Chapter 2. The origin of the Etruscan people.

The Etruscans have always been considered a mysterious people that had little in common with the surrounding tribes. Quite naturally, both in antiquity and now they tried to find out where it came from. This is a delicate and complex problem, and to this day has not received a generally accepted solution. How are things going in our time? To answer the question, it is important to recall the opinions of ancient authors on this matter, as well as the subsequent judgments of modern scientists. In this way, we will find out whether the facts known to us allow us to come to any reasonable decision.

In ancient times, there was an almost unanimous opinion on this issue. It was based on a story Herodotus, the first great Greek historian, about the adventures that brought the Tyrrhenians to the land of Tuscany. Here's what he writes:

“They say that during the reign of Atis, son of Man, a great famine seized all Lydia. For a time the Lydians tried to lead an ordinary life; but since the hunger did not stop, they tried to come up with something: some suggested one thing, others another. They say that it was then that the game of dice, the game of grandmothers, the game of ball and others were invented, but not the game of checkers, since the Lydians do not claim to invent it. And this is how these inventions helped them fight hunger: out of every two days, one day was devoted entirely to the game, in order to forget about the search for food. The next day, people stopped playing and ate. So they lived for eighteen years.

But since the calamity not only did not subside, but, on the contrary, intensified, the king divided the Lydian people into two parts; one of them was to remain by lot, the other to leave the country. The king led the group that was supposed to remain, and put his son Tyrren at the head of the second group. Those Lydians, who were ordered to leave the country by lot, went to Smyrna, built ships, loaded all their belongings on them, and sailed in search of land and means of subsistence. Having explored the shores of many countries, they finally reached the land of the Umbrians. There they founded cities where they still live. But they ceased to be called Lydians, taking the name of the king who headed them. Thus, they received the name Tyrrhenian. "

We do know that the inhabitants of Tuscia, whom the Romans called Tusci or Etruscans (hence the present name of Tuscany), were known to the Greeks as Tyrrhenians. Hence, in turn, the name arose Tyrrhenian Sea, on the banks of which the Etruscans built their cities. Thus, Herodotus paints a picture of the migration of the Eastern people, and in his presentation the Etruscans turn out to be the same Lydians, who, according to the chronology of Greek historians, left their country rather late - in the XIII century BC. e. and settled on the shores of Italy.

Consequently, the entire Etruscan civilization comes directly from the Asia Minor plateau. Herodotus wrote his work in the middle of the 5th century. BC e. Almost all Greek and Roman historians accepted his point of view. Virgil, Ovid and Horace in their poems often call the Etruscans Lydians. According to Tacitus (Annals, IV, 55), during the Roman Empire lydian city of Sardis retained the memory of his distant Etruscan origin; the Lydians even then considered themselves brothers of the Etruscans. Seneca cites the Etruscans as an example of the migration of an entire people and writes: "Tuscos Asia sibi vindicat" - "Asia believes that it has given birth to the Tusks."

So, the classical authors did not doubt the truth of the ancient traditions, which, as far as we know, were first announced by Herodotus. However, the Greek theorist Dionysius of Halicarnassus, who lived in Rome under Augustus, declared that he could not adhere to this opinion. In his first work on Roman history, he writes the following: “I don’t think the Tyrrhenians came from Lydia. Their language is different from that of the Lydians; and it cannot be said that they retained any other traits that would bear traces of origin from their supposed homeland. They worship gods other than the Lydians; they have different laws, and, according to at least from this point of view, they differ from the Lydians more than even from the Pelasgians. Thus, it seems to me, those who argue that the Etruscans are an indigenous people, and not those who came from across the sea, are right; in my opinion, this stems from the fact that they are very ancient people, which neither in its language nor in its customs is similar to any other nations. "

So already in ancient times, there were two opposite opinions about the origin of the Etruscans... In modern times, the discussion has flared up again. Some scholars followed Nicola Frere, who at the end of the 18th century was the permanent secretary of the Academy of Inscriptions and Fine Arts, proposed a third solution in addition to the two already existing ones. According to him, the Etruscans, like other Italic peoples, came from the north; etruscans had Indo-European roots and were part of one of the waves of invaders, which consistently hit the peninsula starting from 2000 BC e. Currently, this thesis, although not completely refuted, has very few adherents. Nor does it stand up to the test of facts. Therefore, we must discard it immediately to avoid unnecessarily complicating the problem.

This nordic hypothesis based on an imaginary connection between the name reths, or the Retians, with whom Drusus, son of Augustus fought, and named "rasena", which, according to the testimony of classical authors, called themselves the Etruscans. The presence of the Retyans is said to be historical proof that in ancient times the Etruscans came from the north and crossed the Alps. And this opinion seems to be confirmed by Tita Libya, which notes: "Even the Alpine tribes, especially the Retyans, are of the same origin as the Etruscans. The very nature of their country turned the Rhetians into a wild state, so that they did not preserve anything from their ancient ancestral home, with the exception of dialect, and even then in an extremely distorted form "(V, 33, II). Finally, in the areas where the Retyans lived, inscriptions were indeed found in a language similar to Etruscan.

In fact, we have before us an example of how false conclusions are derived from true facts. The Etruscan presence in Rhetia is a reality... But this happened relatively recently and has nothing to do with the hypothetical transition of the Etruscans to alpine valleys... Only in the 4th century BC. e., when, due to the Celtic invasion, the Etruscans had to leave the Padan plain, they took refuge in the alpine foothills. Libya, if you carefully analyze its text, does not mean anything else, and the inscriptions of the Etruscan type found in Rhetia, created not earlier 3rd century BC e.are excellently explained by this movement of the Etruscan refugees to the north.

The thesis about the Eastern origin of the Etruscans has much more reason.... It looks like it is unequivocally supported by a lot of data. linguistics and archeology. Many features of the Etruscan civilization are very similar to what we know about the civilizations of ancient Asia Minor. Although various Asian motives in Etruscan religion and art can ultimately be explained coincidence, supporters of this thesis believe that the eastern features of the Etruscan civilization are too numerous and too noticeable; therefore, they point out, the pure coincidence hypothesis should be ruled out.

The self-name of the Etruscans - "rasena" - can be found in numerous very similar forms in various dialects of Asia Minor. Hellenized title "Tyrrhenians" or "Tirsense" also, apparently, occurs from the Anatolian plateau. This is an adjective, most likely derived from the word "Tyrrha" or "tyrrha"... We know about the area in Lydia, which exactly was called - Tyrra. It is tempting to see the relationship between Etruscan and Lydian words and to attribute some meaning to this curious parallel. Judging by the Latin word turris - "tower", - undoubtedly derived from this root, the name "Tyrrhenians" literally means "people of the citadel"... The root is very common in the Etruscan language. It is enough to remember Tarhona, brother or son of Tyrren, who founded Tarquinia and dodecapolis, a league of twelve Etruscan cities. Or Tarquinia itself, the sacred city of ancient Etruria (Tuscia). However, names derived from the root tarch, often found in Asia Minor. There they were given to gods or rulers.

In 1885 g. two young scientists of the French school in Athens, Cousin and Durrbak, made a major discovery on the island of Lemnos in the Aegean Sea. Not far from the village of Kaminia, they found a funerary stele with decorations and inscriptions. We see it depicted in profile face of a warrior with a spear and two carved text: one around the warrior's head, the other on the side of the stele. This monument, a creation of local archaic art, was created no later than VII century BC eh., that is, much earlier than the Greeks conquered the island (510 BC). The inscriptions are in Greek letters, but their the language is not Greek. The similarity of this language with the language of the Etruscans was quickly noticed. Here and there the same endings; it seems that word formation is done according to the same rules. In this way, on the island of Lemnos in the 7th century BC e. spoke a language similar to Etruscan. And the stele is not an isolated proof. Shortly before World War II, researchers of the Italian school found other fragments of inscriptions on the island in the same language - apparently in the language used by the inhabitants of the island before its conquest by Themistocles.

If the Tyrrhenians came from Anatolia, they could well stay on such Aegean islands as Lemnos, leaving small communities there. The appearance of the stele from Caminia, more or less coinciding in time with the birth of the Etruscan civilization, is quite understandable from the standpoint of the hypothesis about the eastern origin of the Etruscans.

Figure: 5. Funeral stele from Kaminia on the island of Lemnos. National Museum, Athens.

In an attempt to solve this problem, researchers turned to anthropology. A systematic study of about forty skulls found in Etruscan tombs by the Italian anthropologist Sergi has failed to provide conclusive results and has not revealed any significant difference between data from Etruria and from other regions of Italy. Sir Gavin de Vere recently came up with the idea of \u200b\u200btaking advantage of genetic evidence based on blood types. The proportion in which there are four blood groups, more or less constant in every nation. Consequently, by studying blood groups, one can learn about the origin and degree of kinship of peoples that are not too separated in time.

