History of Romania

Ancient Romania was inhabited by Thracian tribes. In the 1st century BC. Greece founded the state of Dacia to defend itself against Rome. Dacia passed to Rome in 106 AD, becoming a province of the Roman Empire. As a result of attacks from the Goths in 271, Emperor Aurelius recalled the Roman legionnaires back to the south of the Danube, but the Wallachian peasants remained in Dacia, forming the Romanian people. By the 10th century, small Romanian lands had formed, and their unification led to the creation of the principalities of Moldavia, Wallachia, and Transylvania. From the 10th century, the Magyars came to Transylvania, and by the 12th century it became an autonomous principality under the rule of the Hungarian authorities. In the 14th century, Hungarian troops unsuccessfully tried to capture Wallachia and Moldavia.

During the XIV-XV centuries, Wallachia and Moldavia resisted the expansion of the Ottoman Empire. During the struggle, Prince Vlad Tepes of Wallachia (known as the "Impaler" because he rarely ate without a writhing, impaled Turk) became a hero, later associated with Dracula. In the XVI century, Transylvania passed to the Ottoman Empire, at the same time, Wallachia and Moldavia submitted to the Turks, but retained their autonomous position. In 1600, all three Romanian provinces were united by Prince Mihai Vitazul of Wallachia after he joined forces with the ruling princes of Moldavia and Transylvania against the Turks. The unification lasted only a year, then Mihai was defeated by the combined Habsburg-Transylvanian troops, after which he was captured and beheaded. Transylvania passed to the Habsburg Empire, while Wallachia and Moldavia remained Turkish suzerainties almost until the end of the 19th century. In 1775, the northern part of Moldavia, Bukovina, was annexed by Austria-Hungary. Further, in 1812, the eastern territory, Bessarabia, passed to Russia. After the Russo-Turkish War (1828-1829), the Ottoman possession of the principalities ended.

After 1848, Transylvania fell under the rule of Austria-Hungary and "Magyarization" began. In 1859, Alexandru Ioan Cuza was crowned on the thrones of Moldavia and Wallachia, who created a new state, which was named Romania in 1862. Charles I succeeded to the throne in 1866 and in 1877 Dobruya became part of Romania. In 1881, Romania became known as a kingdom, and Charles I became its king. He died at the start of the First World War. His nephew Ferdinand I inherited the throne and entered the war in 1916 on the side of the "Triple Agreement" (Entente). His goal was the liberation of Transylvania from Austria-Hungary. In 1918, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania became part of Romania.

Numerous political parties appeared in Romania after the First World War, including the Legion of the Archangel Michael, better known as the fascist "Iron Guard". The party, led by Cornelius Codreanu, dominated the political arena by 1935. Charles II, who inherited the throne after the death of his father Ferdinand I, declared the state a royal dictatorship in 1938 and liquidated all political parties. In 1939, he pacified the Iron Guard, which he had previously supported, by executing Codreana and other legionnaires. In 1940, the USSR occupied Bessarabia, and Romania was forced to transfer northern Transylvania to Hungary on the orders of Germany and Italy. Southern Dobruya was transferred to Bulgaria. Based on all this, numerous rallies broke out, so the king called Generalissimo Ion Antonescu to pacify discontent. Antonescu forced Charles to abdicate, handing over power to Charles's 19-year-old son Michael, and then introduced a fascist dictatorship, proclaiming himself ruler. In 1941 he joined Hitler's anti-Soviet war. With the approach of the Soviet Army to the Romanian border in 1944, Romania went over to the side of Russia.

The Soviet handover of Transylvania to Romania helped the communists, supported by Moscow, win the elections in 1946. A year later, King Michael was forced to abdicate and the Romanian People's Republic was formed. A period of state intimidation began, when pre-war leaders, prominent intellectuals and suspicious dissidents were rounded up and sent to prison camps. In the late 1950s, Romania began to move away from Moscow, seeking an independent foreign policy under the leadership of Gheorghe Georgiou-Dej (1952-1965) and Nicolae Ceausescu (1965-1989). Ceausescu denounced the Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia in 1968, which earned him respect and economic aid from the West.

The rise to power of Mikhail Gorbachev in the late 1980s meant that the US no longer needed Romania and removed its status as "the most beloved nation." Ceausescu decided to export the Romanian food supply in order to pay off the country's huge debt. While Ceausescu and his wife Elena (his first deputy prime minister) lived in luxury, the people struggled to survive as the rationing of bread, eggs, flour, butter, salt, sugar, beef, potatoes was mocking, and by the mid-1980s there was no meat at all. In 1987, riots began in Brasov, which were brutally suppressed. After regime after regime began to crumble in Eastern Europe, on December 15, 1989, the priest Lazlo Tox preached against Ceausescu in a church in the city of Timisoara. That same evening, a group of people gathered at his house to protest the decision of the Reformed Church of Romania to remove Toks from office. The clashes between the protesters, the police and the army continued for 4 days. On December 19, the army joined the protesters. On December 21, Bucharest workers loudly protested against Ceausescu during a mass rally and street clashes between protesters, police and the army. The next day, the Ceausescu family tried to flee Romania, but was arrested, convicted by an anonymous court, and shot on Christmas Day.

