Hello, dear readers – seekers of knowledge and truth!

Many of us have heard about castes in India. This is not an exotic system of society that is a relic of the past. This is the reality that the people of India live in even today. If you want to know about Indian castes as much as possible - today’s article is especially for you.

She will tell you how the concepts of “caste”, “varna” and “jati” are related, why the caste division of society arose, how castes appeared, what they were like in ancient times, and what they are like now. You will also learn how many castes and varnas there are today, and also how to determine an Indian’s caste.

Caste and Varna

In world history, the concept of “caste” originally referred to Latin American colonies, which were divided into groups. But now, in people's minds, caste is strongly associated with Indian society.

Scientists - Indologists, orientalists - have been studying this unique phenomenon for many years, which does not lose its power after thousands of years, they write scientific works about it. The first thing they say is that there is caste and there is varna, and these are not synonymous concepts.

There are only four Varnas, and there are thousands of castes. Each varna is divided into many castes, or, in other words, “jatis”.

The last census, which took place in the first half of the last century, in 1931, counted more than three thousand castes throughout India. Experts say that their number is growing every year, but cannot give an exact figure.

The concept of “varna” has its roots in Sanskrit and is translated as “quality” or “color” - based on the specific color of clothing worn by representatives of each varna. Varna is a broader term that defines position in society, and caste or “jati” is a subgroup of varna, which indicates membership in a religious community, occupation by inheritance.

A simple and understandable analogy can be drawn. For example, let’s take a fairly wealthy segment of the population. People growing up in such families do not become the same in occupation and interests, but occupy approximately the same status in material terms.

They can become successful businessmen, representatives of the cultural elite, philanthropists, travelers or people of art - these are the so-called castes, passed through the prism of Western sociology.

From the very beginning until today, Indians have been divided into only four varnas:

• brahmins - priests, clergy; upper layer;
• kshatriyas - warriors who guarded the state, participated in battles and battles;
• Vaishya - farmers, cattle breeders and traders;
• Shudras - workers, servants; lower layer.

Each varna, in turn, was divided into countless castes. For example, among the kshatriyas there could be rulers, rajas, generals, warriors, policemen and further on the list.

There are members of society who cannot be included in any of the varnas - this is the so-called untouchable caste. At the same time, they can also be divided into subgroups. This means that a resident of India may not belong to any varna, but he must belong to a caste.

Varnas and castes unite people by religion, type of activity, profession, which are inherited - a sort of strictly regulated division of labor. These groups are closed to members of lower castes. An unequal marriage in Indian style is a marriage between representatives of different castes.

One of the reasons why castesystemso strong is the Indian belief in rebirth. They are convinced that by strictly observing all the regulations within their caste, in their next birth they can incarnate as a representative of a higher caste. Brahmins have already gone through their entire life cycle and will certainly incarnate on one of the divine planets.

Characteristics of castes

All castes follow certain rules:

• one religious affiliation;
• one profession;
• certain property they may possess;
• regulated list of rights;
• endogamy - marriages can only take place within a caste;
• heredity - belonging to a caste is determined from birth and is inherited from parents, you cannot move to a higher caste;
• the impossibility of physical contact, sharing food with representatives of lower castes;
• allowed food: meat or vegetarian, raw or cooked;
• color of clothes;
• the color of the bindi and tilak are the dots on the forehead.

Historical excursion

The varna system was entrenched in the Laws of Manu. Hindus believe that we all descended from Manu, because it was he who was saved from flooding thanks to the god Vishnu, while other people died. Believers claim that this happened about thirty thousand years ago, but skeptic scientists call another date - the 2nd century BC.

In the laws of Manu, with amazing accuracy and prudence, all the rules of life are described to the smallest detail: starting with how to swaddle newborns, ending with how to properly cultivate rice fields. It also talks about the division of people into 4 classes, already known to us.

Vedic literature, including the Rigveda, also says that all the inhabitants of ancient India were divided back in the 15th-12th centuries BC into 4 groups that emerged from the body of the god Brahma:

• brahmins - from the lips;
• kshatriyas—from the palms;
• vaishya—from the thighs;
• sudras - from the legs.