Since the population of Tuscany has remained relatively stable over the centuries, modern Tuscans must save genesinherited from the Etruscans (Etruscan haplogroup G2a3a and G2a3b found in Europe; haplogroup G2a3b went to Europe through Starchevo and further through archaeological culture Linear Tape Pottery, was discovered by archaeologists in the center of Germany)

On the maps showing the distribution of blood groups in modern Italy, in the center of the peninsula, an area stands out with clear differences from the rest of the population of Italy and similar to the eastern peoples. The results of these studies allow us to evaluate possible signs of the eastern origin of the Etruscans. However, the greatest caution should be exercised, since this phenomenon can be explained by the influence of completely different factors.

It would take too much space to list all the Etruscan customs, religious beliefs and artistic techniques that are often and reasonably associated with the East. We will only mention the most notable facts. Etruscan women, as in,occupied a privileged position that had nothing to do with the humiliated and subservient position of Greek (and Eastern) women. But we observe such a sign of civilization and in the social structure of Crete and Mycenae. There, as in Etruria, women are present at plays, performances and games, not remaining, as in Greece, hermits in the quiet quarters of the female half.

We see Etruscan women at a feast next to their husbands: Etruscan frescoes often depict a woman reclining next to the owner of the house at a banquet table. As a result of this custom, the Greeks, and then the Romans, groundlessly accused Etruscan women of immorality. The inscriptions provide another confirmation of the apparent equality of the Etruscan woman: often the person who dedicates the inscription mentions the mother's name along with the father's name or even without it. We have evidence of the spread of such matronymics in Anatolia, especially in Lydia. Perhaps traces of ancient matriarchy appear in this.

Figure: 6. A married couple at a funeral feast. From an engraving by Bayres in The Hypogeae of Tarquinia, part IV, ill. 8.

In the field of art and religion, there are even more points of coincidence. Unlike the Greeks and Romans, like many Eastern peoples, the Etruscans professed a religion of revelation, whose commandments were jealously guarded in the sacred books. The supreme gods of the Etruscans were a trinityworshiped in triple temples. it Tinia, Uni and Menerva, which the Romans, in turn, began to revere under the names of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva.

Trinity cultworshiped in three-walled sanctuaries - each dedicated to one of the three gods - is also present in the Cretan-Mycenaean civilization. Etruscan tombs often surround cippi - low pillars with or without ornamentation symbolizing the divine presence. They are carved from local stone - either from nenfro, or from volcanic rocks - diorite or basalt. This is reminiscent of the Asia Minor cult, in which the deity is often represented in the form of a stone or column. Egg-shaped Etruscan columns also depict in schematic and symbolic form the deceased as a deified hero.

Even the ancients were struck by the unhealthy and manic attitude of the Etruscans to the deities, their constant desire to find out the future, studying the omens sent to people by the gods. Such a pernicious religiosity, so great interest in divination inevitably makes one remember similar sentiments among many eastern peoples. Later, we will take a closer look at the technique of divination, which was extremely common among the Etruscans.

Etruscan priests - haruspics - among other peoples of antiquity had a reputation as masters in the art of divination. They excelled at interpreting signs and wonders. The analytical method of haruspics has always been based on incredibly convoluted casuistry. The thunderclap, so strongly associated with the Tuscan skies, where terrible and violent thunderstorms often rage, has been the subject of research that amazes us with its detailed and systematic nature. Haruspics, in the opinion of the ancients, were unmatched in the art of Fulguura. However, some eastern peoples, for example, babylonians, long before they tried to interpret thunderstorms in order to guess the will of the gods. Have reached us babylonian texts, in which the meaning of thunder is explained depending on the corresponding day of the year. They have an undeniable similarity with the Etruscan text, which is preserved in the Greek translation of John of Lydia and is nothing more than thunderstorm calendar.

The favorite pastime of the haruspics was the study of the liver and entrails of animals sacrificed to the gods; it seems that the very name of the haruspex comes from this rite. We see on Etruscan bas-reliefs and mirrors images of priests performing this strange operation, which also reminds us of the ancient Assyro-Babylonian customs. Of course, this method of divination was known and applied in other countries. For example, there is ample evidence that it was practiced later in Greece. But nowhere else was it given such a colossal importance as in some countries of the ancient East and in Tuscia. During modern excavations in Asia Minor and Babylonia, many terracotta liver models. They are carved with prophecies based on the configuration of the depicted organs. Similar items were found in the Etruscan land. The most famous of them is a bronze liver discovered in the vicinity of Piacenza in 1877 From the outside, it is divided into several parts that carry the names of the Tus gods... These deities occupy specific areas in the sky, which correspond to well-defined fragments of the victim's liver. What god sent the sign was determined by the part of the liver on which the sign was found; in the same way, lightning was sent by the god who owned the part of the sky from which it struck. Thus, the Etruscans, and before them the Babylonians, saw a parallelism between the liver of a sacrificial animal and the world as a whole: the first was just a microcosm reproducing the structure of the world on a tiny scale.

In the field of art, the outlines of some objects and specific methods of processing gold and silver... Etruscan items made of gold and silver are made with great skill yet in the 7th century BC. e. The treasures from the tomb of Regolini Galassi amaze with their perfection and technical ingenuity. Admiring them, we involuntarily recall the fine techniques of the Middle East jewelers.

It is clear that such a coincidence of well-known facts only reinforces the conviction of the supporters of the "Eastern hypothesis." And yet, many scientists are inclined to accept the idea of \u200b\u200bthe indigenous origin of the Etruscans, which was put forward almost two thousand years ago Dionysius of Halicarnassus... They are by no means denying the kinship linking Etruria and the East, but they explain it differently.

Before the Indo-European invasion, the Mediterranean region was inhabited by ancient peoples linked by many kinship ties. Invaders who came from the north in the period from 2000 to 1000 BC e., destroyed almost all of these tribes. But here and there some elements inevitably remained that survived the general cataclysm. Etruscans, the supporters of this hypothesis tell us, represent exactly one of these islets of ancient civilization; they survived the catastrophe, which explains the Mediterranean features of this civilization. Thus, one can explain the indisputable relationship of the Etruscan language with some pre-Hellenic idioms of Asia Minor and the Aegean basin, such as those depicted on the Lemnos stele.

This is a very attractive point of view taken by a number of linguists - students of the Italian explorer Trombetti. Two recently published books Massimo Pallottino and Franz Altheim provide a scientific basis for this thesis. Both authors emphasize one essential point in their argumentation. In their opinion, up to the present time, the problem was formulated extremely incorrectly. We always wonder where did the Etruscans come from, as if it were the most natural thing when a whole nation suddenly appears in some region, which later becomes its homeland. The Etruscans are known to us only from the Apennine Peninsula (and the islands of the Aegean Sea?); actually unfolds here their whole history. Then why should we ask a purely academic question about their origins? The historian should rather be interested in how the Etruscan nation and its civilization were formed. To solve this problem, he it is not necessary to postulate the eastern origin of the Etruscans, which is impossible to prove and which in any case is highly unlikely.

Herodotus's story should be perceived as a variety of those numerous legends to which the ancient authors refer when telling about the origin of peoples. The Etruscans apparently came from a mixture of ethnic elements of different origins; it is from such a mixture that an ethnos arises, a nation with clearly defined characteristics and physical traits. Thus, the Etruscans are again becoming what they never ceased to be - purely italic phenomenon. Therefore, we can, without regret, part with the hypothesis of their migration from another country, the source of which, in any case, requires an extremely careful attitude towards itself.

This is the essence of the new teaching, which denies the semi-historical-semi-legendary tradition and strangely repeats the conclusions Dionysius of Halicarnassus, the first to try to refute this tradition. So people with a reputation in modern Etruscology declared themselves supporters of autochthonousness, or at least partial autochthonousness of the Etruscan people, denying the traditional hypothesis, although it continues to be supported by a significant number of researchers.

We must admit that it is not easy to choose one theory or another. Attempts by Altheim and Pallottino to prove the Italic origin of the Etruscans rely on a number of observations that are certainly true and stand up to test, no matter what we think of their idea as a whole. Of course, it is much more important to follow strictly the historical evolution of the Etruscan people on the Tuscan land, than wasting energy trying to figure out where it came from. In any case, there is no doubt the diversity of the roots of the Etruscan people. It was born due to the fusion of various ethnic elements, and we must abandon the naive idea of \u200b\u200ba people who suddenly, like a miracle, appears on Italian soil. Even if there was a migration and invasion of conquerors from the east, they could be rather small groups that mixed with the Italic tribes who had long lived between Arno and the Tiber.

