Driving lessons

Pushkin loved her and Napoleon hated her. Biography of Germaine de Stael Other writings Stahl

11.02.2021

STEEL, GERMAINE(Staël, Germaine) (1766-1817), Madame de Stael, full name- Baroness de Stael-Holstein, one of the largest figures who stood at the origins of French romanticism and modern literary criticism. Born Anna Louise Germain Necker (Anne Louise Germaine Necker) was born into a French-Swiss Protestant family on April 22, 1766 in Paris. Her father, the banker Jacques Necker, became Louis XVI's finance minister; mother, Suzanne Kursho Necker, was the mistress of the salon, where Anna Louise from an early age communicated with such famous thinkers as D. Diderot, J. d "Alamber, E. Gibbon and Comte de Buffon.

In 1786 she married Baron Erik Magnus de Stael-Holstein (1749–1802), the Swedish envoy to France, but they soon separated. With the beginning of the French Revolution of 1789, her salon became an influential political center. She supported her father's moderate liberal reforms. After the final resignation of Necker in 1790, she became close to the "constitutionalist" party, and later, in 1791, she achieved the appointment of her lover Narbon to the post of Minister of War. A few days before the “September Terror” of 1792, she helped him escape to England and followed him at the beginning of 1793. In May of the same year, probably at the insistence of her father, she moved to his estate Koppe near Geneva, where she was to spend most of her life.

her first significant work On the Influence of Passions on the Happiness of People and Nations (De l "influence des passions sur le bonheure des individus et des nations, 1796) was inspired by the reign of terror in France, when she managed to save the lives of many of her friends. The fall of Robespierre gave her the opportunity to return to Paris in 1795, along with the politician and publicist B. Constant, with whom her stormy connection was interrupted only in 1810. Being in constant opposition to all the political regimes of France, from the Directory to the restored Bourbon monarchy, Steel was repeatedly persecuted , and in 1803 was finally expelled from Paris. Koppe where she took prominent representatives intellectual and socio-political elite of his time, attracted everyone who shared anti-Bonapartist sentiments. She traveled to Germany (1803-1804), where she met Goethe, Schiller, Fichte and the leaders of the Romantic movement; to Italy (1805); to France (1806–1807 and 1810); then to Austria and again to Germany (1808). It was largely due to these trips that two of her most famous books were born: a self-portrait novel. Corinna(Corinne, 1808; Russian translation 1809–1810) and treatise About Germany (De l'Allemagne), reflecting impressions about this country. The last work, which opened German literature and the philosophy of the early Romantic era to France, was declared subversive and "French"; it was published only in 1813 in London. Madame de Stael was able to return to Paris in 1814, after the fall of Napoleon.

Probably her most significant work was Reflections on the Major Events of the French Revolution (Considérations sur les principaux événéments de la révolution française, 1816): her interpretation of events set the tone for all subsequent liberal historians. Her other writings include a largely autobiographical novel. Dolphin (Delphine, 1803; Russian translation 1803–1804) and treatise On Literature Considered in Connection with Social Institutions (De la littérature considérée dans ses rapports avec les institutions sociales, 1800), where an attempt was made to interpret the intellectual revolution in a sociological aspect and formulate a new theory of progress.

The most prominent woman of her era, Madame de Stael, had a strong influence on her friends, including the historians A. de Barant and J. Sismondi, as well as the German critic, translator and poet A. V. Schlegel.

