decision of the Duma.
12 slide
Slide Description:
The city government was in charge of urban management, city improvement, school and medical affairs, charity, urban trade and taxes.
13 slide
Slide Description:
What problems did the people of St. Petersburg have and how were they solved? Independent work. material §24. They disposed of state money, maintained teams, food markets, hospitals, and postal services. We monitored the work of shops, a private driver. Housing problems, extinguished fires, cleanliness of streets, night peace. Who solved Problems A) Authorities B) Citizens
14 slide
Slide Description:
How did different Petersburgers live? Read the texts and highlight the groups of Petersburgers who lived in Petersburg at the end of the 18th century. Fill in the table: Population stratum Income Occupations Educated Petersburgers who earn a living by their labor. Business people: merchants, handicraft workshop owners. Working people Modest Rich Poor and beggar
15 slide
Slide Description:
16 slide
Slide Description:
Saint Blessed Xenia was buried in the Smolensk cemetery south of the church in the name of the Smolensk Icon of the Mother of God. In 1902, a stone chapel was erected on the grave of St. Blessed Xenia, according to the project of the architect Slavin, the eastern wall of which was decorated in 1992 with a mosaic icon of the holy ascetic. In 1987, the chapel was consecrated by the current Most Holy Patriarch of Moscow and All Russia Alexy II.
17 slide
Slide Description:
5. How did the Petersburgers celebrate the holidays, how did they have fun? After spending all autumn, winter and spring in Moscow, on June 28, 1763, the Empress returned to the capital. The artistic idea of \u200b\u200bthe fireworks in honor of the arrival and anniversary of the accession to the throne of Catherine II belonged to Jacob Shtelin. On the bank of the river, near the Summer Garden, a temporary wooden gallery was specially built, from which the empress was supposed to watch the festive spectacle.
18 slide
Slide Description:
19 slide
Slide Description:
20 slide
Slide Description:
In the 18th century, Epiphany bathing in St. Petersburg was very popular. “People were absolutely sure that swimming in Jordan would heal them of all diseases and bring happiness in the year. Even small children were dipped into Jordan in severe frosts. Moreover, the mothers themselves did not bathe their newborn babies - this must have been done by a representative of the church. On the eve of Epiphany, two Jordanians were staged in St. Petersburg - on the embankment near Winter Palace and about Peter and Paul Fortress... A large wooden pavilion was built around the Jordan at the Winter Palace. It was decorated with gilding and large icons depicting Christ, the apostles and John the Baptist. Above the Jordan itself, an image of the Holy Spirit was placed.
Every citizen of St. Petersburg knows the history of his beloved city - when it was founded, in what years there were major floods, which of the famous poets and writers lived in the northern capital. However, few are aware of the life of ordinary townspeople of the 18th-19th centuries: what people ate, how they had fun, what they wore, how they set up their home. The site's correspondent visited the historical exhibition that opened in the Peter and Paul Fortress and learned about the life of Petersburgers of that era.
Heading to Europe
Immediately after the founding of St. Petersburg, a European lifestyle reigned in the city. It manifested itself both in architecture and interior design, and in people's behavior. At the beginning of the 18th century, the inhabitants of St. Petersburg were conventionally divided into three types - "mean", prosperous and famous. "Vile" Petersburgers were not such in the literal sense of the word. In that era, this definition was given to all the poor.
The architect Domenico Trezzini designed houses for different types of Petersburgers. Small one-story houses were intended for the "mean", and luxurious two-story houses with carved decorations were intended for the famous. The interior of the houses was European.
“The Petersburgers of the“ middle class ”decorated the rooms with lamps, engravings and mirrors,” says the historian, head of the “History on the Neva” society Alexander Gordin. - On the tables they put a clock, which at that time was more like a box. Women began to attend assemblies and social gatherings. In 1712, when the royal court moved to St. Petersburg, theaters and museums appeared in the city. The first public library was opened at the Academy of Sciences. Petersburgers began to actively educate themselves by visiting cultural institutions of the city. "
The table clock in the 18th century looked like a box. Photo: AiF / Yana Khvatova
The most fashionable city
Over 150 years, the population of St. Petersburg has tripled: by the middle of the 19th century, it was more than 500 thousand people. In St. Petersburg lived nobles, merchants, artisans, soldiers, bourgeoisie, peasants, clergy and others. The most popular store in St. Petersburg was the Eliseevs' store. Here you could buy everything - from expensive wines to souvenirs: for example, gift soap in a package stylized as a book.
The store sold souvenir soap in book-styled packages. Photo: AiF / Yana Khvatova
In the 19th century, the range of goods became very diverse. Chinese teas appeared on the market, the most popular of which were the Phoenix Tail, Dragon Balls and Sparrow's Tongue.
Petersburg was not only the most cultured, but also the most fashionable city in the country. It was Petersburg that became the leader in the production and rendering of fashionable services.
“In the second half of the 19th century, there were almost a hundred shops on Nevsky Prospekt alone fashion clothes, - says Alexander Gordin. "And 50 more workshops where they sewed clothes to order."
Petersburg became the city of women of fashion. Photo: AiF / Yana Khvatova
In everyday life, women dressed like English women - strict dresses, skirts and jackets. The men wore a white starched shirt, waistcoat, trousers, and bowler hat. It was considered bad form to go outside without an umbrella or cane.