So the question is, should we stick to the idea of \u200b\u200bsailors from Anatolia who came to the Mediterranean and were looking for a place on the shores of Italy where they could live.

It seems to us that from such a clearly defined point of view, the legend of the newcomers from the East retains its significance. Only it allows us to explain the emergence at a particular moment of time of a civilization to a large extent completely new, but possessing many features that connect the Etruscans with the Cretan-Mycenaean and Middle Eastern world... If autochthonous theory brought to its logical conclusion, it will be difficult to explain the unexpected birth of crafts and arts, as well as religious ideas and rituals that were not previously known in Tuscan land. It has been suggested that there was a kind of awakening of the ancient Mediterranean peoples - an awakening caused by the development of maritime and trade links between the Eastern and Western Mediterranean. at the beginning of the 7th century BC e. But such argumentation is unable to explain what caused such a rapid development of culture in Italy, whose civilization was at a backward and in many respects primitive stage.

Of course migration cannot be dated, according to Herodotus, 1500-1000. BC e. Italy goes down in history at a later stage. Throughout the peninsula, the Bronze Age lasted until about 800 BC. e. And only by the VIII century. BC e. we can attribute two events that were of the greatest significance for the history of ancient Italy, and, accordingly, the entire Western world - the arrival of the first Greek colonists on the southern shores of the peninsula and to Sicily approx. 750 BC e. and the first flourishing of the Etruscan civilization in Tuscany, which took place, according to indisputable archaeological data, not earlier than 700 BC. e.

In this way, in Central and Southern Italy, two great centers of civilization developed more or less simultaneously, and both contributed to the awakening of the peninsula from its long sleep. Previously, there was nothing comparable to the brilliant civilizations of the Middle East - Egyptian and Babylonian. This awakening is marked the beginning of Etruscan history, as well as the arrival of the Hellenes... Tracing the fate of Tuscia, we see Italy's involvement in the history of mankind.

Raymond Block Etruscans. Foretellers of the future.
| | Chapter 3.

University: VZFEI

Introduction 3-4

Architecture 5-7

Painting 7-9

Pottery 10

Sculpture 11-13

Conclusion 14

Literature 15

Introduction

Civilization (from Latin - state, civil) - a special socio-cultural community of people with its inherent economic, political and cultural specifics.

Etruscan civilization - This is the predecessor of the Ancient Roman civilization, it is the first period in the development of the artistic culture of Ancient Rome. The Etruscan civilization arose in the 7-4 centuries. BC. Etruscans appeared in the north-west of the Apennine Peninsula at the turn of the 2nd - 1st millennium BC. The territory occupied by them began to be called Etruria (modern Tuscany). In ancient times, the Etruscans were called the "Sea Peoples" because they terrified and awe the Mediterranean merchants and sailors. Disputes about the origin of the Etruscans are still ongoing. Perhaps they came from Asia Minor, perhaps from Lydia, but this is only a guess. What race the Etruscans belong to is also not known. The past of this people is shrouded in mystery, because scientists still do not fully understand their writing, and the Romans, freed from the power of the Etruscans in the 4th century. BC, wiped out their cities.

Many Etruscan monuments are known, but the content of the myths that are embodied in them is unknown. There are many Etruscan inscriptions, but they are very difficult to read, although the Etruscans used the Greek alphabet. They wrote from right to left and without spacing between words. The Etruscan gods are very similar to the Greek ones, and the names of the gods, in all likelihood, are also used by the Romans over time to call their own, for example: Uni - Juno, Menrva - Minerva, Tini - Jupiter. Numerous images of Etruscan gods are found on mirrors, coins, ceramic vases (the functions of these gods are special and not fully understood). Numerous laz demons were the servants of the gods. The Etruscans saw the universe as three steps - heaven, earth and the underworld, connected by passages and breaks in the earth's crust, along which the souls of the dead descended to Hades. The pits for sacrifices to the underground gods and the souls of ancestors that existed in every city were similar to the rifts. It is also known for certain that the Romans borrowed from the Etruscans gladiator fights and baiting of animals, stage games and rituals of sacrifices, fortune-telling and faith in evil and good spirits. The Etruscans, like the Egyptians, believed in life after death, therefore the main monuments that survived after the Etruscans are associated with burial.

Architecture

The Etruscans left behind whole “cities of the dead” - cemeteries, which sometimes surpassed the cities of the living in their size. The impression was created that life took place here, maybe another, otherworldly, but life. The Etruscans had a cult of the dead: they believed in an afterlife and wanted to make it as pleasant as possible for the dead. Therefore, their art, which served death, was full of life and bright joy. The cult of the ancestors and the veneration of the dead contributed to the development of a special type of tombs among the Etruscans, which were rather dwellings with richly furnished chambers. The only thing that reminded of the purpose of these structures were burial urns in the form of a human figure, in the form of a house, and so on, or monumental sarcophagi with sculptural images of the dead on the lids. On them are sculpted images of married couples (in all likelihood, resembling the dead) during a friendly conversation or at a meal. Embracing each other, they cheerfully gesticulate, vigorously discuss something, forgetting that their bed is the bed of death and they will never rise from it. BUT they do not believe in death, and are only waiting for the transition to a world no less joyful than the earthly other world.

The Etruscan tombs were splendidly cleaned, decorated with colorful frescoes depicting scenes of death, travel to the afterlife, the judgment of the souls of the dead. The murals on the walls of the tombs depicted best sides life - festivities with music and dancing, sports, hunting scenes or a pleasant stay with the family. The tombs were filled with furniture and rich utensils, they contained many luxurious funeral gifts, even carts, and the dead were showered with gold ornaments. Etruscan tombs were varied in shape - chamber with a bulk burial mound (bulk burial mounds - tumulus), rock, mine. Etruscan tombs had geometric shapesand this is no coincidence. In ancient times, the shape of objects carried a deep meaning, for example: a square was a symbol of the earth, and a circle was a symbol of heaven. If the deceased was buried in a round tomb, it means that in the eyes of the living he was already an inhabitant of the sky, that is, a god. Therefore, the history of Etruscan art begins and ends with tombs.

It is known for sure that the Etruscans were the first to use a regular layout in the construction of the city, but from the Greeks they adopted

planning of city blocks in a checkerboard pattern, where an acropolis was erected at the highest point of the city, with temples and altars.

Their cities (Tarquinia, etc.) were surrounded by powerful walls of huge stone blocks. It was from them that the Romans learned to build bridges and arches, pave roads and drain swamps.

On the basis of Greek images, the Etruscans created a type of temple that stood on a podium (i.e., a high pedestal), with a canopy in front of the entrance to the building or a gallery with arches. Etruscan temples were built from wood and brick. The Etruscan temple was square in plan, decorated with columns on three sides (wooden floor beams allowed the columns to be placed at a considerable distance from each other), the roof had a strong slope, and rows of painted clay slabs played the role of a frieze. The temple stood on a high foundation (stone foundation) and had a deep portico, which opened into the interior of the temple with three rooms at once. This was due to the fact that the Etruscans worshiped the gods in triads - threes.

The main triad were - Tinia, Menrva, Uni. If we draw an analogy with the Greeks and Romans, we get the following - Zeus, Hera, Athena and Jupiter, Juno, Minerva. The Etruscan temple hid everything hidden within itself, and it was not accessible and not visible. The walls of the temples were decorated with terracotta reliefs on themes borrowed from Greek mythology or associated with sacrifices and bloody battles. The will of the gods could be interpreted and conveyed to people only by priests and soothsayers who mastered the art of fortune telling by the flights of birds, by lightning, by the entrails of animals. Legends say that the main shrine of the Romans - their first temple of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva on the Capitol (one of the 7 hills on which Rome is built) - was created by the Etruscans. Probably, it differed little from the Etruscan buildings both in architecture and in the chosen material for the buildings. Also, the Etruscans left a legacy to the Romans - the technique of removing the vaults. Thus, the Romans reached unprecedented heights in the construction of vaulted ceilings.