Today it is believed that the members of the "Council of National Salvation" who seized power after Ceausescu's death planned his overthrow a few months before December 1989, but premature rallies forced them to act earlier. A provisional government came to power, headed by Ion Iliescu.

Holidays in Romania compared to many EU countries is considered not very expensive. Prices for most services, goods and food are 50% lower than in Western Europe.

In every city, purchases can be made in huge supermarkets, markets, as well as in numerous small private shops, where the owner himself often stands behind the counter.

Among Romanian souvenirs, the most popular among tourists are:

• handmade leather products;
• silver jewelry;
• embroidery;
• clay and porcelain products;
• colorful warm blankets;
• wool sweaters;
• silk blouses and dresses;
• all kinds of "Dracula" souvenirs (from mugs and T-shirts to aspen stakes).

Credit cards are accepted in all major hotels, restaurants, gas stations and supermarkets, but you should always have cash with you.

Transport

Traveling in Romania, you can use road, rail, river and air transport.

The quality of roads in Romania has improved significantly since last years. In mountainous regions, the quality of coverage is slightly worse than on the flat territory of the country, which is primarily due to heavy rainfall in the Carpathians, so certain sections of mountain roads are constantly being repaired. For travel on national roads, you must pay a road tax - rovignette.

Romania has a large rail network, but this mode of transport is not very popular with tourists and the public due to the limited speed of movement (the average train speed is approximately 43 km/h). Most of the trains are outdated, with little comfort.

River transport is represented by ferries carrying passengers and cargo across the Danube. There is also (as a type of ecological tourism) travel by boat or small ship on the Danube.

Those who value time spent on the road should use air transport. There are 17 airports in Romania, including 5 international ones. Air transportation in the country is well developed. From Bucharest you can get to all the largest cities in the country. On the most popular destinations, planes fly 4-5 times a day. This type of transport is very popular with local residents. Aircraft in excellent condition, with polite qualified personnel.

Urban public transport well organized in all large and medium cities of Romania (cost 1–2 lei, or 25–50 euro cents). Recently, double-decker buses have appeared in Bucharest, plying along the tourist route inside the city. The capital also has the only metro in the country. Taxis are metered. If they are not available, then the cost of the trip should be agreed in advance (most taxi drivers have basic knowledge of English).

Connection

Phone calls abroad can be made both from specialized pay phones (they work with cards that can be purchased at kiosks printed matter), from telephone booths at post offices, and from hotel rooms, but it will be 10–20% more expensive.

Mobile communication Romania is supported by 4 GSM operators - Connex Vodafon, Orange, Cosmte and DigiMobil - and one CDMA operator - Zapp. Today, the coverage area includes almost the entire territory of the country, with the exception of remote, hard-to-reach mountainous areas. Orange and Vodafone are leaders in terms of coverage, occupying 98-99% of the area of ​​Romania.

Access to Internet resources is provided in Romania by more than 200 providers. Most hotels and hostels offer free Wi-Fi.

Safety

Recent studies of the criminal situation in different countries world have shown that Romania occupies a leading position in terms of security among European countries. In the northern and northeastern regions, near the Ukrainian and Moldovan borders, the situation is slightly worse than in the rest of the country: there are gypsy beggars, there are pickpockets. Here you should be careful with your valuables - money, Cell phones Keep your cameras with you.

There are no gypsies in the resort areas at all, public order is monitored by city police patrols.

Business

Membership of the European Union has led Romania to implement a series of free market reforms that have resulted in foreign trade liberalization, tax and banking system modernization, and active development private sector.

Today, investing in the Romanian economy is considered promising and profitable.

The fixed income tax rate is 16%, and for small enterprises with no more than 10 employees and a total annual income not exceeding 100,000 € - 3%.

The cities and resorts of Romania are attracting more and more attention, acting as objects of business tourism. Affordability and the availability of modern, well-equipped conference rooms make Romania an attractive place for business seminars, meetings, exhibitions and conferences of various levels.

Real estate

The unique nature, favorable climate and the proximity of world-famous medical resorts attract many who want to buy real estate in Romania.

Here, foreigners have the same rights to purchase real estate as local residents. There are minor restrictions due to international treaties, as well as restrictions on the purchase of agricultural and strategic land, national park land, as well as real estate objects of historical and cultural value.

Foreigners are most interested in real estate on the Black Sea coast, in the capital and in ski resorts. Here, the minimum cost per 1 m² is about 800 €.

To avoid any misunderstandings during your stay in Romania and enjoy your vacation, tourists should follow some rules of conduct adopted in the country. The basic rule, as in many European countries, is a ban on smoking in public places and transport, including railways.

Fans of photographic art should remember that in Romania bridges and ports are strategic objects, so they should never be photographed.

In restaurants and cafes, it is customary to leave a tip in the amount of 10% of the cost of the check.

Used as a disinfectant for tap water chemical substances especially chlorine. Such water, of course, cannot be poisoned, but it is unsuitable for drinking, and can also cause allergic reactions on sensitive skin when washing. But water in mountain springs and wells in the Carpathians is not only safe and tasty, but also healthy.

Visa information

To visit Romania, citizens of Russia and other CIS countries will need a visa that does not give the right to enter the Schengen countries, despite the fact that Romania is a member of the European Union.