Petersburgers observed culture in everything, including at home meals.
“The cutlery has always been arranged in a strict order,” notes Gordin. - And for the guests they always used the best china service.
The menu in St. Petersburg houses was very varied, especially on holidays. For example, on New Year's Eve, they usually served fried pig, at Christmas - stuffed turkey, and on Easter the table was full of food: the hostesses cooked cakes, cakes, butter lamb, baked ham, cold veal, pickled beef and baumkuchen - traditional German pastries. To dye eggs for Easter, the housewives boiled them in a saucepan in rags of multicolored silk cloth. But soups were cooked not in pans, but in special bouillottes, similar to small samovars.
The first cinema on Nevsky prospect
With the advent of railway communication, Petersburgers began to travel on trains. Usually these trips were exclusively business trips. Railway tickets at that time looked like a small book, where a passenger's photo was pasted and the destination was indicated. Especially for travelers, printers printed tiny decks of cards the size of a matchbox so that they did not take up much space in a suitcase. In the 19th century, only the richest people could afford cars. For comparison, a pood of bread cost 2 rubles, and a car - 7 thousand rubles.
The train tickets contained a photo of the passenger. Photo: AiF / Yana Khvatova
Photography and cinema became the main entertainment in St. Petersburg at the end of the century. In the first cinema on Nevsky Prospekt, twenty-minute short films were shown depicting workers at the factory, the arrival of a train, scenes with children.
“All the innovations were in St. Petersburg,” says Alexander Gordin. - The first goods from abroad, the first theaters and libraries, the first cinemas. St. Petersburg was and remains the most modern city in the country. "
You can find out the details of the life of Petersburgers until March 31 at a free exhibition in the Commandant's House of the Peter and Paul Fortress from 11 to 18 hours. Day off - Wednesday.
In the middle of the XVIII century. in St. Petersburg, there were about 74.3 thousand people, and together with children - 95 thousand. The categories of "ordinary people" (owners of real estate - nobles, officials, clergy) and "tenants" (who did not have real estate) covered permanent residents of St. Petersburg; “Newcomers” are probably workers at industrial enterprises (seasonal workers were not included). Among the population. 61% were men, 39% were women, which testified to the influx of mainly male workers into St. Petersburg. In 1764 the population was 150 thousand people, in 1784-192 thousand, by the beginning of the 19th century. - 220 thousand people. The growth rate of the capital's population exceeded its growth in the country by more than 3 times. In the 90s. XVIII century. the population employed in production amounted to 114 thousand people, the rest lived "on a salary" (government officials or employees of private enterprises, etc.). In the second half of the 18th century. densely populated were 3 Admiralty units (41% of the total population), Liteinaya (10%), Moscow (13.6%), Vasileostrovskaya (11%), Petersburg (7.4%); the rest (Karetnaya-Yamskaya, Vyborgskaya) were sparsely populated. In the central regions, noblemen, wealthy merchants and high-ranking officials settled in palaces and mansions; small artisans and merchants also lived here. On the Petersburg side, petty officials and retired people lived in small houses. On the outskirts of St. Petersburg, factory workers (about 5 thousand people) huddled in shacks.
During the reign of Catherine II, who paid special attention to enlightenment and public education, in addition to the gentry Cadet Corps transformed by her, the Mining School, the Institute of Noble Maidens, the gymnasium appeared in St. primary schools for the lower strata of society. The Empress founded the first such school at her own expense in the Admiralty part of the city. She ordered the same schools to be created throughout the city. During these years, special almshouses appeared for the elderly and the hopelessly sick, money began to be released for the maintenance of prisoners. The Medical College was established, without the permission of which no one could practice medicine. More than 2,000 lanterns appeared in the city, illuminating the streets in the dark. A lamplighter L.N. Semenova was assigned to each 20 lanterns. Life and population of St. Petersburg (XVIII century). - SPb: "BLITZ", 2005. - P.182.
The police service underwent a complete transformation, the work of which had to be adapted to the needs of a greatly expanded city and a significantly increased population. Fires continued to be a disaster for the city. One of the measures for the early extinguishing of fires was the appointment of an incentive award to the fire brigade, which was the first to arrive at the scene of the fire. The floods, which have long been familiar to the inhabitants of St. One of the strongest happened on the night of September 10, 1777, when the water rose by more than 3 meters, bringing with it unprecedented destruction, before the flood of 1824 it was the most significant.
By the end of the 18th century, the population of the city exceeded 200 thousand people; more than 60 Orthodox and 15 different faith churches function in the city. There were (1780) more than 1200 streets and lanes, 3.3 thousand houses, the entire central part of the city will already be completely paved with cobblestones and covered with transverse boards.
In the first half of the XIX century. the population increased by almost 2.5 times. As before, it was replenished mainly due to the newcomer population. The city continued to attract male labor. The share of the female population in 1800-30%, in 1825-28.5%, in 1843-32.4%, in 1853-31.9%. The ethnic composition was dominated by Russians (85%). Finns, Latvians, Poles, representatives of other nationalities of Russia also lived in St. Petersburg; in addition, foreigners - especially a lot of Germans (in 1818-35 thousand, at the end of the 1840s - 39 thousand) and French (respectively 4 thousand and over 2.7 thousand), who were engaged in crafts, trade, were hired by child educators.