Painting

The Etruscans were not only skillful sculptors, their tombs are full of the brightness of the colors of fresco painting. The walls of Etruscan tombs were decorated with frescoes. The plots often featured Etruscan feasts after

solemn funeral of noble people. There are also scenes of equestrian competitions, fist fights, fencing games, hunting and fishing. There are even images of the bliss of souls in the realm of the dead. And if it were not for the figures of mourners or priests, reminiscent of the funeral significance of the paintings, one could simply forget about this, since the human figures on the frescoes are overflowing with seething energy and joy of life. Feasting people enjoying the holiday; fishing; hunting; those involved in sports - live and enjoy in the other world... Among them are the frescoes and the god Fufluns - Etruscan Dionysus, who is endowed with a special power to bestow immortality. It is interesting that, for example, in the tomb of the "leopards" (about 520 BC) in Tarquinia, the god Fufluns is depicted not in human form, but as a huge crater in the center of one of the wall frescoes. Elsewhere in the same tomb, Fufluns is represented as a pillar that leopards worship - hence the name of the tomb. All this suggests that the painting of the Etruscan tombs cannot be perceived only as "pictures from life." They contain a strictly built complex religious and mythological system, which is still largely unclear. The painting of Etruscan tombs in their technique is close to the Greek, of the archaic period. The same contour of lines, made with different colors. The outline of the Etruscan drawing is not as graceful and thin as that of the Greeks, but still quite expressive. But the rest of the Etruscans are much inferior to the Greeks. Their painting lacks that sense of proportion for which the art of Greece was famous. The fresco figures of Etruscan tombs are now visible on the light tones of the wall plaster, then suddenly someone's robe “jumps out” as a bright spot from the entire composition. Etruscan artists do not come to life with images of human figures. For the Etruscans, this task turned out to be insoluble. Their figures either freeze in eternal rest, or strain in imaginary action.

Pottery art

The Etruscans decorated their ceramics with plastic and molding. Burial vessels intended for the ashes of the deceased, the so-called canopes, were decorated by the Etruscans with lids in the form of human faces, most likely not devoid of portrait features - “facial” urns. Etruscan canopy is a complex combination of a vessel and a human figure into one whole. The canopy master strove to humanize the vessel, that is, to turn it into a monument to a deceased person, hence such a strange mixture of forms. Etruscan pottery was also special. Vessels of a very complex shape with stucco handles, stucco or engraved decor and a surface that give the impression that we are looking at a vessel made of metal have survived to this day. In fact, the Etruscans possessed a special technique for making ceramic vessels, they turned out to be black with a surface shining with a matte sheen, this style was called bukchero. Even more ancient was the way when ceramics had a dark red color with the same matte sheen. This technique was called impasto.

Sculpture

The Etruscan temple had sculptural decorations. The pediments of the temple were filled with figures of deities, but made not in stone, but in clay (terracotta). The edges of the roof were decorated with terracotta masks: the Gargon's Medusa; Satyrs, Selenes and Maenads, constant companions of the god Fufluns. They were brightly colored and were designed to protect the interior of the temple from the invasion of evil gods and demons.

Etruscan sculptors loved to work in bronze and clay. Their works were often functional, that is practical significance... They decorated mirrors, tall figured lamps - candelabra, tripods-vessels, stands for anything with a base in the form of three legs. It is known that in the art of the Etruscans, the technique of bronze casting has reached a high level of perfection. The best monument of Etruscan sculpture - “Capitoline

she-wolf ", which became the symbol" eternal city”- Ancient Rome. The legend of the she-wolf who nursed the twins Remus and Romulus, the founders of the city of Rome, served as the theme for the sculptural group. The Etruscan master managed to embody in this image both the formidable animal and the merciful mother who nurtured the person. The she-wolf has retracted sides and ribs protruding through the skin, an expressive muzzle with a bared mouth and alert ears, and the front legs are elastically tense. The ornamental pattern of the mane is applied by fine embossing, which conveys the curls of wool. But the main thing is that the master was able to show the spiritual power of the wild.

Etruscan sculptors sought not so much to convey the features of the structure human bodyhow much to emotionally affect the viewer, which was facilitated by the bright contrasting coloring of the statues. Terracotta figures - a warrior, Apollo of Wei, the torso of Hercules, a sculptural image of a married couple on the lid of a sarcophagus - amaze with their vitality and inner dynamism. The characteristic smile on the faces of the Etruscan statues was apparently borrowed from the Greeks - it strongly resembles the "archaic" smile of the early Greek statues. And yet these painted terracottas retained the facial features inherent in Etruscan sculptors - a large nose, slightly slanted almond-shaped eyes under heavy eyelids, full lips. A joyful look, smiles on their faces, liveliness of the whole figure - these are the features that distinguish the works of Etruscan sculptors during the heyday of Etrurian art. Life was full of joy and confidence in a future happy existence, and this was reflected in the works of Etruscan masters, even decorating tombs.

The sculpture was widespread, performing the function

architectural decor. An example is the terracotta statue of the god Apollo, which adorned the upper corner of the roof of the temple at Veii, which was supposedly executed by the master Vulka in 520-500. BC. This is the only name of the famous Etruscan sculptor that has come down to us. The statue of Apollo shows a man with an athletic build that can be seen through thin garments. The master managed to convey the rapid movement. The figure of Apollo is full of strength, energy and youth, the expression on his face is filled with light joy, a smile froze on his lips.

An unknown craftsman made from limestone in the middle of the 5th century. BC work called "Master of Matuta". She is an eternal theme - mother and child, the brightest and most heartfelt theme in the world. However, this image is covered with deep melancholy. The Etruscan mother no longer has vitality and no interest in life itself; she has a dead child in her arms. “Master Matuta” was not just a group, it served as an urn for ash. The thought of the afterlife among the Etruscans turned from joyful to sad.

3 c. BC - the time of the unprecedented flowering of the portrait art of the Etruscans. The sculptors' attention was focused on the person himself and his character, mood, uniqueness of facial features. Plastic works that adorn the Etruscan tombs of the outgoing era amaze with their ugly faces and limp poses, swollen bodies. But the art of portraiture rose to such a high level that in these works, repulsive in their external forms, unique and highly artistic were the faces, each of which conveyed a unique spiritual world, not only personal

the doom of a particular person, but also the doom of the existence of Etruria itself.

The last centuries came not only of the ancient world - the predictions of the Etruscan prophets about the decline of the Etruscans were visibly confirmed. But on their lands, Roman veterans struggled, peoples mingled, the Etruscans were Latinized and forgot their language. Over time, the Etruscans resigned themselves to their fate, ceased to perceive the Romans as conquerors, and became just fellow citizens of the same country for each other. An example of this is the portrait of the orator Aulus Metellus, which was made in bronze by an unknown master after 89 BC. Aulus Metellus crosses the border of eras and peoples. He testifies that now there are no defeated and victors, from now on the Apennines are inhabited by a single Roman people.

Conclusion

Etruscan culture, one of the most mysterious peoples in the world, became the basis for the development of a new nation - the Romans. Etruscans

died, they dissolved among the aliens, but taught the Romans to build and defend themselves, forge weapons and erect aqueducts (a multi-tiered or single-tiered bridge with a tray or pipeline through which water is transmitted through ravines, gorges, roads, river valleys).

The fine arts of the Etruscans revealed to us the rich soul of this amazing people, who were attentive to reality, striving for its accurate, concrete transmission. Therefore, the famous portrait art of the Romans has roots of Etruscan origin, it originates from the small heads of burial canopics and plastic portraits, the lids of sarcophagi.

The customs, rituals and beliefs of the Etruscans were also adopted by the Romans and later reworked, according to the new time and new conditions of existence. Therefore, it cannot be said that the Etruscans disappeared from the face of the earth, they live in place names, and in the monuments left behind, and in the history of the Great Roman Empire.