There are 3 types of visas: transit (B), short-term for a period of less than 90 days (C) and multiple long-term (D). To obtain a visa to the embassy, ​​you must provide a passport valid for at least 3 months from the end of the trip to Romania, plus photocopies of the pages of the passport with the personal data of the owner, photographs (2 pcs.), A completed application form, medical insurance and a certificate of employment indicating salary and position. The consular fee is 35 € for processing within 5-10 days, 70 € for an urgent visa.

The Romanian Embassy in Moscow is located at 119285, Moscow, st. Mosfilmovskaya, 64 (tel.: (+7 495) 143-04-24; 143-04-27).

Consulates:

St. Petersburg, Gorokhovaya st., 4 (tel.: (+7 812) 312-61-41, 335-08-44 344019,
Rostov-on-Don, st. 7th Line, 18/39 (tel: (+7 863) 253-08-61, 230-29-15, 227-59-25). If you have a Schengen visa, you can make transit trips through the territory of Romania for 5 days without issuing a transit Romanian visa.

culture

Over the centuries, Romanians have been exposed to various cultures, each of which has contributed to the formation of modern Romanian culture. The influence of the ancient Romans was replaced after a few centuries by the influence of the culture of the Slavs, Greeks, Turks and Hungarians. In the Middle Ages, Romanians were strongly influenced by Byzantium, especially in terms of church rituals, architecture, iconography and frescoes. In the 16th and 17th centuries many works of church literature were written in Romanian. Modern Romanian culture is a synthesis of these medieval influences, ancient folklore and music (which was important for maintaining ethnic unity) and various foreign influences.

Romanian literature and art reached their maturity at the end of the 19th century. Among the outstanding writers of that time are M. Eminescu, the talented storyteller I. Creanga, the playwright I. L. Caragiale, literary critics T. Maiorescu and K. Dobrodzhanu-Gerya. Most famous artists were the portrait painter T. Aman, the landscape painters N. Grigorescu and I. Andreascu, as well as the artist S. Lukian.

The best writers of the interwar period are the poet T. Arghezi and the novelists M. Sadoveanu, L. Rebryanu and C. Petrescu.

Post-war Romanian literature is still influenced by the writers who became famous during the interwar period. Patriotic, democratic and pro-peasant inclinations in literature were already developed before the First World War. literary movement"Semenetorul" ("The Sower"). These writers argued that the development of art should be ideologically driven, and easily adapted to the philosophy and goals of the communist regime. The non-communist T. Arghezi was recognized by the authorities as the most outstanding Romanian poet, and M. Sadoveanu, without any effort, was able to become the patriarch of post-war Romanian literature. Argesi, known even before the Second World War for his deeply original poems, began to write optimistic poems about peasant uprisings. Sadoveanu, an imaginative writer and creator of a broad historical panorama, added to his historical novels new works on the awakening of the proletariat; his Return tells of the achievements of the communist regime. However, after 1965, the regime also began to patronize nationalist writers.

Among the post-war writers, one should note such poets as M. Benyuk, E. Zhebelianu, V. Porumbaku, A. Toma, C. Teodorescu, M. Dragomir, D. Deshliu. The novelists E. Kamilar, A. Zhar, Z. Stanku gained fame; playwrights - A. Baranga, R. Boureanu, M. Davidoglu, L. Demetrius and M. Banush (also a poetess). A feature of post-war literature was the publication of books and magazines in the languages ​​of national minorities, especially in Hungarian. Among the Hungarian writers, I. Horvath and I. Astalos are the most famous.

Before World War I in Romanian fine arts there were several notable works. In the interwar period, one can hardly note any outstanding achievements in this area, with the exception of the work of artists who were under strong Western, mainly French, influence. These include such artists as S. Petrescu, G. Petrashka, C. Ressu, J. Steriade, Iser. Most famous artists communist period were P. Atanasiou, Sh. Barabas, L. Agricola, G. Lazar.

In music, most state prizes were awarded to works such as Folk holiday Sabina Dragoy. In the 1960s and 1970s, the regime began to encourage the revival of the Romanian classics, including the works of D. Enescu, and the imitation of classical Romanian and modern Western works.

Story

Ancient Romania was inhabited by Thracian tribes. In the 1st century BC. Greece founded the state of Dacia to defend itself against Rome. Dacia passed to Rome in 106 AD, becoming a province of the Roman Empire. As a result of attacks from the Goths in 271, Emperor Aurelius recalled the Roman legionnaires back to the south of the Danube, but the Wallachian peasants remained in Dacia, forming the Romanian people. By the 10th century, small Romanian lands had formed, and their unification led to the creation of the principalities of Moldavia, Wallachia, and Transylvania. From the 10th century, the Magyars came to Transylvania, and by the 12th century it became an autonomous principality under the rule of the Hungarian authorities. In the 14th century, Hungarian troops unsuccessfully tried to capture Wallachia and Moldavia.