In St. Petersburg at the beginning of the 19th century, traffic in the city center was very busy. One of the travelers, who visited the city at that time, wrote in his impressions that "cabs in St. Petersburg are much more numerous than in the largest cities in Europe, the streets are crowded with them." There were more than three hundred special parking lots in the city - stock exchanges, as they were called then, for cabbies.
According to the surviving statistics in St. Petersburg in 1815 there were 8102 state, 7519 philistine and 2476 cabmen horses. Horsemen galloped along the streets, carriages decorated with coats of arms, dandy carriages and droshky, English carriages with umbrellas, dormitories, convertibles, phaetons, rulers, tarantaiks galloped. Loaded carts and wagons rolled alongside them. In winter sledges, sleds and sleds creaked everywhere. There were no pedestrian paths, and therefore, crossing the street, you had to be very careful - that look, you will fall under the wheels of some reckless driver. The cabbies were, as a rule, from serfs who came to the city to earn money for a quitrent. The cabbies were required to have literacy knowledge so that they could read the street name and house number. But this requirement was met with difficulty - there were few literate peasants. Travel by cab was expensive - 80 kopecks. The daily wages of a petty official made about the same. Therefore, the townspeople preferred to walk.
Since the summer of 1830, “city carriages, known in Paris under the name of the omnibus, appeared in St. Petersburg to deliver a poor, that is, a large part of our public”, with the help of which one could “visit suburban places for a small fee”. An omnibus office was opened on Nevsky Prospekt, behind the Anichkov Bridge, in the house of the merchant Minyaev. Omnibuses ran on three routes: from Kazansky bridge to Krestovsky island, from Kazansky bridge to Staraya village and from Duma to the end of Novaya village. Omnibuses were large carriages pulled by four horses. The carriage seated 6 people, the same number were placed on the imperial.
Wealthy people, having their own exit, did not use omnibuses or cabs. The beauty of the horses, carriage and harness was a matter of special concern, and often horses, a carriage, a coachman, a postilion cost a lot of money. We went to Petersburg very quickly, which was noticed by Gogol. The distances were long, the streets were paved with cobblestones, so a great strength or constant supervision over its condition was required from the carriage. AF Nekrylova. Russian folk city holidays, amusements and shows. Late 18th - early 20th century. - SPb .: Azbuka-classic, 2004 .-- P.107. The carriage craftsmen knew their business and made fortunes.
No less than the number of carriages on the streets, in St. Petersburg there were a variety of boats on the rivers and canals. There were not enough bridges in the city, pontoon bridges were removed in stormy weather, and then communication between the banks ceased. The city had more than 30 transport marinas. For transportation, a tax fee was charged. The military, officials ("civil servants", we would say) and Okhta carpenters were exempted from payment. In addition to transport boats along the Neva, pleasure boats of rich townspeople glided smoothly to the accompaniment of oarsmen's singing or horn music, sometimes gilded, sometimes upholstered in velvet, sometimes covered with silk tents. The rowers had special clothes. For example, the "gondolier" rowers of Prince Yusupov were dressed in cherry-colored jackets and hats with feathers. Boating with singing rowers was one of the favorite pastimes of Petersburgers.
For the residents of the capital, the freezing and opening of the Neva were very important events, which to some extent changed the life of the capital. During the freezing of the Neva in the fall, as well as during the opening of the river in the spring, for some time - sometimes for several days, and sometimes for several weeks - communication between the left bank - the Admiralty side and the right bank - Vasilievsky Island, the Petersburg and Vyborg sides “to the extreme public annoyance. " There have always been a lot of rumors and disputes about the timing of the freezing or opening of the Neva River, which even reached "pledges" - bets. But when the Neva "got up", they crossed it across the ice on sledges or on foot.
In 1815, a stimbot appeared in St. Petersburg. This was the name of the American steamship ships. But an article from the "Son of the Fatherland" magazine entitled "Steamboat on the Neva" spoke about the tests of the first Russian steam vessel. The Russian steamboat was a "ordinary Tikhvin boat", that is, a 60-foot long barge with a steam engine installed in the hold.
In the same 1815 C. Byrd opened the first shipping company in St. Petersburg. The first Russian steamer was called "Elizaveta". Byrd's steamers ran between St. Petersburg and Kronstadt twice a day. In Kronstadt, residents of the capital, wishing to make a long sea voyage, could change from the "Berdovaya machine" to ships going to different ports of Russia and Europe.
In 1820, the first joint stock company in Russia was established to arrange passenger flights between St. Petersburg and Moscow. The stagecoaches were large, comfortable, multi-seater carriages drawn by four horses. Stagecoaches immediately became popular. Many began to prefer a stagecoach ride to a ride in their own carriage, because of the bad roads, the carriages were shaking violently, they often broke down and, moreover, required a change of horses at the post stations. When the highway between the two capitals was completed in 1833, this mode of transport became the usual way of moving from one city to another. Soon, stagecoaches from St. Petersburg were leaving for Revel, Riga, Tsarskoe Selo.
The same period was also the time of the rapid development of social and cultural life in St. Petersburg. The first decades of the 19th century were the heyday of Russian literature. Petersburg first half of XIX centuries connected the life of Pushkin and many other Russian writers. V. A. Zhukovsky, N. M. Karamzin, I. A. Krylov, K. N. Batyushkov, A. S. Griboyedov lived and worked at this time in St. Petersburg. An important role in the literary life of the city at that time was played by Olenin's circle, the Arzamas literary society, the Sovremennik magazines, St. Petersburg Mercury, Son of the Fatherland, and the Northern Bee newspaper.