French writer, daughter of the prominent statesman Jacques Necker.
She was born on April 22, 1766 in Paris. The literary celebrities of Paris met in her mother's salon. Germain from the age of 11 was constantly present at these evenings and eagerly listened to the conversations of the guests. Fifteen years old, Germaine wrote notes on her father's famous financial "Report" and made extracts from Montesquieu's "Spirit of the Laws", adding to them her own reflections. During this time, her favorite writers were Richardson and Rousseau. Richardson's influence was reflected in her first works, which are distinguished by a sentimental direction (for example, "Mirza", "Adelaide", "Méline").
Rousseau attracted her with his cult of nature and his system of education. Later (1788) she dedicates to him an enthusiastic essay "Letters on the Works and Personality of J. J. Rousseau." At the age of 17, Germain's heart experiences first love, but for the sake of her mother, she has to suppress her feelings. Madame Necker was looking for a brilliant match for her daughter; her choice settled on the Swedish envoy in Paris, Baron Erich Magnus Stahl von Holstein. The French and Swedish courts took part in the arrangement of this marriage, which was negotiated for 6 years. Yielding to the advice of her father, 20-year-old Germain decided to give her hand to the Baron de Stael, but in this marriage she did not find the happiness she dreamed of. Baron de Stael could not arouse any sympathy in Germain: he was a poorly educated man of the world and twice as old as his wife, who attracted him mainly with her rich dowry. When the revolution broke out and Necker was forced to flee France, Madame de Stael remained at first in Paris. At this time, her salon, which replaced the salon of Madame Necker, managed to become the most brilliant in Paris. The memoirs of contemporaries are full of stories about the indelible impression that a young woman made in this period of her life. Her brilliant mind, eloquence and enthusiasm made her the queen of the chosen Parisian society.
When the revolutionary unrest began, she, using her influence, saved many from the guillotine, often risking her life herself. The September murders forced her to flee Paris. After leaving Paris, she took refuge in England. Among other French emigrants, there was also the former Minister of War, Count Louis de Narbonne, with whom she began rapprochement back in Paris. It was her first passion that found reciprocity, the influence of which was reflected in the book she wrote at that time, “On the Influence of Passions on the Happiness of People and Nations” (published later, in 1796). Soon, however, distressed by the betrayal of Narbonne, Steel parted with him. Before leaving England, Steel, outraged by the mistreatment of Queen Marie Antoinette, published anonymously a pamphlet: "Refléxion sur le procès de la Reine, par une femme" (1793), in which she tried to arouse compassion for the unfortunate queen.
In 1793, Steel moved to Switzerland (in Koppe) and, having buried her mother here, spent two years in the company of her beloved father, whose mind and character she bowed to the end of her life (in 1804 she published "Vie privée de Mr. Necker" ).
At this time, a variety of artists visit her and live in her house. The writer Friederika Brun lives with her for several years.
In Koppe, Steel met Benjamin Constant. The strong impression that these diametrically opposed characters made on each other already at the first meeting laid the foundation for a romantic episode that dragged on for more than ten years and had a huge impact on life and literary activity Madame de Stael.
In 1796 the French Republic was recognized by Switzerland and Steel could return to Paris. Here, her salon again became an influential literary and political center. Among his regular visitors were Sieyes, Talleyrand, Gara, philologist Claude Foriel, economist J. Sh. Sismondi, B. Constant. Having achieved an unspoken divorce from her husband, but continuing to live with him in the same house, de Stael found herself in a dual position, which her secular and political opponents were not slow to take advantage of, making her the target of offensive gossip. She gives an outcome to the feelings that worried her at that time in the novel “Dolphin”, which strengthened her literary fame: it depicts the unfortunate fate of a highly gifted woman who entered into an unequal struggle with despotism public opinion. At the same time, Steel was working on an extensive essay "On Literature Considered in Connection with Social Institutions" (1796-99). The task of the book is to trace the influence of religion, customs, legislation on literature and vice versa.
When the salon of Madame de Stael became the center of the opposition, she was ordered to leave Paris. In 1802, together with Konstan, she went to Germany. Here she meets Goethe, Schiller, Fichte, W. Humboldt, A. Schlegel; she entrusts the latter with the upbringing of her children. The impressions that she took away from her trip to Germany formed the basis of the book: "On Germany", written five years later (see below). In 1804, her father's fatal illness calls her to Koppe. B. Constant's cooling towards her that began from that time, to whom she still has a deep attachment for many years, makes her suffer so much that she dreams of imminent death. To drown out her mental anguish, she goes to Italy. In Milan, she is strongly impressed by the Italian poet Vincenzo Monti. The fruit of de Stael's travels in Italy was her novel Corinne ou l'Italie. The plot of the novel is the question of the fate of a brilliant woman, the contradiction between love and fame. Corinna is Steel itself, idealized and elevated to perfection; she strains all her mental strength, spends all her talents in order to reach the apogee of glory - and all this only in order to be loved; but she remains unappreciated precisely by those whom she places above all. There are hints of Constant and his betrayal in Lord Nelville's personality. "Corinne" - a work more sustained than "Dolphin" - was a brilliant success with contemporaries. In 1807, taking advantage of Napoleon's absence, Steel, yearning for Paris, decided to settle in its environs. The rumor that she appeared incognito in Paris itself reached the emperor, who, among the worries of the Prussian campaign, found the time to order her immediate removal to Koppe.
In 1807-1808. Steel again visited Weimar and traveled to Munich and Vienna. Returning from Germany, she learned in Geneva from Constant about his secret marriage to Charlotte Hardenberg. This news at first infuriated her, but then religious peace descended on her soul. This era of her life includes her work on the book “On Germany”, the most complete of her works, in which Steel sets out to acquaint French society with the nature of the German nationality, with the life of the Germans, their literature, philosophy and religion.
In 1810, a young officer, Albert de Rocca, returned to Geneva from a Spanish campaign to be treated for his wounds. Caring for him, Steel fascinated him and he, with his passion, despite a significant difference in age, infected Steel too. After some hesitation, she secretly married him. In 1812, the persecution of the Swiss authorities, who acted to please Napoleon, forced Stael to flee from Coppé and she went through Austria to Russia. Here she was given the widest hospitality. August 5 was presented to Their Majesties. VL Borovikovsky paints her portrait.
She described her impressions in Russia in the second part of her book Dix années d'Exil (1821). There are scattered many well-aimed remarks about the character of the Russian people, about the social order of that time, about the life and customs of different classes of society. From Russia, Stal went to Sweden, where Bernadotte offered her asylum. From there she went to England and remained there until Napoleon was defeated and imprisoned on the island of Elba; then she returned to Paris after a 10-year exile.
The reaction that took place after the restoration aroused her indignation. She was equally outraged by both the "humiliation" of France by foreigners and the intolerance and obscurantism of the party of aristocratic emigrants. In this mood, she set about finishing her Considérations sur les principaux événements de la révolution française (1818). This work consists of several parts, between which there is no complete unity. Initially, Madame de Stael intended to confine herself to a presentation of the first phase of the revolution and write, among other things, an apology for her father; but then she expanded the content of her work, setting herself the goal of presenting a defense of the French revolution and clarifying its main results. To this she added a study on the English constitution and society, and then a discourse on the state of affairs in France in 1816.
On February 21, 1817, Germaine de Stael went to a reception hosted by Louis XVIII's chief minister. She fell while walking up the stairs. There was a brain hemorrhage. For several months, de Stael was ill and died in 1817 on the significant day of the beginning of the French Revolution - July 14.