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ETHRUSIAN CIVILIZATION
The Etruscans are considered the creators of the first developed civilization on the Apennine Peninsula, the achievements of which, long before the Roman Republic, include large cities with remarkable architecture, fine metal products, ceramics, paintings and sculptures, extensive drainage and irrigation systems, the alphabet, and later also minting coins. Perhaps the Etruscans were aliens from across the sea; their first settlements in Italy were prosperous communities located in the central part of its western coast, in an area called Etruria (approximately the territory of modern Tuscany and Lazio). The ancient Greeks knew the Etruscans under the name Tyrrhenians (or Thirsen), and the part of the Mediterranean Sea between the Apennine Peninsula and the islands of Sicily, Sardinia and Corsica was called (and is now called) the Tyrrhenian Sea, since Etruscan seafarers dominated here for several centuries. The Romans called the Etruscans Tuscan (hence the present-day Tuscany) or Etruscans, while the Etruscans themselves called themselves Rasna or Rasenna. In the era of their greatest power, approx. 7-5 centuries. BC, the Etruscans spread their influence over a large part of the Apennine Peninsula, right up to the foothills of the Alps in the north and the vicinity of Naples in the south. Rome also submitted to them. Everywhere their primacy brought with it material prosperity, large-scale engineering projects and achievements in the field of architecture. According to tradition, Etruria had a confederation of twelve major city-states, united in a religious and political union. These almost certainly included Ceres (modern Cerveteri), Tarquinia (modern Tarquinia), Vetulonia, Veii and Volterra (modern Volterra) - all directly on or near the coast, as well as Perusia (modern Perugia), Cortona, Volsinia (modern. Orvieto) and Arretius (modern. Arezzo) in the interior of the country. Other important cities include Vulci, Clusius (modern Chiusi), Faleria, Populonia, Rousella and Fiesole.
ORIGIN, HISTORY AND CULTURE
Origin. The earliest mention of the Etruscans we find in the Homeric hymns (Hymn to Dionysus, 8), which tells how this god was once captured by Tyrrhenian pirates. Hesiod in Theogony (1016) mentions "the glory of the crowned Tyrrhenians", and Pindar (1st Pythian Ode, 72) speaks of the warlike cry of the Tyrrhenians. Who were these famous pirates, obviously well known to the ancient world? Since the time of Herodotus (5th century BC), the problem of their origin has occupied the minds of historians, archaeologists and amateurs. The first theory defending the Lydian or Eastern origin of the Etruscans dates back to Herodotus (I 94). He writes that during the reign of Atis, a severe famine broke out in Lydia, and half of the population was forced to leave the country in search of food and a new place of residence. They went to Smyrna, built ships there, and, passing many of the port cities of the Mediterranean, finally settled among the Ombriks in Italy. There the Lydians changed their name, calling themselves Tyrrhenians in honor of their leader Tyrrenus, the son of the king. The second theory is also rooted in antiquity. Dionysius of Halicarnassus, the rhetorician of the Augustus era, disputes Herodotus, arguing (Roman Antiquities, I 30) that the Etruscans were not immigrants, but a local and most ancient people, differing from all their neighbors on the Apennine Peninsula both in language and customs. The third theory, formulated by N. Frere in the 18th century, but still has supporters, defends the northern origin of the Etruscans. According to her, the Etruscans, along with other Italic tribes, penetrated into Italy through the Alpine passes. Archaeological evidence seems to support the first version of the origin of the Etruscans. However, the story of Herodotus must be approached with caution. Of course, the Lydian pirate aliens did not populate the Tyrrhenian coast at one time, but rather moved here in several waves. From about the middle of the 8th century. BC. Villanova's culture (whose bearers were here earlier) has undergone changes under a clear Eastern influence. However, the local element was strong enough to have a significant impact on the process of forming a new people. This allows us to reconcile the messages of Herodotus and Dionysius.
History. Appearing in Italy, the newcomers took over the lands north of the Tiber River along the western coast of the peninsula and established stone-walled settlements, each of which became an independent city-state. The Etruscans themselves were not so many, but the superiority in weapons and military organization allowed them to conquer the local population. Abandoning piracy, they established a lucrative trade with the Phoenicians, Greeks and Egyptians and were active in the production of ceramics, terracotta and metal products. Under their control, due to the efficient use of labor and the development of drainage systems, agriculture here significantly improved. From the beginning of the 7th century. BC. The Etruscans began to expand their political influence in a southern direction: the Etruscan kings ruled Rome, and their sphere of influence extended to the Greek colonies of Campania. The concerted actions of the Etruscans and Carthaginians at this time in practice significantly impeded Greek colonization in the western Mediterranean. However, after 500 BC. their influence began to wane; OK. 474 BC the Greeks inflicted a major defeat on them, and a little later they began to feel the pressure of the Gauls on their northern borders. At the very beginning of the 4th century. BC. wars with the Romans and a powerful Gallic invasion of the peninsula forever undermined the power of the Etruscans. Gradually they were absorbed by the growing Roman state and dissolved in it.
Political and social institutions. The political and religious center of the traditional confederation of twelve Etruscan cities, each of which was ruled by lucumo, was their common sanctuary, Fanum Voltumnae, near present-day Bolsena. Apparently, the lukumon of each city was elected by the local aristocracy, but it is not known who held the power in the federation. The royal powers and prerogatives were challenged from time to time by the nobility. For example, by the end of the 6th century. BC. the Etruscan monarchy in Rome was overthrown and replaced by a republic. State structures did not undergo radical changes, except that the institution of annually elected magistrates was created. Even the title of king (lucumo) was retained, although it was deprived of its former political content and inherited by a minor official who performed priestly duties (rex sacrificulus). The main weakness of the Etruscan alliance was, as in the case of the Greek city-states, in the lack of cohesion and the inability to resist a united front, both Roman expansion in the south and the Gallic invasion in the north. During the period of political domination of the Etruscans in Italy, their aristocracy owned many slaves who were used as servants and in agricultural work. The economic core of the state was the middle class of artisans and merchants. Family ties were strong, and each clan was proud of its traditions and jealously guarded them. The Roman custom, according to which all members of the clan received a common (generic) name, most likely dates back to Etruscan society. Even during the decline of the state, the offspring of the Etruscan families were proud of their ancestry. The philanthropist, friend and advisor of Augustus, could boast of descent from the Etruscan kings: his royal ancestors were the lukomons of the city of Arretia. In Etruscan society, women led a completely independent life. Sometimes even the pedigree was conducted along the female line. In contrast to Greek practice and in accordance with later Roman customs, Etruscan matrons and young girls from the aristocracy were often seen at public gatherings and public shows. The emancipated position of Etruscan women gave rise to the Greek moralists of subsequent centuries to condemn the customs of the Tyrrhenians.
Religion. Livy (V 1) describes the Etruscans as "the people most committed to their religious rites"; Arnobius, Christian apologist of the 4th century AD, denounces Etruria as "the mother of superstition" (Against the Gentiles, VII 26). The fact that the Etruscans were religious and superstitious is confirmed by literary evidence and monuments. The names of numerous gods, demigods, demons and heroes have survived, which are mostly analogous to the Greek and Roman deities. So, the Roman triad of Jupiter, Juno and Minerva among the Etruscans corresponded to Tin, Uni and Menrva. Evidence has also been preserved (for example, in the paintings of Orko's tomb), indicating the nature of ideas about the bliss and horror of the afterlife. In the so-called. Etruscan doctrine (Etrusca disciplina), several books compiled in the 2nd century. BC, about the content of which we can judge only on the basis of fragmentary indications of later writers, information and instructions were collected concerning Etruscan religious beliefs, customs and rituals. There were: 1) libri haruspicini, books on predictions; 2) libri fulgurales, books on lightning; 3) libri rituales, ritual books. Libri haruspicini was taught the art of ascertaining the will of the gods by examining the insides (primarily the liver) of certain animals. A diviner who specialized in this type of divination was called a haruspex. Libri fulgurales concerned the interpretation of lightning, their redemption and propitiation. The priest responsible for this procedure was called the fulgurator. The libri rituales discussed the norms of political and social life and the conditions of human existence, including in the afterlife. A whole hierarchy of experts was in charge of these books. The ceremonies and superstitions described in the Etruscan teachings continued to influence Roman society after the turn of our era. The last mention of the use of Etruscan rituals in practice we meet in 408 AD, when the priests who came to Rome proposed to ward off danger from the city from the Goths led by Alaric.
Economy. When the Roman consul Scipio Africanus was preparing to invade Africa, i.e. for the campaign, which was to end the 2nd Punic War, many Etruscan communities offered their help. From the message of Libya (XXVIII 45) we learn that the city of Ceres promised to provide the troops with grain and other food; Populonia pledged to supply iron, Tarquinia - sailcloth, Volaterra - ship equipment parts. Arretius promised to provide 3,000 shields, 3,000 helmets and 50,000 javelins, short pikes and javelins, as well as axes, shovels, sickles, baskets and 120,000 measures of wheat. Perusia, Clusius and Rousell promised to provide grain and ship timber. If such obligations were taken in 205 BC, when Etruria had already lost its independence, then during the years of Etruscan hegemony in Italy, its agriculture, craft and trade should have really flourished. In addition to the production of grain, olives, wine and timber, the rural population was engaged in cattle breeding, sheep breeding, hunting and fishing. The Etruscans also made household utensils and personal items. The development of production was facilitated by the abundant supply of iron and copper from the island of Elba. One of the main centers of metallurgy was Populonia. Etruscan products made their way to Greece and Northern Europe.
ART AND ARCHEOLOGY
Excavation history. The Etruscans were assimilated by the Romans during the last 3 centuries BC, however, due to the high value of their art, Etruscan temples, city walls and tombs survived this period. Traces of the Etruscan civilization were partially buried underground along with Roman ruins and in the Middle Ages mostly did not attract attention (however, a certain influence of Etruscan painting is found in Giotto); however, during the Renaissance, they became interested again and some of them were excavated. Among those who visited the Etruscan tombs were Michelangelo and Giorgio Vasari. Among the famous statues discovered in the 16th century are the famous Chimera (1553), Minerva of Arezzo (1554), etc. Orator (Arringatore) - a portrait statue of some official, found near Lake Trasimene in 1566. In the 17th century. the number of excavated objects increased, and in the 18th century. the extensive study of Etruscan antiquities generated tremendous enthusiasm (etruscheria, ie "Etruscania") among Italian scholars who believed that Etruscan culture was superior to ancient Greek. In the course of more or less systematic excavations, researchers of the 19th century. discovered thousands of the richest Etruscan tombs filled with Etruscan metal products and Greek vases - in Perugia, Tarquinia, Vulci, Cerveteri (1836, tomb of Regolini-Galassi), Veii, Chiusi, Bologna, Vetulonia and in many other places. In the 20th century. especially notable were the discoveries of temple sculptures at Veii (1916 and 1938) and the rich burial at Comacchio (1922) on the Adriatic coast. Significant progress has been made in understanding Etruscan antiquities, especially through the efforts of the Institute for Etruscan and Italian Studies in Florence and its scientific periodical Studi Etruschi, published since 1927.
Geographic distribution of monuments. The archaeological map of the monuments left by the Etruscans reflects their history. The oldest settlements, dating from about 700 BC, are found in the coastal area between Rome and the island of Elba: Veii, Cerveteri, Tarquinia, Vulchi, Statonia, Vetulonia and Populonia. From the end of the 7th and throughout the 6th century. BC. Etruscan culture spread to the mainland from Pisa to
north and along the Apennines. In addition to Umbria, the Etruscan possessions included cities that are now called Fiesole, Arezzo, Cortona, Chiusi and Perugia. Their culture spread southward to the modern cities of Orvieto, Falerius and Rome, and finally beyond Naples and Campania. Objects of Etruscan culture have been found at Velletri, Preneste, Conca, Capua and Pompeii. Bologna, Marzabotto and Spina became the centers of Etruscan colonization of the regions beyond the Apennine mountain range. Later, in 393 BC, the Gauls invaded these lands. Through trade, Etruscan influence spread to other areas of Italy. With the weakening of the power of the Etruscans under the blows of the Gauls and Romans, the zone of distribution of their material culture also decreased. However, in some cities of Tuscany cultural traditions and the language survived until the 1st century. BC. In Clusia, Etruscan art was produced until about 100 BC; in Volaterrah - up to about 80 BC, and in Perusia - up to about 40 BC. Some Etruscan inscriptions date from the time after the disappearance of the Etruscan states and possibly date back to the era of Augustus.
Tombs. The oldest traces of the Etruscans can be traced to their burials, often located on separate hills and, for example, in Caere and Tarquinia, which were real cities of the dead. The simplest type of tombs, which have spread since about 700 BC, are recesses carved into the rock. For kings and their relatives, such graves were apparently made more extensive. Such are the tombs of Bernardini and Barberini in Preneste (c. 650 BC) with numerous decorations made of gold and silver, bronze tripods and cauldrons, as well as glass and ivory objects brought from Phenicia. Starting from the 7th century. BC. characteristic was the method of connecting several chambers with each other so that whole underground dwellings of different sizes were obtained. They had doors, sometimes windows and often stone benches on which the dead were laid. In some cities (Caere, Tarquinia, Vetulonia, Populonia and Clusium), such tombs were covered with embankments up to 45 m in diameter, erected over natural hills. In other places (for example, in San Giuliano and Norcia) crypts were carved in sheer cliffs, giving them the appearance of houses and temples with flat or sloping roofs.