Famous Russian artists, sculptors and architects studied and taught at the Academy of Arts, which became the center of the city's arts. The names of K. P. Bryullov, S. F. Shchedrin, O. A. Kiprensky, A. G. Venetsianov, V. A. Tropinin are closely associated with St. Petersburg at that time.
There was a singing chapel in the city, headed by the composer D.S.Bortnyansky. At that time MI Glinka lived and worked in St. Petersburg. The Opera House was opened, in which Glinka's opera "A Life for the Tsar" was staged for the first time. Concerts were constantly given in the Philharmonic Society founded in 1802 and located in the Engelhardt house on Nevsky Prospect.
The Hermitage and the Rumyantsev Museum were opened to the public. In St. Petersburg, for the first time in Russia, a library was opened for the general public in 1814. In the years 1830-1840, there were already about half a million books in the library. I. A. Krylov, A. N. Olenin, K. N. Batyushkov, A. A. Delvig, N. I. Gnedich worked in the library. After the adoption in 1828 of the charter on the opening of gymnasiums in St. Petersburg, 4 gymnasiums were opened, teaching in which was designed to prepare students for admission to universities. Several new higher educational institutions, mainly technical, several military educational institutions, were opened, and, finally, the Tsarskoye Selo Lyceum was opened. Primary schools and parish schools at churches were opened for children "from the lower classes". In the first half of the 19th century, the first scientific societies began to appear in St. Petersburg. In the same years, the Pulkovo Observatory, the Observatory at the Mining Institute, and the Russian Geographical Society were opened.
everyday culture, home, life, costume, canons of family life
Annotation:The article analyzes the main features of the 18th century. as an era in the culture of Russia; "A new type of personality of a nobleman"; features of a noble costume; styles of the noble house; the main European leisure forms, borrowed and widely used by the Russian nobility; characteristic features of the everyday life of the Russian peasantry; Russian national costume; canons of family and social life of the Russian peasantry.
Article text:
General characteristics of the era. The beginning of the 18th century was marked by the reforms of Peter I, which were designed to bridge the gap in the level of development of Russia and Europe. The reforms have affected almost all spheres of society. Their content was a decisive shift from the Middle Ages to modern times and the Europeanization of all areas of life. The old state institutions were being broken up, replaced by new ones, and a modern administrative and bureaucratic apparatus was taking shape. An important place in the transformations of Peter I was occupied by the church reform, as a result of which the previously relatively independent church came under the rule of the state. As a result of all the transformations in the political system of the Russian state, the formation of the absolute monarchy was completed. The absolutist state needed a secular culture.
An important feature of the culture of the new era was its openness, the ability to make contacts with the cultures of other peoples, which was the result of a policy aimed at undermining national and confessional isolation. Ties with Western countries are expanding. Contacts with Europe contributed to the penetration of humanistic and rationalistic teachings into Russia. The ideology of absolutism began to be supported by the ideas of rationalism, the European Enlightenment.
The modern era is characterized by such processes as the acceleration of the pace of development, the complication of social development in general. The process of differentiation begins, the emergence of new branches of culture: science, theatrical business, portrait painting, poetry, journalism.
An important beginning in the process of separating secular culture from church culture was the replacement of the old Church Slavonic script with a new, civil one. Periodicals were a powerful means of enlightening the people. The first printed newspaper in Russia was Vedomosti, published in 1703. The growth of book printing contributed to the development of the book trade. In 1714, the first library was opened, which became the basis of the library of the Academy of Sciences. She was available for free visits. In 1719 the first Russian museum, the Kunstkamera, was opened. The natural result of reforms in the field of education and science was the opening of the Academy of Sciences in St. Petersburg in 1725. New rituals were introduced in social and cultural life, everyday life. They were aimed at instilling a Western European way of life. Instead of the old chronology - "from the Creation of the world" - from January 1, 1700, the chronology "from the Nativity of Christ" was introduced. There was a custom to celebrate New Year: Arrange fireworks, decorate Christmas trees. New form communication became an assembly.
The most decisive turn towards the Europeanization of Russian culture occurred during the reign of Catherine II, who marked the beginning of the era of enlightened absolutism. Catherine decided to pay special attention to the upbringing of "new people", morally perfect, who would raise their children in the same spirit, which would lead to changes in society. It was assumed that the new person would be brought up in an exclusively Western spirit. Much attention was paid to humanitarian education. Orphanages appeared in Moscow, St. Petersburg, closed institutes, cadet corps.
In the 18th century, the prerequisites for the formation of the Russian national language were created, the literary language became closer to the spoken language, the process of the formation of new dialects was stopped. The Russian common spoken language is being formed . The Moscow dialect acts as an example. In the 90s N. Karamzin carried out a reform of the literary language. This made it possible to attract a wide range of the population to reading.
Cultural ties with other countries are expanding. A more mobile lifestyle, the popularity of travel led to the development of the epistolary genre. The country's public thought has become more active.
Everyday life of nobles
In the 18th century. great changes have taken place not only in public affairs and artistic culture, but also the everyday life of Russian people, especially the privileged class - the nobility.