Baroness Anna-Louise Germaine de Staël-Holstein (fr. Anne-Louise Germaine de Staël-Holstein), nee Necker - French writer, literary theorist, publicist - was born April 22, 1766 in Paris.

Germaine is the daughter of Finance Minister Jacques Necker. The literary celebrities of Paris met in her mother's salon. Germain from the age of 11 was constantly present at these evenings and eagerly listened to the conversations of the guests. In vain did the strict mother try to restrain and discipline her lively and impressionable daughter with a system of education based on the principles of duty. A richly gifted and exalted girl, eluding the influence of her mother, became especially ardently attached to her father, who spent hours talking about a wide variety of issues with his dearly beloved daughter. Fifteen years old, Germaine wrote notes on her father's famous financial "Report" and made extracts from Montesquieu's "Spirit of the Laws", adding to them her own reflections. During this time, her favorite writers were Richardson and Rousseau. Richardson's influence was reflected in her first works, which are distinguished by a sentimental direction (for example, "Mirza", "Adelaide", "Méline").

Rousseau attracted her with his cult of nature and his system of education. Later ( 1788 ) she dedicates to him an enthusiastic essay "Letters on the works and personality of J. J. Rousseau." At the age of 17, Germain's heart experiences first love, but for the sake of her mother, she has to suppress her feelings. Traces of internal struggle can be found in her comedy: "Sophie, ou les sentiments secrets" ( 1786 ), in which the languor of a hopeless feeling is described in bright colors. Madame Necker was looking for a brilliant match for her daughter; her choice settled on the Swedish envoy in Paris, Baron Erich Magnus Stahl von Holstein. The French and Swedish courts took part in the arrangement of this marriage, which was negotiated for 6 years. Yielding to the advice of her father, 20-year-old Germain decided to give her hand to the Baron de Stael, but in this marriage she did not find the happiness she dreamed of. When the revolution broke out and Necker was forced to flee France, Madame de Stael remained at first in Paris. At this time, her salon, which replaced the salon of Madame Necker, managed to become the most brilliant in Paris. Her brilliant mind, eloquence and enthusiasm made her the queen of the chosen Parisian society.

Coppet Castle in the eponymous town of the Swiss canton of Vaadt, on the shores of Lake Geneva - the family estate of Germaine de Stael, the only place where she could live in Napoleonic Europe after her exile from Paris in 1803. Here she wrote "Corinna, or Italy" ( 1807 ) and "About Germany" ( 1810 ), the famous literary circle Koppe was created

When the revolutionary unrest began, she, using her influence, saved many from the guillotine, often risking her life herself. September murders 1792 forced her to flee Paris. On the road, she was stopped and brought to the town hall, where only the intercession of Manuel saved her from the angry mob. After leaving Paris, she took refuge in England. Among other French emigrants, there was also the former Minister of War, Count Louis de Narbonne, with whom she began rapprochement back in Paris. It was her first passion that found reciprocity, the influence of which was reflected in the book she wrote at that time, “On the Influence of Passions on the Happiness of People and Nations” (published later, in 1796). Disappointed by Narbonne's betrayal, Steel broke up with him. Before leaving England, Steel, outraged by the mistreatment of Queen Marie Antoinette, published an anonymous pamphlet: "Refléxion sur le procès de la Reine, par une femme" ( 1793 ), in which she tried to arouse compassion for the unfortunate queen.

In 1793 Steel moved to Switzerland (in Koppe) and, having buried her mother here, spent two years in the company of her beloved father, whose mind and character she bowed to the end of her life ( in 1804 she published Vie privée de Mr. necker"). At this time, a variety of artists visit her and live in her house.

In Koppe, Steel met Benjamin Constant. The strong impression that these diametrically opposed characters made on each other already at the first meeting laid the foundation for a romantic episode that dragged on for more than ten years and had a huge influence on the life and literary activity of Madame de Stael.

In 1796 the French Republic was recognized by Switzerland and Steel could return to Paris. Here, her salon again became an influential literary and political center. Among his regular visitors were Sieyes, Talleyrand, Gara, philologist Claude Foriel, economist J. Sh. Sismondi, B. Constant. Having achieved an unspoken divorce from her husband, but continuing to live with him in the same house, de Stael found herself in a dual position, which her secular and political opponents were not slow to take advantage of, making her the target of offensive gossip. She gives an outcome to the feelings that worried her at that time in the novel Dolphin, which strengthened her literary fame. At the same time, Steel is working on an extensive essay “On Literature Considered in Connection with Social Institutions” ( 1796-1799 ). The task of the book is to trace the influence of religion, customs, legislation on literature and vice versa. The book On Literature, published after the coup of 18 Brumaire, ran counter to the onset of reaction. The idea of ​​the interaction of literature and the social system and of the inevitability of the decline of literature with the disappearance of political freedom could not but seem dangerous to the government of the first consul.