The architectural form of the tombs made of cut stone is interesting. For the ruler of the city of Cere, a long corridor was built, above which huge stone blocks formed a false lancet vault. The design and technique of the construction of this tomb resembles the tombs in Ugarit (Syria) belonging to the era of the Cretan-Mycenaean culture, etc. tomb of Tantalus in Asia Minor. Some Etruscan tombs have a false dome over a rectangular chamber (Pietrera in Vetulonia and Poggio delle Granate in Populonia) or over a circular room (a tomb from Casale Marittimo, reconstructed in the Archaeological Museum of Florence). Both types of tombs date back to the architectural tradition of the 2nd millennium BC. and resemble the tombs of the previous time in Cyprus and Crete. The so-called "Pythagorean grotto" in Cortona, which is actually an Etruscan tomb of the 5th century. BC, testifies to the understanding of the laws of interaction of multidirectional forces, necessary for the construction of genuine arches and vaults. Such constructions appear in later tombs (3rd - 1st centuries BC) - for example, in the so-called. the tomb of the Grand Duke at Chiusi and the tomb of San Manno near Perugia. The territory of the Etruscan cemeteries is crossed by regularly oriented passages, on which the deep ruts left by the funeral carts have been preserved. Paintings and reliefs reproduce public mourning and solemn processions that accompanied the deceased to his eternal abode, where he will be among the furnishings, personal belongings, bowls and jugs left for him to eat and drink. The platforms erected over the tomb were intended for funeral feasts, which included dancing and games, and for a kind of gladiatorial fights presented in the paintings of the tomb of the Augurs in Tarquinia. It is the contents of the tombs that give us most of the information about the life and art of the Etruscans.

Cities. The Etruscans can be considered the people who brought urban civilization to central and northern Italy, but little is known about their cities. Intensive human activity that continued over the centuries in these areas destroyed or hid many Etruscan monuments. Nevertheless, many mountain towns in Tuscany are still surrounded by walls built by the Etruscans (Orvieto, Cortona, Chiusi, Fiesole, Perugia and probably Cerveteri). In addition, impressive city walls can be seen in Veii, Faleria, Saturnia and Tarquinia, and later city gates, dating from the 3rd and 2nd centuries. BC, - in Faleria and Perugia. Aerial photography is increasingly being used to locate Etruscan settlements and burial grounds. In the mid-1990s, systematic excavations began for a number of Etruscan cities, including Cerveteri and Tarquinia, as well as a number of cities in Tuscany. The Etruscan cities in the mountains do not have a regular layout, as evidenced by the sections of two streets in Vetulonia. The dominant element in the appearance of the city was the temple or temples built on the most elevated places, like in Orvieto and Tarquinia. As a rule, the city had three gates dedicated to the intercessor gods: one to Tin (Jupiter), others to Uni (Juno), and the third to Menrve (Minerve). Extremely regular development of rectangular blocks was found only in Marzabotto (near modern Bologna), an Etruscan colony on the Reno River. Its streets were paved and water was drained through terracotta pipes.
Dwellings. In Veijah and Vetulonia, simple two-room log cabin dwellings have been found, as well as irregularly-planned houses with several rooms. The noble lucumons who ruled the Etruscan cities probably had more extensive urban and suburban residences. They are apparently reproduced by stone urns in the form of houses and later Etruscan tombs. The urn, housed in the Museum of Florence, depicts a palace-like two-story stone structure with an arched entrance, wide windows on the first floor and galleries on the second floor. The Roman type of atrium house possibly dates back to Etruscan prototypes.
Temples. The Etruscans built their temples of wood and mud bricks with terracotta cladding. The temple of the simplest type, very similar to the early Greek one, had a square room for a cult statue and a portico resting on two columns. The complex temple, described by the Roman architect Vitruvius (On Architecture IV 8, 1), was divided inside into three rooms (cellas) for the three main gods - Tina, Uni and Menrva. The portico was the same depth as the interior and had two rows of columns, four in each row. Since an important role in the Etruscan religion was assigned to the observation of the sky, temples were erected on high platforms. The temples with three cells resemble pre-Greek sanctuaries in Lemnos and Crete. As we now know, on the ridge of the roof they had large terracotta statues (as, for example, in Veii). In other words, Etruscan temples are a kind of Greek. The Etruscans also created a developed road network, bridges, sewerage systems and irrigation canals.
Sculpture. Early in their history, the Etruscans imported Syrian, Phoenician and Assyrian ivory and metal products and imitated them in their own production. However, very soon they began to imitate everything Greek. Although their art reflects mainly Greek styles, they have a healthy energy and earthy spirit, not found in the Greek prototype, which is more restrained and intellectual in nature. The best Etruscan sculptures, perhaps, should be considered those made of metal, mainly bronze. Most of these statues were captured by the Romans: according to Pliny the Elder (Natural History XXXIV 34), in Volsinia alone, taken in 256 BC, they got 2000 pieces. Few have survived to this day. Some of the most remarkable are a female bust of Wulchi forged from metal sheet (c. 600 BC, British Museum); a chariot from Monteleone richly decorated with relief mythological scenes (c. 540 BC, Metropolitan Museum); Chimera of Arezzo (c. 500 BC, Archaeological Museum in Florence); a statue of a boy from the same time (in Copenhagen); god of war (c. 450 BC, in Kansas City); a statue of a warrior from Tuder (c. 350 BC, now in the Vatican); the expressive head of a priest (c. 180 BC, British Museum); boy's head (c. 280 BC, Archaeological Museum in Florence). The symbol of Rome, the famous Capitoline she-wolf (approximately dated after 500 BC, now in the Palazzo dei Conservatory in Rome), already known in the Middle Ages, was probably also made by the Etruscans.