Clothing of the ancient Indians

There were several reasons for this division. One of them is the fact that the Aryans who came to Indian soil considered themselves to be a superior race and wanted to be among people like themselves, abstracting from the ignorant poor people who did what they considered “dirty” work.

Even the Aryans married exclusively women of the Brahman family. They divided the rest hierarchically according to skin color, profession, class - this is how the name “Varna” appeared.

In the Middle Ages, when Buddhism weakened in the Indian expanses and Hinduism spread everywhere, even greater fragmentation occurred within each varna, and from here castes, also known as jati, were born.

Thus, the rigid social structure became even more entrenched in India. No historical vicissitudes, neither the Muslim raids and the resulting Mughal Empire, nor the English expansion could prevent it.

How to distinguish people of different varnas

Brahmins

This is the highest varna, the class of priests and clergy. With the development of spirituality and the spread of religion, their role only increased.

The rules in society prescribed to honor the brahmins and give them generous gifts. The rulers chose them as their closest advisers and judges, appointing high ranks. At the present time, brahmanas are temple servants, teachers, and spiritual mentors.

TodayBrahmins occupy about three-quarters of all government posts. For the murder of a representative of Brahmanism, both then and now, the terrible death penalty invariably followed.

Brahmins are prohibited from:

• engage in agriculture and housekeeping (but Brahmin women can do housework);
• marry representatives of other classes;
• eat what a person from another group has prepared;
• eat animal products.

Kshatriyas

Translated, this varna means “people of power, nobility.” They are engaged in military affairs, govern the state, protect the Brahmins who are higher in the hierarchy, and their subjects: children, women, old people, cows - the country as a whole.

Today, the Kshatriya class consists of warriors, soldiers, guards, police, and leadership positions. Modern Kshatriyas also include the Jat caste, which includes the famous - these long-bearded men with a turban on their heads are found not only in their native state of Punjab, but throughout India.

A kshatriya can marry a woman from a lower varna, but girls cannot choose a husband of a lower rank.

Vaishya

Vaishyas are a group of landowners, cattle breeders, and traders. They also traded in crafts and everything related to profit - for this the Vaishyas earned the respect of the entire society.

Now they are also involved in analytics, business, the banking and financial side of life, and trading. This is also the main segment of the population that works in offices.

Vaishyas have never liked hard physical labor and dirty work - for this they have shudras. In addition, they are very picky when it comes to cooking and preparing dishes.

Shudras

In other words, these were people who performed the most menial jobs and were often below the poverty line. They serve other classes, work in the land, sometimes performing the function of almost slaves.

Shudras did not have the right to accumulate property, so they did not have their own housing and plots. They could not pray, much less become “twice-born,” that is, “dvija,” like the brahmanas, kshatriyas and vaishyas. But Shudras can even marry a divorced girl.

Dvija are men who, as children, underwent the upanyan initiation rite. After it, a person can perform religious rituals, so upanyan is considered a second birth. Women and Shudras are not allowed to visit him.

The Untouchables

A separate caste that cannot be classified as one of the four varnas is the untouchables. For a long time they experienced all kinds of persecution and even hatred from other Indians. And all because, in the view of Hinduism, untouchables in a past life led an unrighteous, sinful lifestyle, for which they were punished.

They are somewhere beyond this world and are not even considered people in the full sense of the word. These are mainly beggars who live on the streets, in slums and isolated ghettos, and rummage through garbage dumps. At best, they do the dirtiest work: they clean toilets, sewage, animal corpses, work as gravediggers, tanners, and burn dead animals.

Moreover, the number of untouchables reaches 15-17 percent of the total population of the country, that is, approximately every sixth Indian is an untouchable.

The caste “outside society” was prohibited from appearing in public places: schools, hospitals, transport, temples, shops. They were not only forbidden to approach others, but also to step on their shadows. And the Brahmins were offended by the mere presence of an untouchable in sight.

The term used for untouchables is Dalit, which means oppression.

Fortunately, in modern India, everything is changing - discrimination against untouchables is prohibited at the legislative level, now they can appear everywhere, receive education and medical care.

The only thing worse than being born an untouchable is being born a pariah - another subgroup of people who are completely erased from public life. They become the children of pariahs and inter-caste spouses, but there were times when just touching a pariah made a person the same.