When the salon of Madame de Stael became the center of the opposition, she was ordered to leave Paris. In 1802 she goes to Germany with Konstan. Here she meets Goethe, Schiller, Fichte, W. Humboldt, A. Schlegel; she entrusts the latter with the upbringing of her children. The impressions that she took away from her trip to Germany formed the basis of the book: "On Germany", written five years later. In 1804 her father's fatal illness calls her to Koppe. B. Constant's cooling towards her that began from that time, to whom she still has a deep attachment for many years, makes her suffer so much that she dreams of imminent death. To drown out her mental anguish, she goes to Italy. In Milan, she is strongly impressed by the Italian poet Vincenzo Monti. Although her love for Constant has not yet died out in her heart, she is gradually carried away by a new feeling, and in her letters to Monty the friendly tone is soon replaced by enthusiastic confessions. She calls him to Koppe and lives for a whole year waiting for his arrival; but the weak-willed poet, afraid of incurring the wrath of Napoleon and losing his pension, keeps postponing his arrival until Stahl ceases correspondence with him. The fruit of de Stael's travels in Italy was her novel Corinne ou l'Italie.

In 1807 Taking advantage of Napoleon's absence, Steel, yearning for Paris, decided to settle in its vicinity. The rumor that she appeared incognito in Paris itself reached the emperor, who, among the worries of the Prussian campaign, found the time to order her immediate removal to Koppe.

In 1807-1808 Steel again visited Weimar and traveled to Munich and Vienna. Returning from Germany, she learned in Geneva from Constant about his secret marriage to Charlotte Hardenberg. This news at first infuriated her, but then religious peace descended on her soul. This era of her life includes her work on the book “On Germany”, the most complete of her works, in which Steel sets out to acquaint French society with the nature of the German nationality, with the life of the Germans, their literature, philosophy and religion. When the book "On Germany" was printed ( 1810 ), Madame de Stael sent her to Napoleon with a letter in which she asked for an audience with him. She believed that the power of her conviction, which conquered many, could also affect the emperor. Napoleon remained adamant. Ordering her book to be burned, although it was passed by the censors, he ordered her to remain in Koppe, where he surrounded her with spies and forbade her friends to go there.

Conscious of being abandoned, she wrote: “one feels the closeness of the evening twilight, among which no traces of the radiance of the morning dawn can be seen anymore.” But she was destined to experience happiness once again. In 1810 A young officer, Albert de Rocca, returned to Geneva from a Spanish campaign to be treated for wounds. Caring for him, Steel fascinated him and he, with his passion, despite a significant difference in age, infected Steel too. After some hesitation, she secretly married him. In 1812 the persecution of the Swiss authorities, who acted to please Napoleon, forced Stael to flee from Coppe, and she went through Austria to Russia. Here she was given the widest hospitality. 5th of August presented to Their Majesties. She described her impressions in Russia in the second part of her book "Dix années d'Exil" ( 1821 ). From Russia, Stal went to Sweden, where Bernadotte offered her asylum. From there she went to England and remained there until Napoleon was defeated and imprisoned on the island of Elba; then she returned to Paris after a 10-year exile.

The reaction that took place after the restoration aroused her indignation. She was equally outraged by both the "humiliation" of France by foreigners and the intolerance and obscurantism of the party of aristocratic emigrants. In this mood she began to finish her "Considérations sur les principaux événements de la révolution française" ( 1818 ).

February 21, 1817 Germaine de Stael went to a reception hosted by Louis XVIII's chief minister. She fell while walking up the stairs. There was a brain hemorrhage. For several months, de Stael was ill and died. July 14, 1817 in Paris.

Keywords: Germaine de Staël

The literary celebrities of Paris met. Germaine from the age of 11 was constantly present at these evenings and eagerly listened to the conversations of the guests. In vain did the strict mother try to restrain and discipline her lively and impressionable daughter with a system of education based on the principles of duty. A richly gifted and exalted girl, eluding the influence of her mother, became especially ardently attached to her father, who spent hours talking about a wide variety of issues with his dearly beloved daughter. Fifteen years old, Germaine wrote notes on her father's famous financial "Report" and made extracts from Montesquieu's "The Spirit of the Laws", adding her own reflections to them. During this time, her favorite writers were Richardson and Rousseau. Richardson's influence was reflected in her first works, which are distinguished by a sentimental direction (for example, "Mirza", "Adelaide", "Méline").

Youth and marriage

Rousseau attracted her with his cult of nature and his system of education. Later (1788) she dedicates an enthusiastic essay to him: "Lettres sur les ècrits et le caractère de J. J. Rousseau". At the age of 17, Germaine's heart experiences her first love, but for the sake of her mother, she has to suppress her feelings. Traces of internal struggle can be found in her comedy: "Sophie ou les sentiments secrets" (1786), in which the languor of a hopeless feeling is described in bright colors. Madame Necker was looking for a brilliant match for her daughter; her choice settled on the Swedish envoy in Paris, Baron de Stael Holstein. The French and Swedish courts took part in the arrangement of this marriage, which was negotiated for 6 years. Yielding to the advice of her father, 20-year-old Germaine decided to give her hand to the Baron de Stael, but in this marriage she did not find the happiness she dreamed of. Baron de Stael could not arouse any sympathy in Germain: he was a poorly educated man of the world and twice as old as his wife, who attracted him mainly with her rich dowry. When the revolution broke out and Necker was forced to flee France, Madame de Stael remained at first in Paris. At this time, her salon, which replaced the salon of m-me Necker, managed to become the most brilliant in Paris. The memoirs of contemporaries are full of stories about the indelible impression that a young woman made in this period of her life. Her brilliant mind, eloquence and enthusiasm made her the queen of the chosen Parisian society.