Terracotta statues and reliefs of the Etruscans are a remarkable achievement of world art. The best of them are statues of the archaic era found near the temple of Apollo in Veii, among which there are images of gods and goddesses watching the struggle between Apollo and Hercules over the killed doe (c. 500 BC). A relief image of a lively battle (probably from the pediment) was discovered in 1957-1958 in Pirgi, the port of Cerveteri. In style, it echoes the Greek compositions of the early classical era (480-470 BC). A magnificent team of winged horses was found near the temple of the 4th century. BC. in Tarquinia. Interesting from a historical point of view are the living scenes from the pediments of the temple in Civita Alba, where the sack of Delphi by the Gauls is captured.

Etruscan stone sculpture displays more local identity than metal sculpture. The first experiments in creating sculptures in stone represent the pillar-like figures of men and women from the tomb of Pietrera in Vetulonia. They imitate greek statues mid 7th century BC. The archaic tombs at Vulci and Chiusi are decorated with a centaur figure and a variety of stone busts. Images of battles, festivities, games, funerals and scenes of women's life have been found on gravestones from the 6th century. BC. from Chiusi and Fiesole. There are also scenes from Greek mythology, such as relief images on stone slabs installed above the entrance to the tombs in Tarquinia. From the 4th century BC sarcophagi and urns with ashes were usually decorated with reliefs on the themes of Greek legends and scenes of the afterlife. On the lids of many of them there are figures of reclining men and women, whose faces are especially expressive.
Painting. Etruscan painting is especially valuable, since it makes it possible to judge about Greek paintings and frescoes that have not come down to us. With the exception of a few fragments of the picturesque decoration of the temples (Cerveteri and Faleria), Etruscan frescoes have survived only in tombs - in Cerveteri, Veii, Orvieto and Tarquinia. In the oldest (c. 600 BC) tomb of the Lions in Cerveteri there is an image of a deity between two lions; in the tomb of Campana in Veii, the deceased is represented as riding on horseback to hunt. From the middle of the 6th century. BC. dominated by scenes of dancing, libations, and athletic and gladiatorial competitions (Tarquinia), although there are images of hunting and fishing (tomb of hunting and fishing in Tarquinia). The best examples of Etruscan painting are the dance scenes from the tomb of Francesca Giustiniani and the tomb of Triclinius. The drawing here is very confident, the color scheme is not rich (yellow, red, brown, green and blue colors) and discreet, but harmonious. The frescoes of these two tombs imitate the works of the Greek masters of the 5th century. BC. Among the few painted tombs of the late period, the large tomb of François at Vulci (4th century BC) is rightfully distinguished. One of the scenes found here - the attack of the Roman Gnaeus Tarquinius on the Etruscan Celius Vibenna, assisted by his brother Aelius and another Etruscan Mastarna - is probably an Etruscan interpretation of a Roman legend on the same topic; other scenes are from Homer. The Etruscan afterlife, with an admixture of individual Greek elements, is represented in the tomb of the Orc, the tomb of Typhon and the tomb of the Cardinal in Tarquinia, which depicts various frightening demons (Haru, Tuhulka). These Etruscan demons were apparently known to the Roman poet Virgil.

Ceramics. Etruscan pottery is technologically good, but mostly imitative. Black vases of the bukchero type imitate bronze vessels with more or less success (7th-5th centuries BC); they are often decorated with figures in relief, usually reproducing Greek patterns. The evolution of painted ceramics, with some lagging behind in time, follows the development of Greek vases. The most peculiar are vases depicting objects of non-Greek origin, for example, ships of the Tyrrhenian pirates or following the manner folk art... In other words, the value of Etruscan pottery lies in the fact that we can trace the growth of Greek influence, especially in the sphere of mythology, through it. The Etruscans themselves preferred Greek vases, which were found by the thousands in Etruscan tombs (approx. 80% of the currently known Greek vases come from Etruria and southern Italy. BC), was found in an Etruscan tomb near Chiusi.
Metalworking. According to Greek authors, Etruscan bronze items were highly prized in Greece. Probably, an ancient bowl with human faces found in the necropolis of Athens, approximately dated to the beginning of the 7th century, is of Etruscan origin. BC. Part of an Etruscan tripod found on the Acropolis of Athens. At the end of the 7th, 6th and 5th centuries. BC. a large number of Etruscan cauldrons, buckets and wine jugs were exported to Central Europe, some of which even reached Scandinavia. Bronze Etruscan figurine found in England. In Tuscany, reliable, large and very effective stands, tripods, cauldrons, lamps and even thrones were made of bronze. These objects also formed part of the furnishings of the tombs, and many were decorated with relief or three-dimensional representations of people and animals. Bronze chariots with scenes of heroic battles or figures of legendary heroes were also made here. The engraved pattern was widely used to decorate bronze toilet boxes and bronze mirrors, many of which were made in the Latin city of Preneste. Used as motives as scenes from greek mythsand the main and minor Etruscan gods. The most famous of the engraved vessels is the Ficoroni cyst in the Roman Villa Giulia Museum, which depicts the exploits of the Argonauts.
Jewelry. The Etruscans also excelled in jewelry. A wonderful set of bracelets, plates, necklaces and fibulae adorned the woman buried in the tomb of Regolini-Galassi in Caere: apparently, she was literally covered with gold. The grain technique, when figures of gods and animals were depicted with tiny balls of gold soldered onto a hot surface, was nowhere used as skillfully as when decorating the arches of some Etruscan brooches. Later, the Etruscans made earrings of various shapes with amazing ingenuity and care.

Coins. The Etruscans mastered minting coins in the 5th century. BC. For this, gold, silver and bronze were used. Coins decorated according to Greek patterns depicted sea horses, gorgons, wheels, vases, double axes and profiles of various patron gods of cities. They also made inscriptions with the names of Etruscan cities: Welzna (Volsinia), Vetluna (Vetulonia), Hamars (Chiusi), Pupluna (Populonia). The last Etruscan coins were minted in the 2nd century. BC.
Contribution of archeology. Archaeological discoveries made in Etruria from the middle of the 16th century. to the present day, have recreated a vivid picture of the Etruscan civilization. This picture has been greatly enriched by the use of such new methods as photographing still unexcavated tombs (a method invented by C. Lerici) using a special periscope. Archaeological finds reflect not only the power and wealth of the early Etruscans based on piracy and exchange trade, but also their gradual decline, due, according to ancient authors, to the relaxing influence of luxury. These findings illustrate the Etruscan warfare, their beliefs, entertainment and, to a lesser extent, their work activities. Vases, reliefs, sculpture, paintings and small-scale artwork demonstrate a surprisingly complete assimilation of Greek customs and beliefs, as well as striking evidence of the influence of the pre-Greek era. Archeology also confirmed the literary tradition, which spoke of the Etruscan influence on Rome. The terracotta decoration of early Roman temples is in the Etruscan style; many of the vases and bronze objects of the early Republican period of Roman history are made by the Etruscans or in their manner. The double ax as a symbol of power, according to the Romans, was of Etruscan origin; double axes are also represented in Etruscan funerary sculpture - for example, on the stele of Aulus Velusca, located in Florence. Moreover, such double hatchets were placed in the tombs of the leaders, as was the case in Populonia. At least up to 4 c. BC. the material culture of Rome was entirely dependent on the culture of the Etruscans.
LITERATURE
A.I. Nemirovsky, A.I. Kharsekin Etruscans. Introduction to Etruscology. Voronezh, 1969 Chubov A.P. Etruscan art. M., 1972 Art of the Etruscans and Ancient Rome. M., 1982

Collier's Encyclopedia. - Open Society. 2000 .

Today etruscan question still haven't found the proper resolution in science. The origin of the Etruscans is unknown, their language has not been deciphered. But we know that it was a highly developed civilization that formed in the territory north of Latium - in the region of Etruria. “The nature of Etruria during the entire Stone Age was beyond the power of man. Even in the Neolithic era, when in the Po valley in the north and in Apulia in the south of the Apennine peninsula powerful agricultural crops arose, there is still almost no population in the future Etruria ”1. Only in the age of metals in Etruria appeared at once several ethnic groups, to which, approximately in the XII century. BC. added a third, foreign. As in the case of the Sumerians, the Etruscan culture was not initially united, but was formed as a result of a difficult, but ultimately fruitful, interaction of several ethnic groups.

Periodization Etruscan culture today is not well-established, but the following stages in the development of this culture are usually distinguished:

X-IX centuries BC. - Villanova culture

IX - VII centuries BC - the most ancient period (the formation of the Etruscan culture proper),

600-475 BC - the period of the highest flowering of Etruscan culture and art,

475-400 BC - the beginning of the crisis, the decline in cultural activity,

400-225 BC - Etruscan cities were conquered by the Romans, Hellenistic features become noticeable in art, and finally,

225-30 BC - the second period of flourishing of this culture.