During the XIV-XV centuries, Wallachia and Moldavia resisted the expansion of the Ottoman Empire. During the struggle, Prince Vlad Tepes of Wallachia (known as the "Impaler" because he rarely ate without a writhing, impaled Turk) became a hero, later associated with Dracula. In the XVI century, Transylvania passed to the Ottoman Empire, at the same time, Wallachia and Moldavia submitted to the Turks, but retained their autonomous position. In 1600, all three Romanian provinces were united by Prince Mihai Vitazul of Wallachia after he joined forces with the ruling princes of Moldavia and Transylvania against the Turks. The unification lasted only a year, then Mihai was defeated by the combined Habsburg-Transylvanian troops, after which he was captured and beheaded. Transylvania passed to the Habsburg Empire, while Wallachia and Moldavia remained Turkish suzerainties almost until the end of the 19th century. In 1775, the northern part of Moldavia, Bukovina, was annexed by Austria-Hungary. Further, in 1812, the eastern territory, Bessarabia, passed to Russia. After the Russo-Turkish War (1828-1829), the Ottoman possession of the principalities ended.

After 1848, Transylvania fell under the rule of Austria-Hungary and "Magyarization" began. In 1859 Alexandru Ioan Cuza was crowned on the thrones of Moldavia and Wallachia, who created a new state, which was named Romania in 1862. Charles I succeeded to the throne in 1866 and in 1877 Dobruya became part of Romania. In 1881, Romania became known as a kingdom, and Charles I became its king. He died at the start of the First World War. His nephew Ferdinand I inherited the throne and entered the war in 1916 on the side of the "Triple Agreement" (Entente). His goal was the liberation of Transylvania from Austria-Hungary. In 1918, Bessarabia, Bukovina and Transylvania became part of Romania.

Numerous political parties appeared in Romania after the First World War, including the Legion of the Archangel Michael, better known as the fascist "Iron Guard". The party, led by Cornelius Codreanu, dominated the political arena by 1935. Charles II, who inherited the throne after the death of his father Ferdinand I, declared the state a royal dictatorship in 1938 and liquidated all political parties. In 1939, he pacified the Iron Guard, which he had previously supported, by executing Codreana and other legionnaires. In 1940, the USSR occupied Bessarabia, and Romania was forced to transfer northern Transylvania to Hungary on the orders of Germany and Italy. Southern Dobruya was transferred to Bulgaria. Based on all this, numerous rallies broke out, so the king called Generalissimo Ion Antonescu to pacify discontent. Antonescu forced Charles to abdicate, handing over power to Charles's 19-year-old son Michael, and then introduced a fascist dictatorship, proclaiming himself ruler. In 1941 he joined Hitler's anti-Soviet war. With the approach of the Soviet Army to the Romanian border in 1944, Romania went over to the side of Russia.

The Soviet transfer of Transylvania to Romania helped the communists, supported by Moscow, win the elections in 1946. A year later, King Michael was forced to abdicate and the Romanian People's Republic was formed. A period of state intimidation began, when pre-war leaders, prominent intellectuals and suspicious dissidents were rounded up and sent to prison camps. In the late 1950s, Romania began to move away from Moscow, seeking an independent foreign policy under the leadership of Gheorghe Georgiou-Dej (1952-1965) and Nicolae Ceausescu (1965-1989). Ceausescu denounced the Soviet intervention in Czechoslovakia in 1968, which earned him respect and economic aid from the West. Most of his great projects (the construction of the "deadly" Danube-Black Sea Canal, the pompous and expensive House of Nations in Bucharest). His secret militia suppressed the population and had a huge network of informants.

The rise to power of Mikhail Gorbachev in the late 1980s meant that the US no longer needed Romania and removed its status as "the most beloved nation." Ceausescu decided to export the Romanian food supply in order to pay off the country's huge debt. While Ceausescu and his wife Elena (his first deputy prime minister) lived in luxury, the people struggled to survive as the rationing of bread, eggs, flour, butter, salt, sugar, beef, potatoes was mocking, and by the mid-1980s there was no meat at all. In 1987, riots began in Brasov, which were brutally suppressed. After regime after regime began to crumble in Eastern Europe, on December 15, 1989, the priest Lazlo Tox preached against Ceausescu in a church in the city of Timisoara. That same evening, a group of people gathered at his house to protest the decision of the Reformed Church of Romania to remove Toks from office. The clashes between the protesters, the police and the army continued for 4 days. On December 19, the army joined the protesters. On December 21, Bucharest workers loudly protested against Ceausescu during a mass rally and street clashes between protesters, police and the army. The next day, the Ceausescu family tried to flee Romania, but was arrested, convicted by an anonymous court, and shot on Christmas Day.

It is now believed that the members of the National Salvation Front who seized power after Ceausescu's death planned his overthrow months before December 1989, but premature rallies forced them to act earlier. A provisional government came to power, headed by Ion Iliescu.

In 1992, Iliescu and the National Salvation Front were re-elected, but uncontrolled inflation, unemployment, suspicion of government corruption led to the fact that in 1996 Iliescu was replaced by Emil Constantinescu, leader of the Romanian Democratic Convention. Iliescu returned to power in December 2000 as president. Romanians probably thought Iliescu was the better of two evils compared to the extremist Cornelius Vadim Tudor of the right-wing Romanian Party.

Economy

One of the largest sectors of the economy is oil production, Rompetrol occupies a significant market share, but oil reserves are insignificant and its production is constantly decreasing.