Modernity

Some people in the Western world may think that the caste system in India is a thing of the past, but this is far from the truth. The number of castes is increasing, and this is the cornerstone among representatives of the authorities and ordinary people.

The diversity of castes can sometimes surprise, for example:

• jinvar – carry water;
• bhatra - brahmanas who earn money by alms;
• bhangi - remove garbage from the streets;
• darzi - sew clothes.

Many are inclined to believe that castes are evil because they discriminate against entire groups of people and infringe on their rights. During the election campaign, many politicians use this trick - they declare the fight against caste inequality as the main direction of their activities.

Of course, the division into castes is gradually losing its significance for people as citizens of the state, but still plays a significant role in interpersonal and religious relations, for example, in matters of marriage or cooperation in business.

The Government of India is doing a lot for the equality of all castes: they are legally equal, and absolutely all citizens are entitled to vote. Now the career of an Indian, especially in large cities, may depend not only on his origin, but also on personal merit, knowledge, and experience.

Even Dalits have the opportunity to build a brilliant career, including in the government apparatus. An excellent example of this is President Kocheril Raman Narayanan, from a family of untouchables, elected in 1997. Another confirmation of this is the untouchable Bhim Rao Ambedkar, who received a law degree in England and subsequently created the Constitution of 1950.

It contains a special Table of Castes and every citizen can, if he wishes, obtain a certificate indicating his caste in accordance with this table. The Constitution stipulates that government agencies have no right to be interested in what caste a person belongs to if he himself does not want to talk about it.

Conclusion

Thank you very much for your attention, dear readers! I would like to believe that the answers to your questions about Indian castes were comprehensive, and the article told you a lot of new things.

See you soon!

What determines the life of Hindus in modern ashrams and megacities? System public administration, built according to European patterns, or a special form of apartheid, which was supported by castes in ancient India and continues to embody today? The clash between the norms of Western civilization and Hindu traditions sometimes leads to unpredictable results.

Varnas and jati

Trying to understand what castes existed in India and continue to influence its society today, one should turn to the basics of the structure of tribal groups. Ancient societies regulated the gene pool and social relationships using two principles - endo- and exogamy. The first allows creating a family only within its area (tribe), the second prohibits marriages between representatives of part of this community (clan). Endogamy acts as a factor in preserving cultural identity, and exogamy counters the degenerative consequences of closely related relationships. To one degree or another, both mechanisms of biosocial regulation are necessary for the existence of civilization. We turn to the experience of South Asia because the role of endogamous castes in modern India and Nepal continues to be the most striking example of the phenomenon.

During the era of development of the territory (1500 - 1200 BC), the social system of the ancient Hindus already provided for division into four varnas (colors) - brahmanas (brahmins), kshatriyas, vaishyas and sudras. Varnas, presumably, were once homogeneous formations without additional class divisions.

During the early Middle Ages, with the growth of population and the development of social interaction, the main groups underwent further social stratification. The so-called “jatis” appeared, the status of which is associated with the original origin, history of the development of the group, professional activity and region of residence.

In turn, the jatis themselves contain many subgroups of different social status. One way or another, the harmonious pyramidal structure of subordination can be traced both in the example of jati and in the case of generalizing superclans - varnas.

Brahmins are considered the highest caste in India. Priests, theologians and philosophers among them play the role of a link between the worlds of gods and people. Kshatriyas bear the burden state power and military leaders. Gautama Siddhartha Buddha is the most famous representative this varna. The third social category in the Hindu hierarchy, Vaishyas, are predominantly clans of merchants and landowners. And finally, the “worker ants” of the Shudras are servants and hired workers with a narrow specialization.

The lowest caste in India - the untouchables (the Dalit group) - is outside the varna system, although it represents about 17% of the population and is involved in active social interaction. This group "brand" should not be taken literally. After all, even priests and warriors do not consider it shameful to get a haircut from a Dalit hairdresser. An example of the fantastic class emancipation of a representative of the untouchable caste in India was the Dalit K. R. Narayanan, who was the country's president in 1997-2002.

Europeans' synonymous perception of untouchables and pariahs is a common misconception. Pariahs are completely declassed and completely powerless people, deprived of even the very possibility of group association.