Villanova culture (named after the place of the first finds) is clearly manifested approx. 900 BC Judging by the archaeological data, this is the first culture within which a synthesis of different ethnic traditions is planned, respectively, it is within its framework that the contours of the future Etruscan civilization begin to be developed.

During this period, all those zones that in the future will become the capitals of the Etruscan states were developed. But the culture itself is not yet connected with each other villages, each of which has its own necropolis. The dominant funeral rite of this time was the cremation using urns of a characteristic biconical shape, reflecting the symmetry of the underground and terrestrial worlds (later the biconical urns would develop into canopic ones). Tops of several types were used as lids, the most expressive of which is the helmet-shaped top.

The most ancient period. During the IX-VIII centuries BC. in Etruria, a kind of cultural revolution is taking place. There is a sharp concentration and strengthening of power. From now on, the leader stands out sharply against the background of other members of the community, he is buried according to a new rite - corpse placement (although the old rite of corpse burning is preserved with the storage of the ashes of the deceased in canopics or more complex figured ash storage in the form of a seated man or woman).

A transition from settlements to proto-cities is also planned. The planning of these early cities already takes into account the orientation to the cardinal points, its center is the palace complex - the region. Broad transit trade with the countries of Western Asia (especially Phenicia), as well as with Greece, is developing everywhere. The largest cities of this period are precisely those that are on the trade route - Tarquinia, Cere, Veii, Vulchi.

New types of vases and new ornaments appeared.

lukumons 2.

The heyday. During the VII-VI centuries .. the warlike Etruscans already own Northern, Central and Southern Italy, eventually spreading their influence over the entire Western Mediterranean.

In the period of its highest prosperity (600-475 BC) Etruria was a federation of twelve independent cities, which was a religious association. The federation included more cities, but in Etruscan priestly symbolism, the number 12 was sacred.

Etruscan ceramics and bronzes reach a high degree of perfection. Even the Greeks are eager to buy them, and the entire Western Mediterranean is simply filled with products of Etruscan artisans. A special place is occupied by jewelry, especially made using the grain technique.

Ancient Rome was in a semi-friendly - semi-military relationship with this federation, perhaps Rome experienced a certain dependence on the Etruscans. There is a point of view that Romulus 3 and Numa were not Italians, but Etruscans, moreover, the approval of the royal form of government is very likely also associated with the influence of the Etruscan civilization. One way or another, the flourishing of royal power in Rome is really associated with the Etruscan dynasty (VI century BC), which led to a sharp expansion of the influence of the Etruscan civilization on ancient Rome. It was to this period that the formation of the Roman polis and the intensive development of the architecture of Rome belong.

The culture of the Etruscans in the period under review was already at a very high level and, on the one hand, continued to be influenced by those cultures with which there was trade (primarily Greek and Middle Eastern), and on the other, it was noticeably ahead of its contemporary Italian (Roman) culture.

The Etruscans, earlier than other peoples, arose cities with a regular layout, the streets were oriented to the cardinal points, and the city was divided into rectangular blocks of about 150 x 50 m (the cities of Marzabotto, Spina). However, in other cities, an archaic layout was still preserved, often terraced, following the features of the relief (the regular layout of Marzabotto was also preceded by a freer one and did not resemble a hippodamus). Koza, as a typical Etruscan city according to Vitruvius' description, had three gates and three sacred sites.

The ritual of founding the city was archaic and close to both the Greek and Roman: the border was surrounded by a plowed furrow 4. (in a rethought version, this tradition has survived to this day in interstate borders).

We know much better the underground architecture of the Etruscans, i.e. burial complexes. The main materials in the architecture of the Etruscans are stone of various breeds, cast without mortar (fortifications, foundations of temples and residential buildings), as well as wood, raw brick (walls).

Etruscans, the ancient inhabitants of Central Italy, which was once called Etruria (modern Tuscany), is one of the most mysterious peoples I have ever known.

They had a written language, but modern scientists were able to decipher only a small part of the records that have come down to us. The richness of the Etruscans has been lost, apart from individual passages, and everything that we know about their history has come down to us only through the unflattering comments of Greek and Roman authors.

Ancient Etruscans

Etruria, an area that roughly coincided with the territory of the modern Italian province of Tuscany, was rich in iron and copper ores.

Chimera from Arezzo. Bronze statue of the 5th century BC e.

Its coastline abounded with natural harbors. So the Etruscans were good sailors and mastered the art of processing very well.

The basis of their wealth was the maritime trade in ingots, bronze and other goods along the entire coast of Italy and the South.

Around 800 BC BC, when Rome was still a cluster of wretched huts clung to the top of the hill, they already lived in cities.

But Etruscan merchants faced fierce competition from the Greeks and Phoenicians.

Around 600 BC. e. the Greeks founded the trading colony of Massilia (modern) in the south of France. With this stronghold, they were able to take control of an important trade route that led along the Rhone to Central Europe.

The source of the Etruscan wealth was mining; in particular, they owned the largest copper and iron deposits in the Mediterranean. Etruscan artisans made wonderful works of art out of metal, such as this bronze statue of the Chimera, a monster with a lion's head and a snake instead of a tail.

To protect their interests, the Etruscans made an alliance with Carthage. The Etruscans possessed all the advanced technologies of their time; they built roads, bridges and canals.

They borrowed the alphabet, painted pottery and temple architecture from the Greeks.

In the VI century. BC e. the possessions of the Etruscans expanded north and south of their ancestral region of Etruria. According to Roman authors, at that time 12 large Etruscan cities formed a political union - the Etruscan League.

Founding of the Roman Republic

For a while, Etruscan kings ruled Rome. The last king was overthrown by a group of Roman aristocrats in 510 BC. e. - this date is considered the moment of the emergence of the Roman Republic (the city of Rome itself was founded in 753 BC).

From this time on, the Romans began to gradually take power from the Etruscans. At the beginning of the III century. BC e. the Etruscans disappeared from the historical scene; they were swallowed up by the steadily expanding sphere of political influence of Rome.

The Romans adopted many ideas from the Etruscans in the field of culture and art, construction, metalworking and military affairs.

Etruria was glorified by skilled artists and artisans, especially since in military terms the Etruscans could not compete with the Romans.

Etruscan cities of the dead

The Etruscans buried the dead in spacious necropolises that resembled cities in their appearance. In the south of Etruria, they carved tombs out of soft tuff rocks and decorated them inside as dwellings.

Often sculptures were placed in tombs depicting the deceased husband and his wife, sitting sprawled out on a bench, as if during a feast.

The ancestral home of the Etruscans occupied part of modern Tuscany. They grew rich thanks to the sea trade in metal ores and with the help of wealth expanded their influence in the northern part of Italy.

Other tombs were decorated with frescoes that also depicted feasts, the participants of which were entertained by musicians and dancers.

Etruscan art

A significant part of the tombs were looted by thieves, but archaeologists managed to find many intact tombs.

As a rule, they contained many Greek vases, as well as chariots, items made of gold, ivory and amber, testifying to the wealth of Etruscan aristocrats buried there.

Key dates

The Etruscans, as one of the most highly developed civilizations of antiquity, play an important role in history. Below are the main dates of the Etruscan civilization.

Years before our era	Event
900	In northern Italy, the Villanova culture emerged, whose representatives used iron.
800	Etruscan ships sail along the western coast of Italy.
700	Etruscans begin to use the alphabet.
616	The Etruscan Lucius Tarquinius Priscus becomes the king of Rome.
600	Twelve Etruscan cities are united in the Etruscan League.
550	The Etruscans seize the river valley. On the north of Etruria and build cities there.
539	The combined Etruscan-Carthaginian army in a naval battle defeats the Greek fleet and expels the Greeks from Corsica, which is captured by the Etruscans. Greek colonization of the Western Mediterranean is suspended.
525	The Etruscans unsuccessfully attack the Greek city of Kuma (southern Italy).
525	The Etruscans found settlements in Campania (southern Italy).
510	The Romans expel Tarquinius II the Proud, the last Etruscan king of Rome.
504	The Etruscans are defeated at the Battle of Aricia (southern Italy).
423	The Samnites seize the city of Capua in Campania from the Etruscans.
405-396	The Romans capture the city of Veii after a 10-year war.
400	Gauls (a Celtic tribe) cross, invade northern Italy and settle in the valley of the river. By. The power of the Etruscans over the region is weakening.
296-295	After a series of defeats, the Etruscan cities make peace with Rome.
285-280	The Romans suppress a series of uprisings in the Etruscan cities.

Now you know who the Etruscans are and how they are ancient civilization historians are so interested.