The formation of a new type of personality of the nobleman and the noblewoman, which was the result of borrowing from European educational systems, continued, begun earlier. During the time of Peter I, the creation of a secular school and education of the nobility was an exclusively state matter. During the reign of Elizabeth Petrovna and Catherine II, the state policy in the field of education was forced to take into account the private interests of the nobility and initiatives in this area. Educational transformations contributed to one degree or another to the transfer of the European education systems of the younger generation of the first estate to Russian soil, and this process proceeded within the framework of an accelerated transformation. A large number of enthusiasts appeared in Russia - foreigners who opened educational institutions and filled the noble estates. Private teaching came to be seen as an official phenomenon of public education policy. For the creation of state educational closed institutions for children of nobility, as well as private education, Western European experience was studied and replicated.
Home teaching for the children of the Russian nobility has long been the only way to get an education. For the career of a nobleman, first of all, faith and devotion to the throne were decisive, and then knowledge. In the 18th century, the "normative" upbringing and education were guided by foreign languages and good European manners. Wealthy nobles were very sensitive to the education of their children and tried to give them maximum knowledge, without tiring them or harming their health. The lack of professional teachers hindered the fulfillment of important educational tasks in the noble environment. As a rule, these were either serfs or foreigners - Germans and French.
Subsequently, childhood began to be seen as a special stage in a person's life, and a special material world began to provide it - clothes, toys, children's literature, classrooms and playrooms in the house. Caring for the health of children began with the selection of wet nurses and was an important responsibility of mothers, nannies and governesses. Great importance was attached to the moral spiritual education of the child. However, the authorities tried to unify and bring home education into a single system.
Clothes and things in the everyday life of nobles
The nobles always dressed in strict accordance with fashion, in modern terms, stylish. At the same time, the noble costume always responded to the situation and was proportionate and harmonious with the emotions and worldview of a person. In the era of Baroque and Rococo, pastel and delicate tones of men's and women's silk dresses were harmonious both against the background of garden greenery and fountains, and in the mirrored enfilades of palaces. Diamonds and sequins scattered across the clothes complemented the candlelight and fireworks. Huge skirts of women's outfits demanded space - wide enfilades of palaces and park alleys.
The eighteenth century was marked by a revolution in the clothing of the nobility. The study of Peter's legislation made it possible to draw conclusions, on the one hand, about the breadth of the reforms begun, and on the other, about caution and correctness in carrying out the "costume" reform. The national adjustment of European clothing standards was expressed in the use of mainly cloth, furs, and a bright palette of costumes. During the reign of Elizaveta Petrovna, fashionable French standards were finally established. Catherine II tried, along with French fashion, to introduce English trends, and both correlated both with national traditions. The Russian nobility in their European costume displayed the old Russian grandfather's traditions - an addiction to jewelry, furs, red heels and rich accessories that performed a communicative function and were an important component of the symbolism of the costume. Baroque costumes created a festive atmosphere in everyday life.
The eighteenth century passed in a tense struggle between the Russian chambers and the European house - the palace. Peter's era was marked by the penetration of the Baroque style and regularity into the construction of houses of nobles, who gradually began to build palace houses. The urban and rural estates of the nobles had a number of common features: the location of a residential building in the back of the courtyard, the character of the estate development, adherence to wood, the isolation of estates and a regular park. The European interiors of the houses of the nobility were decorated in red and lingonberry colors and with green tiled stoves according to the old Russian tradition. In Catherine's time, palaces were built for aristocrats and mansions for the middle-class nobility. The portico with columns and cladding of wooden details "like a stone" became the "visiting" card of the noble mansion. Landscape parks became one of the prerequisites for the development of the scientific interest of the nobility in the natural branches of knowledge. The manor created the image of the landlord's world, a symbol of this family, it became one of the forms of expression of the nobleman's self-awareness.
Culinary traditions
During the Petrine era, the influence of German and Dutch cuisines was observed. Under Elizabeth Petrovna and Catherine II, a long period of French cuisine began for the nobility. The rapid spread of French cuisine in Russia was facilitated not so much by foreign chefs as by the variety of dishes in French cuisine, which corresponded to the national traditions of Russians. Luxury in this era was understood in following nature in the combination of dishes and methods of their preparation. In the culture of the feast of the aristocracy, there were French, English and German tendencies for dining, which were actively synthesized in the practice of gastronomy. On the whole, “Russian exoticism” was a defining trend in the gastronomic tastes of the nobility. European influence only contributed to their enrichment and intensive development in the following decades. In the development of drinking culture, the Russian custom of table setting won out not only in Moscow, but it was recognized by the middle of the 19th century and in Western Europe... Most of the nobles were gourmets and kept an "open table". They turned their dinners into theatrical performances, whose roles were painted by noble etiquette.
Leisure development
It is with the nobility that the true history of leisure begins. Owning private property, representatives of this class, the "leisure class" could afford leisure worthy of their condition, and with a demonstration of their high position in the social hierarchy and "demonstrative behavior." For a nobleman, almost all the time free from official business turned into leisure. With such unlimited leisure, the first estate had the most favorable conditions for the transformation and revision of not only all its previous forms, but also a radical change in the relationship between public and private life in favor of the latter. Since the 18th century, leisure has acquired a status that it never had before. This process proceeded in parallel with the assertion of the secular character of the entire culture and the gradual displacement (but not destruction) of religious values \u200b\u200bby the secular. Leisure acquired more and more obvious value for the nobleman as secular culture was established. The main forms of this leisure were originally borrowed in the 18th century and then translated into the language of their own national culture in the 19th century. The borrowing of Western European forms of leisure initially took place under the pressure of state decrees and in opposition to national traditions.