Since the mid-2000s, Romania's oil consumption has been roughly double its own production, and this ratio also applies to oil imports and exports.

Romania has natural gas reserves and production, but in recent years the country has had to import gas to meet its needs.

The distribution of the labor force is about 30% in agriculture, 23% in industry, 47% in the service sector (2006).

The main partners in foreign trade are Germany, Italy, France (2006).

Policy

The bicameral parliament consists of the Senate (Senate, 137 seats) and the Chamber of Deputies (Camera Deputaţilor, 332 seats).

Senators are elected by proportional representation.

The 314 members of the Chamber of Deputies are elected by proportional representation with a 5% threshold for political parties and eight percent for blocs, while the rest of the seats are reserved for representatives of national minorities.

The term of office of MPs is 4 years.

According to the constitution adopted by the parliament in November 1991 and approved in December of the same year at a national referendum, Romania is a national, unitary, legal, democratic and social state with a republican form of government. The head of state is the president, elected by the population for a term of 4 years. He has broad powers in political matters, comparable to those of the President of the French Republic.

Known in the grotto of Stynka Ripiceni (on the right bank of the Prut), the lower layers of which belong to the Aurignacian and Solutrean times.

Already in the Eneolithic era (c. 4000 BC), the first Indo-Europeans (Cernavoda Culture), who were familiar with horse breeding, penetrated the territory of Romania from the east.

At the end of the Bronze - Early Iron Age (4th century BC), the Hallstatt culture spread here, dominated by the Celts, and with which the beginning of the formation of the Thracian community is associated. In the later La Tène culture, the Thracians played the role of a cultural component equal in rights with the Celts.

ancient era

A new unification and strengthening of Dacia occurred during the reign of Decebalus (- AD). Decebalus tried to organize a strong kingdom with a capital in Sarmizegetus and waged three wars with Rome (-, -, - AD). The first, with the emperor Domitian, proved to be relatively successful, the second ended with the defeat of the Dacians by the emperor Trajan, and the third, also with Trajan, with the complete conquest of Dacia by the Romans, the capture of Sarmizegetusa and the suicide of Decebalus. On the territory of Dacia, the Roman province "Dacia" was organized. The center of the latter was the city of Ulpia Trayana, which under Adrian also received the name of Sarmizegetus, but was built 50 km from the old center. Napoca (now Cluj) stood out from other cities of Roman Dacia. Dacia remained a Roman province until 271, when the emperor Aurelian, unable to defend it from the onslaught of the Goths and Sarmatians, left it, evacuating the population of cities across the Danube. Middle Ages Slavs lived on the territory of modern Romania in the Middle Ages, whose principality in the future Ugrovlachia is mentioned in the sources in the 6th century; Proto-Bulgarians, Avars, Kutrigurs also penetrated here. The Ipoteshti-Kyndesht culture of the early Slavs (V-VII centuries) was formed by the Ants - carriers of the Penkov culture, together with the local Romanized population and the Slavs of the Prague-Korchak group that seeped into the region of the lower Danube. In the 9th century, part of this territory became part of the Slavic state of Great Moravia, then the Hungarians and Pechenegs settled. In the 10th century, part of the territory of ancient Dacia fell under the rule of the Old Russian state, then the Polovtsians, the Principality of Galicia; Mongol-Tatars and Vlachs in the XIII century. The events of 1600 are reported differently by Moldavian sources. The Moldavian chronicler Miron Kostin noted that the detachments of the Muntean governor Mihai captured the capital of the Moldavian principality Suceava for several days, then laid siege to Khotyn, where the Moldavian governor Yeremia-voda fortified, but soon retreated, as the Polish regiments headed by the hetman Konetspolsky and Chancellor Zamoyski. Soon, the Moldavian-Polish troops ousted the detachments of Mihai from Moldavia, who was killed in the same year. In 1699, 1718 and 1739 different parts of what is now Romania, such as Wallachian Oltenia in 1718, were divided between Austria and the Ottoman Empire. In 1775, Bukovina (the northern part of the Moldavian principality) was annexed to Austria, and in 1812 the lands between the Prut and the Dniester became part of the Russian Empire. A significant part of the medieval history of Romania is set forth in the writings of Constantin Kapitanul (Filipescu), a Romanian chronicler of the 17th century. Unification of the Danubian Principalities As in many European countries, a national liberation movement unfolded in the Danubian principalities in the 19th century, with the goal of uniting the Romanian principalities and creating a strong independent national state. The revolution of 1848 also captured the Danubian Principalities, but was crushed there by a joint Turkish-Russian intervention. On February 5, 1859, Alexandru Ioan Cuza, who had been elected to the throne of Moldavia a few weeks before, was elected Prince of Wallachia. In 1861, it was officially recognized by the Ottoman Porte, which had previously strongly opposed the unification of the principalities. As a result, the creation under Ottoman sovereignty of the United Principality of Wallachia and Moldavia was proclaimed, which Cuza led with the title of Domnitor. The new ruler decided to carry out agrarian reforms. They did not suit the boyars, as they provided for the reduction of their land holdings. In 1864, Cuza carried out a coup d'etat, expelling the boyars dissatisfied with his rule from the National Assembly, and taking full power into his own hands. The boyar opposition responded by forming the Monstrous Coalition, which in turn organized a palace coup. On the night of February 11, 1866, a group of officers broke into Cuza's bedroom, which forced the ruler to abdicate and leave the country. Carol I of the German dynasty of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen was elected as the new Domnitor. Independence and formation of the Kingdom of Romania In the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-78. Romania actually fought on the side of Russia. On May 9 (21), 1877, the parliament proclaimed the complete independence of Romania. According to the decision of the Berlin Congress of 1878, Romania received international recognition as an independent state. Under the same treaty, Russia again occupied the southern regions of Bessarabia, however, in return, Romania received Northern Dobruja with Constance, which still belonged to Turkey. In 1881 Romania was proclaimed a kingdom. Kingdom of Romania Romania in World War I The beginning of the war found Romania in a very difficult position. Caught between the warring parties, she had little chance of maintaining neutrality. True, by that time it had not yet been finally decided which side to take. Both the Entente and the Central Powers promised Romania, if they entered the war on their side, to transfer to it enemy territories inhabited by ethnic Romanians, and the country fully understood the need to participate in the war to unite the nation. But, given the very weak equipment of the Romanian army in relation to the great powers, the government decided to remain neutral for the first time. Until 1916, the breathing space granted was used to secure economic, military and diplomatic conditions for the outbreak of hostilities. By this time, due to the entry into the war of Bulgaria and Turkey, Romania was completely surrounded by the warring countries, which made it very difficult for foreign trade, including the import of weapons and ammunition. As a result, by the middle of the year, the government finally decided to enter the war on the side of the Entente, whose members recognized the rights of Romania to the territories of Austria-Hungary inhabited by Romanians, although Russia's position on this matter for military and political reasons did not inspire optimism. Rapprochement with the Third Reich Involvement in World War II Building socialism The value of property exported by Romania from the USSR during the occupation of Soviet territories amounted to 950 billion lei. A third of this amount, after the Red Army entered Romania, was decided to be considered paid in the form of requisitions and in other forms. Of the remaining 600 billion lei, half was “forgiven”, and Romania was charged with paying reparations for 300 billion lei. On December 30, 1947, the People's Republic of Romania was proclaimed, which set a course for building socialism along the Soviet lines. In 1965, after the death of Gheorghiu-Deja, Nicolae Ceausescu was elected as the first secretary of the RCP. Ceausescu uncontrollably took loans from Western countries, which quickly brought the Romanian economy to the brink of collapse. In an attempt to rectify the situation in the country, a referendum was held on a legislative ban on attracting foreign loans, and since 1980, the payment of debts on loans has become the main priority of the Romanian economy. As a result, by 1989 - in fact, a few months before the overthrow of the Ceausescu regime - Romania managed to pay off almost all Western creditors. By this time, Romania, according to some estimates, became perhaps the most poor country Eastern bloc. Revolution On December 16, 1989, unrest began in Timisoara, troops were brought into the city. The next day, the unrest spread to Bucharest, where the authorities tried to arrange a rally in their support. Ceausescu fled the city in a helicopter, but was later caught in the city