Revolution and first exile

Castle in Koppe

When the revolutionary unrest began, she, using her influence, saved many from the guillotine, often risking her life herself. The September murders forced her to flee Paris. On the road, she was stopped and brought to the town hall, where only the intercession of Manuel saved her from the angry mob. After leaving Paris, she took refuge in England. Among other French emigrants, there was also the former Minister of War, Count Louis de Narbonne, with whom she began rapprochement back in Paris. This was her first reciprocated passion, the influence of which was reflected in the book she wrote at that time: "De l'influence des passions sur le bonheur des individus et des nations" (published later, in 1796). Having set herself the goal, under the influence of the terror she experienced, to prove the pernicious effect of fanaticism, ambition and other passions on the well-being of individuals and entire societies, the author, as soon as it comes to love (in the chapter "De l'amour"), turns from a strict moralist into enthusiastic praiser. Soon, however, distressed by the betrayal of Narbonne, Steel parted with him. Before leaving England, Steel, outraged by the mistreatment of Queen Marie Antoinette, published anonymously a pamphlet: "Refléxion sur le procès de la Reine, par une femme" (1793), in which she tried to arouse compassion for the unfortunate queen.

In 1793, Steel moved to Switzerland (in Koppe) and, having buried her mother here, spent two years in the company of her beloved father, whose mind and character she bowed to the end of her life (in 1804 she published "Vie privée de Mr. Necker" ).

At this time, a variety of artists visit her and live in her house. The writer Friederika Brun lives with her for several years.

In Koppe, Steel met Benjamin Constant. The strong impression that these diametrically opposed characters made on each other already at the first meeting marked the beginning of a romantic episode that dragged on for more than ten years and had a huge influence on the life and literary activity of Mme Stael.

The beginning of literary glory. Opposition to Napoleon

In 1796 the French Republic was recognized by Switzerland and Steel could return to Paris. Here, her salon again became an influential literary and political center. Among his regular visitors were Sieyes, Talleyrand, Gara, Foriel, Sismondi, B. Constant. Having achieved an unspoken divorce from her husband, but continuing to live with him in the same house, Mme Steel found herself in a dual position, which her secular and political opponents were not slow to take advantage of, making her the target of offensive gossip. She gives an outcome to the feelings that worried her at that time in the novel “Delphine”, which strengthened her literary fame: it depicts the unfortunate fate of a highly gifted woman who entered into an unequal struggle with the despotism of public opinion. At the same time, Steel was working on an extensive work: "De la littérature, considérée dans ses rapports avec les institutions sociales" (1796-99). The task of the book is to trace the influence of religion, customs, legislation on literature and vice versa. Studying the interaction of society and literature, observing the gradual changes in ideas and forms of life, Stahl notes in the course of historical development a slow but continuous improvement (perfectibilité). In the mass of well-aimed remarks, she reveals a subtle understanding of the connection between various forms and directions. literary works with the social milieu and ends the book with a teaching on what literature should be like in the new republican society: it should serve as an expression of new social ideals and be a defender of political and moral freedom. The book On Literature, published after the coup of 18 Brumaire, ran counter to the onset of reaction. The idea of ​​the interaction of literature and the social system and of the inevitability of the decline of literature with the disappearance of political freedom could not but seem dangerous to the government of the first consul.

Germany and Italy. "Corinna"

When the salon of m-me Stael became the center of the opposition, m-me S. was ordered to leave Paris. In 1802, together with Konstan, she went to Germany. Here she meets Goethe, Schiller, Fichte, W. Humboldt, A. Schlegel; she entrusts the latter with the upbringing of her children. The impressions that she took away from her trip to Germany formed the basis of the book: "De l'Allemagne", written five years later (see below). In 1804, her father's fatal illness calls her to Koppe. B. Constant's cooling towards her that began from that time, to whom she still has a deep attachment for many years, makes her suffer so much that she dreams of imminent death. To drown out her mental anguish, she goes to Italy. In Milan, the Italian poet Monti makes a strong impression on her. Although her love for Constant has not yet died out in her heart, she is gradually carried away by a new feeling, and in her letters to Monty the friendly tone is soon replaced by enthusiastic confessions. She calls him to Koppe and lives for a whole year waiting for his arrival; but the weak-willed poet, afraid of incurring the wrath of Napoleon and losing his pension, keeps postponing his arrival until Stahl ceases correspondence with him. The fruit of S.'s travels in Italy was her novel: Corinne ou l'Italie. Italy attracted the attention of Steel not for its nature, but as the scene of a great historical past. She believes that the spirit of a great people still lurks here, and she strongly desires the revival of this spirit. Steel devotes a lot of space to reflections on the historical fate of Italy and Rome, on Italian literature, art, tombstones, etc. The plot of the novel is the question of the fate of a woman of genius, the contradiction between love and fame. Corinna is Steel itself, idealized and elevated to perfection; she strains all her mental strength, spends all her talents in order to reach the apogee of glory - and all this only in order to be loved; but she remains unappreciated precisely by those whom she places above all. There are hints of Constant and his betrayal in Lord Nelville's personality. "Corinne" - a work more sustained than "Dolphin" - was a brilliant success with contemporaries. In 1807, taking advantage of Napoleon's absence, Steel, yearning for Paris, decided to settle in its environs. The rumor that she appeared incognito in Paris itself reached the emperor, who, among the worries of the Prussian campaign, found the time to order her immediate removal to Koppe.