The perception of European leisure forms began precisely with spectacles, fireworks, external manners. The nobleman was a conductor of this culture and an actor, an actor in this theater. His leisure time, be it a holiday, a ball, an appearance in a theater or a gambling duel, he played as an actor on stage, in full view of the whole society. It is no coincidence that in the 18th century the interest in theater was enormous, the theatrical art dominated all others, included them and even subdued them. But the main thing was the theatricalization of the nobleman's whole life. It manifested itself in private life for show, in the publicity of leisure, in which costume, manners, behavior, important skills and abilities were deliberately demonstrated.
The Peter's era was marked by new traditions of spectacles. The most important innovation was fireworks, which were of a socio-political nature. Masquerades were carried out either in the form of costume processions or in the form of a demonstration of carnival costumes in a public place. Theatrical performances glorified the tsar and his victories, therefore they became part of official life and made it possible to acquaint a select audience with translated plays and Western European stage art. Under Elizaveta Petrovna, fireworks were distributed to the palaces of noblemen, masquerades were turned into a costume ball, in which some timid trends were outlined in its evolution towards an entertainment culture. In the first place in the theatrical tastes of the highest aristocracy was the spectacular and musical art of opera. During the reign of Catherine II, state official celebrations with fireworks and masquerades were replaced by private illuminations in noble estates. The flourishing of city and estate theaters during the reign of Catherine II was due to the artistic aesthetics of the Enlightenment and the growth of self-awareness of the Russian nobility. With all the variety of genres, comedy remained the leader. Along with public masquerades, private ones, arranged by a nobleman in his estate, flourished.
Ballroom and musical culture of the nobility
The Peter's assemblies, which had as their tasks the raising of the status of women, the rapprochement of estates and sexes, introduced a select circle of nobles to the basics of the art of dancing and new forms of communication. The rudiments of home music-making and song art appeared, which existed mainly in the form of lyric cant and everyday “book song”. The “kingdom of women” on the Russian throne strengthened the role of women in dance culture, and they gradually became the hosts of the ball. The flourishing of Italian opera and the growth of dance culture contributed to the development of vocal and song art in the noble houses of the nobility. The reign of Catherine II was the heyday of private balls and public balls in the Assembly of the Nobility, which became an important part of the self-identification of the nobility. The naturalness and relaxedness of the dance culture gradually replaced the salon and ceremony. High society embraced a musical passion for piano and vocals. The achievements of this period were serfs, unique horn bands, active concert activity, and the spread of song culture. This era was characterized by the introduction of an entertainment element into ballroom culture. The new dances carried a powerful gender principle, a relaxed atmosphere and a general emancipation of ballroom culture. Among the nobility, there were true connoisseurs, connoisseurs of music and even composers. Music became a nobleman's way of life.
Duels and card games
The reign of Elizabeth Petrovna and Catherine II was marked by an important stage in the formation of duels and card games as prohibited forms of leisure for a nobleman. An important result of the introduction of the empress's decrees was the transfer of payment of card debts to the sphere of honor of the nobleman and the deduction of income from the growing destructive passion to the Orphanages. The vigorous activity of the Moscow English Club contributed to the transformation of gambling into a lifestyle and a social ritual.
In the 18th century, the authorities not only pursued a policy of prohibiting duels, but also establishing the physical integrity of the nobility. The cruel laws with the death penalty were not designed to be enforced, but aroused great interest among nobles, especially those who traveled abroad. A characteristic feature of the new dueling phenomenon was the addiction to fighting, which became part of the ritual. This period was characterized by duels - skirmishes with swords with a high level of combat aggressiveness. Despite the prohibition of duels and very conditional punishments for them, Elizaveta Petrovna and Catherine II proclaimed by their legislation the right of a nobleman to protect his physical integrity and honor. The duel became an ideal means of resolving conflicts and a regulator of relations in the private life of the nobility. Honor became the main class virtue of the nobility and the law of their class behavior.
Household Code of Conduct
In Peter's and Elizabethan times, important foundations were laid in the transformation of the noble family: the prohibition of forced marriage, the admission of freedom of marriage choice, the violation of the isolation of the Orthodox family by permitting marriages with non-believers and foreigners, the education of the bride and groom, the raising of the young's age. Several important ceremonies served to strengthen the marriage bond: "betrothal", "announcement", "search", "crown memory", registers for registration of marriages. Despite the preservation of traditional rituals, the wedding gradually turned into a European-style celebration with fashionable outfits, dances and travel abroad. An innovation of this time was the divorce of noble families. At the heart of the family itself, which retains a largely patriarchal character, was duty and family harmony. During the reign of Catherine II and Alexander I, great freedom appeared in the choice of marriage partners, due to joint forms of pastime. The era of "private life" taught the nobility to look for a new compromise option in the choice of future spouses: a combination of their own sympathies and parental will. The influence of feelings on the marriage of future spouses confirms the increase in secret weddings and bride abduction, as well as the possibility of unequal marriages in social status. A noble wedding included both traditional wedding rituals and the newfangled tendencies of European life. Divorce was still a difficult procedure, but it was possible in a noble environment. The marriage contract became the document serving as the legal protection of the spouses. An important phenomenon was the acquisition by a noblewoman of the exclusive right to a dowry. The noble family began to build on new principles. In the family, the role of a woman increased, who became a wife-friend. The husband's power became more refined and enlightened. The relationship between husband and wife, according to the noble codes, was based on sympathy for tastes and views.