Early history.

The history of the Romanian people begins in the second century AD, when the legions of the Roman emperor Trajan settled down in the territory where the Thracian tribes of the Dacians lived. The formation of the Romanian people took place through the merging of the Romans and the local population in a territory that almost coincides with the territory of present-day Romania. However, this merger was not completed, since at the end of the third century, in view of the impending threat of the invasion of the barbarians, the Roman legions were withdrawn back. Few Roman socio-cultural institutions have survived, although Christianity, introduced by the Romans, began to embrace more and more people in the second century AD. The departure of the Romans left the Romanians, a partially Christianized Daco-Roman people, face to face with the invasion of the barbarians.

The next millennium is the darkest page in Romanian history. In the 6th c. Slavic tribes settled on the territory of present-day Romania. In the 7th and 8th centuries. Bulgarians migrated here, who settled south of the Danube. At the end of the 9th c. many parts of what is now Romania were taken over by the Hungarians. During the second half of the 13th c. they established their suzerainty over Wallachia and Moldavia, which became semi-autonomous provinces. Some historians claim that during these invasions, the indigenous Daco-Roman population was completely destroyed. Others believe that part of the Daco-Romans survived and are the ancestors of modern Romanians.

The next period of Romanian history began with the creation of the Romanian principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia in the late 13th and early 14th centuries. respectively. The society of that time had characteristic feudal features: the prince was surrounded by courtiers and nobles who owned the land; distribution of small parts of the boyar estates to the military petty nobles was carried out; developed rapidly serfdom.

From 1415 until the creation of the Phanariot regime in 1711, Wallachia and Moldavia were ruled by law by local princes, but in fact by Turks and boyars. The boyars wove intrigues with the Porte (the government of the Ottoman Empire) in order to keep the Wallachian and Moldavian thrones for members of their families. Whenever, however, an outstanding military or political leader appeared, such as Mihai the Brave in Wallachia (1593-1601) or Peter Rares in Moldavia (1527-1546), the conflicting parties temporarily reconciled and acted together against the Turks, supporting the ruler. But at the same time, the boyars were also responsible for most of the political chaos that manifested itself in the succession of 112 princes in Moldavia and Wallachia in the 16th and 17th centuries.