"About Germany"

In 1807-1808. Steel again visited Weimar and traveled to Munich and Vienna. Returning from Germany, she learned in Geneva from Constant about his secret marriage to Charlotte Hardenberg. This news at first infuriated her, but then religious peace descended on her soul. Her work on the book "On Germany", the most complete of her works, belongs to this era of her life. In the book "De l'Allemagne" Steel sets out to acquaint French society with the nature of the German nationality, with the life of the Germans, their literature, philosophy and religion. The author introduces the French reader into a world of ideas, images and feelings alien to him and tries to explain the features of this world as far as possible, pointing to historical and local conditions and constantly drawing a parallel between the aspirations and concepts of the French and German nations. For the first time, in an era dominated by cosmopolitan ideas, Stahl brings to the fore the question of the rights of nationality. It sets as its task the protection of nations, their rights to political and spiritual independence; it tries to prove that the nation is not the creation of the arbitrariness of individuals, but a historical phenomenon, and that the peace of Europe is conditioned by mutual respect for the rights of peoples. When the book "On Germany" was printed (1810), Mme Stael sent it to Napoleon, with a letter in which she asked for an audience with him. She believed that the power of her conviction, which conquered many, could also affect the emperor.

Napoleon remained adamant. Ordering her book to be burned, although it was passed by the censors, he ordered her to remain in Koppe, where he surrounded her with spies and where he forbade her friends to go.

Trip to Russia

Conscious of being abandoned, she wrote: “one feels the closeness of the evening twilight, among which no traces of the radiance of the morning dawn can be seen anymore.” But she was destined to experience happiness once again. In 1810, a young officer, Albert de Rocca, returned to Geneva from a Spanish campaign to be treated for his wounds. Caring for him, Steel fascinated him and he, with his passion, despite a significant difference in age, infected Steel too. After some hesitation, she secretly married him. In 1812, the persecution of the Swiss authorities, who acted to please Napoleon, forced Stael to flee from Coppé and she went through Austria to Russia. Here she was given the widest hospitality; she was adopted by Pushkin. She described her impressions in Russia in the second part of her book Dix années d'Exil (1821). There are scattered many well-aimed remarks about the character of the Russian people, about the social order of that time, about the life and customs of different classes of society (see the article by A. Trachevsky, “Ms. S. in Russia”, Historical Bulletin, 1894, No. 10). From Russia, Stal went to Sweden, where Bernadotte offered her asylum. From there she went to England and remained there until Napoleon was defeated and imprisoned on the island of Elba; then she returned to Paris after a 10-year exile.

Restoration. Last years. Steel as a historian of the Revolution

The reaction that took place after the restoration aroused her indignation. She was equally outraged by both the "humiliation" of France by foreigners and the intolerance and obscurantism of the party of aristocratic emigrants. In this mood, she set about finishing her Considérations sur les principaux événements de la révolution française (1818). This work consists of several parts, between which there is no complete unity. Initially, S. intended to confine herself to a presentation of the first phase of the revolution and write, among other things, an apology for her father; but then she expanded the content of her work, setting herself the goal of presenting a defense of the French revolution and clarifying its main results. To this she added a study of the English constitution and society, and then discussions about the state of affairs in France in 1816. For 25 years (1789-1814), S. not only observed all stages of the development of the French revolutionary spirit, but responded with all her impressionable in kind to all the excitement of this turbulent era. Summing up the revolutionary period, S. sees the main goal of the revolution in the conquest by the people of political and spiritual freedom. The revolution not only made France free, but also gave her well-being. If crimes individuals tarnished the revolution, then never before in France has so much sublime sides been manifested human spirit. Having inspired noble enthusiasm into many hearts, the revolution brought forth great figures and bequeathed to the future the eternal principles of freedom. The causes of the revolution lie in general historical conditions, and not in the actions and aspirations of individuals. In the chapter on restoration, S. gives a vivid picture of the onset of the reactionary regime: “Is it really possible,” she writes, “is it now possible to rule the way it was three hundred years ago?! ... They (the new rulers) need arbitrariness of power, religious intolerance, a court aristocracy that she has no merit but a genealogical tree, an ignorant and disenfranchised people, an army reduced to a mere mechanism, oppression of the press, the absence of any civil freedom - and in return her police spies and bought journalism that would praise this darkness! The final pages of the book represent, as it were, the political testament of Mrs. S. The political reorganization of Europe will be accomplished by the peoples and in the name of the peoples. It foresees the great future of the Russian people and the leading role of the United States of North America. She advises the Germans and Italians to unite in a federation.