The penetration of Western European culture into Russia in Peter's, Elizabethan and Catherine's times took place through the introduction to reading books, art, and new forms of communication. Personal libraries and collections first appeared in the houses of the nobility. Under the influence of European culture in the 18th century, the aesthetic tastes and new etiquette of communication of the Moscow nobility were gradually formed. This process was accompanied by the development of self-awareness of the first estate, which at its core had moral Orthodox orientations. The formation of the worldview, first of the Peter's artilleryman and navigator, and then of the enlightened grandee of the Elizabethan and Catherine periods, took place through the conservation of the Orthodox tradition in the sphere of everyday behavior against the background of playing with Europeans. The ethical norms of Christianity largely influenced the moral principles of the noble society. This was most clearly manifested in charitable activities the nobility, which acquired various forms of Christian misery - the creation of shelters, hospitals and other charitable institutions.
The duality of the nobleman's worldview remained characteristic feature throughout the 18th century. His spiritual life was closely connected with the norms of the European Enlightenment, and the real everyday life and everyday consciousness were almost entirely built on the basis of traditional religious ideas about the daily routine and way of life. Under these conditions, these two tendencies united in the consciousness of the nobleman were humanistic values \u200b\u200band universal human virtues. A clear confirmation of this is the growth of purposeful philanthropy of the nobility in the Catherine era. The most significant monuments of this activity are the Golitsyn hospital and the Sheremetevs' hospice.
Position of a woman
The penetration of European culture into Russia radically changed the position of a noblewoman. At first forcibly, and then of her own free will, she joined social life and mastered the appropriate skills of noble etiquette: she read books, took care of the toilet, studied foreign languages, mastered music, dancing, the art of conversation. At the same time, she had a family with good traditions of value priority and Christian faith. Children remained the main daily concern of the noblewoman of Peter the Great, Elizabethan and Catherine's time. All aristocrats adhered to the Orthodox faith, helped monasteries and churches, and did charity work. The level of mentality and value orientations was greatly influenced by the change in the reading circle of the Moscow noblewoman. Over time, women's libraries appeared, special editions for ladies' reading, noble women began to read novels, then serious philosophical and historical literature, and, finally, they became connoisseurs of books. Gradually, the aristocrats joined drawing, writing, album art and home performances. At the end of the XVIII - the first half of the XIX centuries. some of them made translations, composed operas, wrote poems and stories, sang and played music beautifully, and also staged performances. An important proof of the intellectual growth of the Moscow noblewoman was her album art and her correspondence. All this contributed to the growth of self-awareness of Moscow noblewomen.
Thus, the everyday culture of the nobility in the eighteenth century. in its development passed through two main stages.
The first stage chronologically coincides with the reign of Peter I, Anna Ioannovna and Elizaveta Petrovna and is the first half of the 18th century. It was characterized by the collision and confusion of two tendencies in everyday life - the traditional and the European. This was a turning point, primarily in the field of changes in external, material factors in the daily life of the nobility. The change in appearance was a kind of symbolic manifestation of the choice of one or another path of development of the country, an expression of adherence to a certain type of culture, but behind the external attributes there was usually an important internal content.
The second stage of the evolution of the everyday culture of the nobility falls on the second half of the 18th century and coincides with the reign of Catherine II and Paul I. This period was characterized by a deep penetration of the ideas of the Enlightenment into all spheres of everyday life and spiritual life of the first estate, the flourishing of the private life of the nobility, the creation of a certain type of lifestyle nobles. At this stage in the evolution of Russian everyday culture, European norms were quickly assimilated. This time gave a new special type of nobleman - an enlightened nobleman, many of whom became leaders and guides of European culture in Russia.
Material culture of the Russian peasantry
In the past, the Russian population was almost entirely peasant. This left a deep imprint on the forms of everyday life characteristic of the multimillion people. According to ancient tradition, the entire routine of peasant life was determined by agricultural work, which lasted from April to October. There were stable, passing from generation to generation, methods of tillage and growing crops, a specific set of agricultural tools and fishing equipment. The design of the main tool, the plow, was different in different parts of the country, which was explained by the dissimilarity of natural and soil conditions, as well as enduring traditions. Originally, the Russian peasant grew, first of all, cereals - rye, wheat, barley, oats, millet, buckwheat, as well as industrial and fodder crops - flax, hemp, peas, vetch, clover. From the ancient alien crops, cabbage, lentils, and watermelon were cultivated, and from the later ones (17th - 19th centuries) - corn, potatoes, sunflowers, sugar beets, tomatoes, tobacco. Domestic livestock raising was represented by cattle, mainly local breeds of red and variegated color, as well as horses (1-2 per average yard), sheep, pigs and poultry. In some places, especially in the North and Siberia, fishing and consumer-commercial hunting were of no small importance.