At the very beginning of the 18th century. Greek merchants from Constantinople, who were called Phanariots, replaced the princes and boyars and began to rule the principalities, establishing control over all economic resources. Princely posts were auctioned off in Constantinople to the highest bidders, usually Phanariotes. The reign of the Phanariotes is regarded by most historians as the most disastrous period in the history of the country. Probably the most characteristic of this period of 1711-1821 was the extremely large turnover of Phanariot princes - in both principalities, the posts of princes were occupied by about a hundred rulers.

The next important stage in Romanian history began in 1821, when the Romanian princes again returned to the Moldavian and Wallachian thrones, and ended in 1878 with the achievement of state independence. Russian interests in the Romanian principalities were revealed even under Peter the Great, the first tsar, who tried to establish active contacts with the Romanian princes against the Turks at the beginning of the 18th century. Towards the end of this century, Russian influence increased even more after Catherine the Great formulated the doctrine that Russia was the main protector of Orthodox Christians living in the territory of the Ottoman Empire, and was especially interested in protecting the Romanian principalities. Supported by anti-Greek members of the Romanian nobility, she viewed the Romanian principalities as a natural sphere of Russian influence.

Russia became the first defender of the national, anti-Fanariot revolution, which culminated in the restoration of the power of the Romanian princes in 1821. This revolution was led by Tudor Vladimirescu, an officer in the Russian army, a Romanian by nationality. After the Russo-Turkish War of 1826–1828, Russia received a protectorate over the Romanian principalities under the Treaty of Andrianopol (1829). The ensuing Russian occupation (1828–1834) had serious consequences. During the reign of the talented and enlightened Count Pavel Kiselev, the foundations of the new Romanian state were laid. The first constitutional meetings, called sofas, became the beginnings of future ministries. An educational system was created, the construction of roads began. Moderate industrialization and the creation of a fairly active system of foreign trade in grain, timber and honey led to the growth of a small middle class and ensured the continued dominance of the boyars. In 1848–1849, Russian troops suppressed nationalist uprisings in the principalities and the revolutionary spirit that had developed here under the previous Russian occupation, thanks in part to Kiselyov's liberalism.

The revolutionary movement in Romania was mainly the product of French liberal ideas adopted by young boyars returning to the country after studying in France. Despite the unsuccessful outcome of the revolutions and the opposition of the Russian occupation authorities, who remained here until the Crimean War (1853-1856), the desire for independence dominated among young intellectuals and politicians. Their efforts, as well as the participation of Russia and France at the end of the Crimean War, finally led to the creation in 1859 of the autonomous United Principalities, or Romania.

Prince Alexandru Ion Cuza, leader of the boyars, was elected in 1859 as the first ruler of the joint administration of both provinces. The path to independence lay through internal reforms, primarily the agrarian reform and the emancipation of the serfs in 1864. The boyars overthrew Cuza even before he had time to implement his program, and in 1866 elected the prince of Romania, the German prince Karl Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, who was crowned in 1881. Romania gained its final freedom from the Turks in 1878, when at the end of the Russo-Turkish War (1877–1878), European countries recognized Romania's unilateral declaration of independence of May 10, 1877.

In the 18-8 centuries. BC. the territory of Romania was part of the habitat of the Thracian tribes - the Getae, who settled mainly along the lower Danube, and the Dacians (Transylvania, Eastern Wallachia). The first military-political associations of the Geto-Dacian tribes arose in the beginning of the 1st century. BC. led by Tsar Burebista; in con. 1 in. AD headed by Decebalus, with a center in the city of Sarmisegetusa (Transylvania). In the 2-3 centuries. AD under Emperor Trajan, the Romans conquered the lands of the Geto-Dacians. The Roman provinces of Dacia (regions of Transylvania, Banat, Oltenia), Moesia were created, which included Dobruja, Moldova, Muntenia. Roman colonization had a huge impact on the language and culture of the local population.

In the 4th-6th centuries. a great migration of peoples passed through the territory of the country. In the 6th c. Slavs settled on the left bank of the Danube, who came to Moldova and Muntenia. In 10-13 centuries. political associations of local Romanized and Slavic tribes ("voivodates", "knezats") began to form, which became the basis for the creation in the 14th century. Wallachian and Moldavian principalities. Christianity was spread in them, in the Old Slavonic language until the 17th century. written state and church documents. Transylvania in the 10th-16th centuries was part of the Kingdom of Hungary.

In the 12th-13th centuries. immigrants from Saxony (“Saxons”) settled in Transylvania and ethnic group Hungarians - Sekui, who served to protect the borders (valleys of the rivers Trotush, Tyrnava). In the 16th century The Wallachian and Moldavian principalities fell into vassal dependence on the Ottoman Empire. Transylvania with con. 18th century until 1919 it was under the rule of the Habsburg Empire. The rulers ("lords") of Wallachia Mircea the Old, Mihai the Brave, Moldova - Stefan the Great, Transylvania - Iancu Hunyadi became famous for the struggle against the foreign yoke.