Characteristic

In the moral character of Mme S., two main features prevail, according to Professor Storozhenko: a passionate need for love, personal happiness - and no less passionate love for freedom. It is necessary to note another third feature, which, together with the above, recreates not only its moral, but also its mental appearance. “Germaine Necker,” writes A. Sorel, “also craved thought as well as happiness. Her mind was distinguished by an insatiable greed to know everything, the ability to embrace everything ... it had the gift of penetrating other people's ideas and the gift of instant inspiration with its own ideas; both were not the result of prolonged reflection, but were born during the conversation, in the form of inspired improvisation. Equally impulsive and impetuous both in her hobbies and in her literary work, ardently seizing on new ideas that were in the air, m-me S. often changed her views on certain issues [So, for example, she used to be fond of materialism, and at the end of her life she becomes a spiritualist, sometimes she rejects free will, sometimes she admits it, etc.], but invariably remained true to the principles of civil liberty and the political ideals of the constituent assembly of 1789. The influence of m-me S. on subsequent French literature is deep and many-sided . A. Sorel calls her the "muse" of a large circle of French scientists and writers. Guizot, according to Sorel, was the interpreter of the political ideas of m-me C. Her influence also affected the works of many other French writers (Kinet, Nodier, Lanfre). Her book "On Germany", according to Goethe, is a giant battering ram that broke through the Chinese wall of prejudices that separated the two peoples. In the field of French literature, she, along with Chateaubriand, is rightly considered the ancestor of the French romantic school. M-me Steel did not have a great talent for fiction; she failed to create characters. In the face of her heroines, she describes only herself, the feelings she experienced; there is little life in her other faces; they almost do not act, but only express the views that the writer puts into their mouths. On the other hand, she was the first to not only give a precise definition of the nature of new (romantic) literature, in contrast to classical literature, but also pointed out to creativity new methods of reproducing reality, new poetic forms.

Bibliography

Other compositions Steel

  • "Reflexions sur la paix adressées à M. Pitt et aux Français" (1795)
  • Reflexions sur le suicide (1813)
  • Zulma et trois nouvelles (1813)
  • "Essais dramatiques" (1821)
  • "Oeuvres complètes" 17 t., (1820-21)

Lifetime translations into Russian

  • Melina, trans. Karamzin, 1795
  • "Corinna", M., 1809
  • "Dolphin", M., 1803
  • "New stories", M., 1815

Modern editions

  • “On the Influence of Passions on the Happiness of People and Nations” // Literary Manifesto of Western European Romantics, ed. A. S. Dmitrieva, M., Publishing House of Moscow University, 1980, S. 363-374, trans. E. P. Grechanoi;
  • “On Literature in Its Connection with Social Institutions” // Literary Manifesto of Western European Romantics, ed. A. S. Dmitrieva, M., Publishing House of Moscow University, 1980, S. 374-383, trans. E. P. Grechanoi;
  • "About Germany" // Literary manifestos of Western European romantics, ed. A. S. Dmitrieva, M., Publishing House of Moscow University, 1980, S. 383-391, trans. E. P. Grechanoi;
  • “On Literature Considered in Connection with Social Institutions”, M., Art, 1989, series: History of Aesthetics in Monuments and Documents, trans. V. A. Milchina;
  • “Ten years in exile”, M., OGI, 2003, foreword, trans. and comment. V. A. Milchina.

Works about her

  • A biography of m-me S. was compiled by Ms. Necker-de-Saussure (in "Oeuvr. compl.") and Blennerhaset: "Frau von S., ihre Freunde und ihre Bedeutung in Politik und Litteratur" (1889).
  • Gérando, "Lettres inédites de m-me de Récamier and de m-me de Staël" (1868);
  • "Correspondance diplomatique, 1783-99", Baron Stahl-G. (1881); * * * * Norris, "Life and times of M. de S." (1853);
  • Amiel, "Etudes sur M. de S." (1878)
  • A. Stevens, "M-me de Staël" (1881)
  • A. Sorel, "M-me de Staël" (1890; there is a Russian translation)

writings by Sainte-Bev and Brandeis

  • Storozhenko, Madame de Stael (Bulletin of Europe, 1879, No. 7)
  • Shakhov, "Essays on the literary movement in the first half of XIX V. Lectures on the History of French Literature" (1894)
  • S. V-shtein, "Ms. de Stael" ("Bulletin of Europe", 1900, no., 8-10)
  • Lyubarets S. N. Aesthetics of Germaine de Stael in the context of the Enlightenment // ANOTHER XVIII CENTURY. Collection scientific works. Rep. ed. N. T. Pakhsaryan. M., 2002

Similar to Mrs Roland was an outstanding representative of the democratic idealism of Jean Jacques Rousseau, her witty contemporary Madame de Stael (1766-1817), nee Necker, was a representative of the constitutionalism taught by Montesquieu. Anna Louise Germaine, Baroness de Stael-Holstein, daughter of the Protestant banker and minister Necker, who married the Swedish envoy Stahl-Holstein in 1786, was one of those Parisian ladies who, by their intelligence and education, achieved a prominent position in the highest spheres of Parisian society , and by gathering scientists and gifted people in their salons, they influenced the direction of French literature. Despite the fact that in their upbringing and education they belonged to the old society, their mind was so elastic that they knew how to adapt themselves to the changes brought about by the revolution in the structure of social life and in ideas.