Many traditional features can be seen in the way Russian villages and villages are located, in their size and layout. When establishing villages, Russian peasants skillfully took into account local natural conditions - microrelief, water bodies, forests, the direction of the prevailing winds. Most of the Russian villages are beautifully inscribed in the surrounding landscape, and their layouts are diverse: in some houses they stand in one line along the road, along the river, along the lake, in others they form a circle, oval, rectangle around the village square or church, in others - are scattered with related "nests", in the fourth - finally, constitute the streets.
In the northern and central regions of Russia, residential buildings faced the street with a narrow front side, in the southern Russian regions - with a long facade, and in Cossack villages and farms they were erected more freely, somewhat receding from the street, in the back of the courtyard, and the whole estate was fenced off with a high fence.
Along with the general Russian features, the house-building of various regions had its own characteristics, manifested in the layout of the estate and in the location of the internal premises of residential and office buildings and in the materials used for their construction. The North Russian House - to the north of the Upper Volga - is a tall log building, consisting of a hut itself, a canopy and a cage, or of a residential half with a two-story courtyard directly attached to it. The spread of the covered courtyard in the northern and central non-chernozem regions of Russia was due to severe and snowy winters, which forced to combine residential and outbuildings into one whole. Platbands of windows, cornices, porch boards, balcony grilles near the North Russian house were decorated with geometric carvings, various figured slits, and often were painted with paints.
The South Russian house - south of the Kaluga - Ryazan - Penza line - was built small, low and represented a log hut, often coated with clay on the outside, a hut with a porch or an adobe and brick hut with a wooden, and more often, adobe or earthen floor. The roof was always hipped with a thatched roof. The exterior architectural decoration was poorer here than in the north. The courtyard buildings were located behind the house and, adjoining each other, formed a closed square with an open central area.
Foreigners visiting Russia paid attention to the richness of original forms. russian folk costume.The main features of Russian traditional clothing, especially for men, were common throughout the country. And yet, region from region, north from south, west from east in many elements of the costume were different. Men's clothing everywhere consisted of a shirt-shirt, narrow trousers and a caftan. In women's clothing, two types stood out most clearly: North Russian and South Russian. The female Russian costume was generally distinguished by its colorfulness, but it was especially beautiful in the southern Russian regions. There peasant women decorated their dresses with embroidery and woven patterns, skillfully combining them with red cotton inserts, with sewn-on strips of cord, ribbons, braid and sequins. Common to all areas was a women's shirt with polics (shoulder inserts) and a collar. Sleeves, shoulders, shirt collars were finished with embroidery or woven patterns. Northern peasant women wore a sundress over a long canvas shirt, which was tied with a woven belt. Festive sundresses were made of beautiful patterned fabrics. Girls stood out by wearing freely falling braids with ribbons, ornate head crowns over their braids, and light kerchiefs. The headdress of married women was more complex, necessarily covering the hair laid under it - these are festive warriors, kokoshniks, bangs, etc. On holidays, they wore necklaces made of amber and local pearls mined in northern rivers. In a South Russian village, married women wore a panevu-peculiar skirt made of woolen checkered (most often blue) fabric over a shirt with slanting polics, intercepted by a belt. A bib was also worn over the shirt - short clothes with and without sleeves made of homespun cloth, and over a paneva shirt - an embroidered apron (zapon). The headdress here was a kichka, which stood from a solid base - actually a kichka, on which a woven crest - "magpie" was put on; a back plate made of fabric with a long sulfur bottom was tied to the back of the kitsch.
The same stamp of originality as dwelling and clothing, bore and kitchen. Russian people have always been famous for their hospitality and sought to make the festive table abundant. In the house with plenty of traditional treats were jellied fish, jellied meat, various pies, cold meat and poultry, meat soup or borscht and chicken noodles, fried and stewed meat, goose or duck with apples, piglet with buckwheat porridge, scrambled eggs, milk porridge, jelly and compotes, pastilles and preserves, vodka, wine, liqueurs, liqueurs, beer, kvass. Of course, this composition of traditional cuisine varied depending on the local food base and on the family's wealth. It should never be forgotten that a huge mass of the population ate very modestly, and it is not for nothing that an apt saying has developed among the Russian people: "Shchi and porridge is our food."
Social and family life the bulk of the Russian peasantry flowed within their villages and narrow rural districts with their long-established local customs, beliefs and ideas. The Christian Church exerted a significant influence on the worldview and morality of the Russian peasantry. Most adhered to the rituals of official Orthodoxy, but in the North, in the Volga region and in Siberia, there were also many Old Believers. However, professing Christian and pre-Christian original beliefs, many peasants were no longer so zealous clergy and went to church, more obeying routine and taking the opportunity to meet with the "world", learn the news, and show clothes.
One of the most striking phenomena of the social life of the village was the holidays timed to the Christian calendar, but having much earlier pagan roots, originating in the ancient Slavic agrarian cult.
The oral folk calendar was of great importance for the Russian peasants, which gave various practical instructions regarding the timing of agricultural work, weather forecasts and harvest types. His connoisseurs, mainly old people, were universally respected. But of course, this calendar reflected both correct observations of nature, and false, superstitious ideas. It is also interesting that many labor processes were accompanied by rituals that were timed to coincide with the most important agricultural holidays. Such ceremonies as New Year's, Shrovetide, Easter, Semytsk, Trinity, bathing and others, according to the peasants, contributed to a good harvest.
→