The Russian-Turkish wars contributed to the weakening of Ottoman domination in the Danubian principalities and Moldova. After the war of 1828-1829. According to the Adrianople Peace Treaty, the fortresses on the left bank of the Danube were returned to Romania, and the obligatory deliveries of agricultural products and timber to Turkey were abolished. General P.D. became the administrator of the Romanian principalities. Kiselyov, under whom in 1831-1832. The Organic Regulations were adopted, the first constitutional act in the history of Wallachia and Moldova, which determined their state, administrative and legal status.

The revolution of 1848, which engulfed the countries of Europe, found a wide response in Romania. Prominent figures of the country, Nicolae Balcescu, Mihail Kogalniceanu, Simon Bernutsi, Avram Iancu, came forward with demands for bourgeois-democratic reforms. There were revolutionary uprisings of the people. After the Crimean War of 1853-1856. the movement for the unification of the Danubian principalities intensified, which ended on January 24, 1859 with the election of the Moldavian sovereign Alexander Cuza as the sole ruler of Moldova and Wallachia, the creation of the state of Romania with its capital in Bucharest. The new state in 1861 was recognized by Turkey, which, however, retained its sovereignty over the Romanian lands. As a result of a conspiracy of representatives of the boyars and the big bourgeoisie (the so-called monstrous coalition), Alexander Cuza, who began to carry out large-scale reforms, was removed from power in 1866. One of the representatives of the Prussian royal house, Karl Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen, was invited to the princely throne, who founded the dynasty that ruled in Romania until 1947.

The independence of Romania was recognized in 1878 by the Treaty of San Stefano after the Russian-Turkish war of 1877-1878, in which Romania took part. Romania received northern Dobruja with the port of Constanta, but returned southern Bessarabia to Russia, in which this province had been since 1812 according to the Bucharest peace treaty. Transylvania and the Banat remained in Austria-Hungary. In March 1881, Romania was proclaimed a kingdom. After the 1st World War, Romania, which acted on the side of the Entente since August 1916, got the opportunity to annex Bessarabia and Northern Bukovina after the collapse of tsarist Russia, from Bulgaria - Southern Dobruja, lost in 1913 after the 2nd Balkan War, as well as Eastern Banat and Transylvania, after a 100,000th people's assembly on December 1, 1918 in Alba Iulia demanded reunification with Romania. Saint-Germain (1919), Trianon (1920) peace treaties officially recognized the change in the borders of Romania, which increased its territory and population by almost 2 times. With the outbreak of World War II in 1940, Northern Bukovina and Bessarabia were ceded to the USSR, Southern Dobruja to Bulgaria, and the northwestern part of Transylvania to Hungary. In September 1940, after the abdication of Charles II in favor of his son Mihai, power in the country actually passed to Marshal Ion Antonescu, who established allied relations with Nazi Germany. From June 1941 to August 1944, Romania participated in the war on the side of Nazi Germany, occupied the territory of the USSR between the Dniester and the Bug (the so-called Transnistria). After the defeat on August 20, 1944 the Soviet army On August 23, the German-Romanian Iasi-Kishinev grouping in Bucharest took place an armed uprising of the people against the Antonescu regime. By order of King Mihai, he was arrested. Romania declared war on Germany and Horthy Hungary, began to participate in the battles for the liberation of Transylvania, Hungary, and Czechoslovakia. According to the Paris Peace Treaty of 1947, the northwestern part of Transylvania again became part of Romania. On March 6, 1945, power passed to a democratic government headed by Petre Groza. On December 30, 1947, King Mihai abdicated and Romania was proclaimed a People's Republic (PRR). In March 1948, elections were held for the Great People's Assembly (GNA), the highest body state power RNR, in April adopted the first Constitution, proclaiming the establishment of the power of the people.

A radical restructuring of the system of state power, the nationalization of the main means of production, and the co-operation of agriculture began. The 1952 constitution fixed the leadership of the Romanian Workers' Party (since 1965, the Romanian Communist Party) in all spheres of society. G. Gheorghiu Dej, Secretary General of the WRP, was elected Chairman of the Presidium of the WPC. In March 1965, the RCP was headed by Nicolae Ceausescu, who became president of the country in 1974. The Constitution of 1965, which was in force until 1989, approved the new name of the country - the Socialist Republic of Romania. The mass demonstrations of the population under anti-communist slogans that began in December 1989 ended with the fall of the N. Ceausescu regime on December 22 and the formation of the Council of the National Liberation Front (FNS), which declared itself supreme body state power. Ion Iliescu, who was in the 1950-1970s in the 1950s-1970s, headed the FTS. a prominent figure in the RCP. The government was headed by Petre Roman. The Decree-Law, issued on December 31, proclaimed democratic rights and freedoms and political pluralism.

Already at the beginning In 1990, more than 60 parties were registered in the country, incl. the most influential in pre-war Romania, the so-called. historical parties - National Tserenist Christian Democratic and National Liberal. Two ethnic parties emerged - the Democratic Union of Hungarians and the National Unity Party of Romanians. In May 1990, presidential and parliamentary elections were held, which were won by Iliescu and candidates from the Federal Tax Service. In December 1991, a Constitution was adopted at a referendum, declaring Romania a democratic constitutional state with a republican form of government.