Portrait of Madame de Stael. Artist F. Gerard, c. 1810

Madame de Stael spent the years of revolutionary terrorism with her father at his family estate, the Château de Coppé, on the shores of Lake Geneva; returning from there to Paris, she occupied during the Directory and even under consular administration influential social position; but Napoleon, who could not bear either an independent way of thinking, or any secret or obvious opposition to his autocracy, forced her to leave the capital, thus surrounding her name with a halo of martyrdom. Since Madame de Stael was able to combine the republican liberalism and petty-bourgeois education of the times of the revolution with the aristocratic elegance of the old regime and even managed to assimilate the neo-romantic sensibility, thanks to such mental versatility, she enjoyed very high respect in literary and aristocratic circles, the main representatives of which gathered in her house. .

The works of Madame de Stael are divided into three categories - political, aesthetic and poetic, but often represent a mixed content. From the time when her essay appeared, filled with praises for the financial management of her father, and until the “Reflections on the French Revolution” written by her shortly before her death, she published, at various periods of her life, essays of a political content, either on some contemporary event (reflections about the process of the queen), then regarding general issues(Reflections on the World; a semi-political, semi-philosophical essay on the influence of passions on the happiness of individuals and entire states). Among her writings of an aesthetic and social character, they occupy the first place: a witty essay “On Literature in its Relationship with Public Institutions” and famous essay"On Germany", which was the fruit of her long stay in Weimar and Berlin and her relations with A. V. Shlegel and with romantics. The praise with which Madame de Stael spoke in this last essay about the character of the Germans and their innate propensity for poetry and philosophy irritated Napoleon to such an extent that he ordered the minister of police, Savary, to ban the sale of the book in France and confiscate its first edition. In On Germany, Madame de Stael praised the richness of ideas found in German poetry and science, the religious feelings of the people, which were preserved despite mental freedom, and the idealistic philosophy, which served as an obstacle to the spread of the materialistic views of her compatriots. In contrast to the authority of the French Academy and its tyranny in everything that concerned the literary language, Madame Stahl praised the self-confidence and self-control of the German mind, which itself creates laws and regulations for itself and, despite complete freedom, has not reached the “anarchy of taste, but to the ideal concept of art and to the richest variety of poetic works. In all the writings of Madame de Stael one can see clarity and restraint of judgment, respect for all sincere feelings, for all originality, not reaching the point of exaggeration. Against Romantic Catholicism, she defends the originality of peoples and individuals; against the sanity of the Enlightenment, it defends the direct influence of the senses; against the conventional formalism of noble society, de Stael defends genius and originality; against frivolity, she defends strict morality; against the materialistic mood of minds, it defends idealism.

After her expulsion from Paris, Madame de Stael traveled to almost all European countries, and at times lived in Coppe (Koppet), a charming estate on the shores of Lake Geneva. She described her travel impressions in the essay "Ten Years of Exile" and in some other works. Among these latter deserve the greatest praise: “Delphine is a novel written in imitation "New Eloise" Rousseau and consisting of letters filled with melancholy sentimental ideas, and the novel "Corinne", which presents the struggle of female nature with the narrow framework in which it is placed by mores and established customs. Madame de Stael became the forerunner social novels George Sand especially thanks to Corinna, where the ideal of a woman striving for the acquisition of rights in society is drawn with ardent fantasy, and at the same time Italy is described in a fascinating way.

The historian Schlosser says: “The bold and open defense of sensuality and love, expounded in the novels of George Sand without any shame, is in Corinne and Delphine by Madame de Stael covered with sophism about the duty imposed on a woman to obey conditional decency and about the freedom of a man. In addition to the frivolity of genius, Corinne also bears that resemblance to Goethe's Wilhelm Meister, that in it everything is reduced to declamatory poetry, just as everything in Goethe is reduced to art. It also bears this resemblance to the exemplary work of our aristocratic poet, that in it, just as in this poet and in Heinse, Italy is presented as an earthly paradise. Since our German domestic life was passed off as philistinism, our nature as northern prose, our cordial and reasonable religiosity as a lack of artistic taste and mobility of mind, all tender hearts in Berlin and Dresden sighed for papism, for Italy as such a country. where lemon trees bloom, oranges ripen, castrati sing, and pious art makes lack of morality tolerable. Madame de Stael's Corinne made exactly the same impression in the Parisian salons.

Madame de Stael. Portrait in the form of Corinna. OK. 1808-1809

After the fall of Napoleon, Madame Stael returned to Paris and there, until the end of her life, influenced both literature and public life in the spirit of liberal constitutionalism. From the circle that gathered at de Stael in Coppet came out the people who stood at the head of the constitutional opposition during the restoration and reign Louis Philippe, - such as her son-in-law the Duke of Broglie, her friend Benjamin Constant, historian and statesman Gizo; this circle also included people who tried to promote the spread of humane and liberal ideas, such as Bonstetten, who played the role of an intermediary between German and French literature, and the historian Sismondi. Among the predecessors of Madame de Stael can be attributed a publicist and diplomat, a Genevan native of Malle du Pan. In his Meditations on the French Revolution, he recommended a mixed form of government as most in keeping with human nature, referring to the general rule based on experience that democracy always prepares the ground for military despotism. And Madame Recamier, an amiable and wealthy lady, who knew how to attract everyone to her salons and charm everyone prominent people of her time - belonged to the circle of Madame de Stael, which was dominated by moderate political views, called the convictions of the Geneva school.