Mutual reflection of economic classes and castes in India

The last time information about class affiliation was studied was in 1930 during the population census. Then quantity castes in India was over 3000. If a bulletin table were used at such an event, it would be up to 200 pages. According to ethnographers and sociologists, the number of jati by the beginning of the 21st century had decreased by approximately half. This may be due to both industrial development and ignorance of caste differences among Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas educated in Western universities.

Technological progress leads to a certain decline in handicrafts. Industrial corporations, trading and transport companies need armies of identical shudras - workers, squads of middle managers from among vaishyas and kshatriyas in the role of top managers.

The mutual projections of economic classes and castes in modern India are not obvious. Most modern politicians are vaishyas and not kshatriyas, as one might assume. The leadership of large trading companies are mainly those who, according to the canon, should be warriors or rulers. And in rural areas there are even impoverished Brahmins cultivating the land...

Neither recreational tourist trips nor search queries like “India caste photos” will help you understand the contradictory reality of modern caste society. It is much more effective to get acquainted with the opinions of L. Alaev, I. Glushkova and other orientalists and Hindus on this issue.

Only tradition can be stronger than the law

The 1950 Constitution affirms the equality of all classes before the law. Moreover, even the slightest manifestation of discrimination - the question of origin during hiring - is a criminal offense. The irony of the collision of the modernist norm with reality is that Indians accurately determine the group affiliation of the interlocutor in a couple of minutes. Moreover, the name, facial features, speech, education and clothing do not have a decisive meaning here.

The secret to maintaining the importance of endogamy lies in the positive role it can play in social and ideological terms. Even the lower class is a kind of insurance company for its members. Castes and varnas in India are a cultural heritage, moral authority and a system of clubs. The authors of the Indian Constitution were aware of this, recognizing the initial endogamy of social groups. In addition, universal suffrage, unexpectedly for modernizers, became a factor in strengthening caste identification. Group positioning facilitates the tasks of propaganda and formation of political programs.

This is how the symbiosis of Hinduism and Western democracy is developing in a contradictory and unpredictable way. The caste structure of society demonstrates both illogicality and high adaptability to changing conditions. In ancient India castes were not considered eternal and indestructible formations, despite the fact that they were sanctified by the law of Manu from the “Aryan code of honor.” Who knows, perhaps we are witnessing the realization of the ancient Hindu prediction that “in the era of Kali Yuga, everyone will be born as Shudras.”

Hereditary orientalist Allan Rannu talks about human destiny and the four varnas as tools for understanding the world and oneself.

Divided people into four classes called varnas. The first varna, the brahmanas, intended to enlighten and govern humanity, he created from his head or mouth; the second, kshatriyas (warriors), protectors of society, from the hand; the third, Vaishya, the nourishers of the state, from the stomach; the fourth, sudra, from the legs, devoting it to an eternal destiny - to serve the highest varnas. Over time, the varnas were divided into many sub-castes and castes, called jati in India. The European name is caste.

So, the four ancient castes of India, their rights and duties according to the ancient law of Manu*, which was strictly observed in.

(* Laws of Manu - an ancient Indian collection of instructions for religious, moral and social duty (dharma), today also called the “law of the Aryans” or the “code of honor of the Aryans”).

Brahmins

Brahman “son of the sun, descendant of Brahma, god among men” (the usual titles of this class), according to the law of Menu, is the head of all created creatures; the whole universe is subject to him; the remaining mortals owe the preservation of their lives to his intercession and prayers; his almighty curse can instantly destroy formidable generals with their numerous hordes, chariots and war elephants. Brahman can create new worlds; may even give birth to new gods. A Brahmin should be given greater honor than a king.

The integrity of a Brahman and his life are protected by bloody laws. If a Shudra dares to verbally insult a Brahman, then the law orders that a red-hot iron be driven into his throat, ten inches deep; and if he decides to give some instruction to the brahmana, boiling oil is poured into the unfortunate man’s mouth and ears. On the other hand, anyone is allowed to take a false oath or give false testimony before a court if by these actions one can save a Brahman from condemnation.

A Brahman cannot, under any condition, be executed or punished, either physically or financially, although he would be convicted of the most outrageous crimes: the only punishment to which he is subject is removal from the fatherland, or exclusion from the caste.

Brahmins are divided into lay and spiritual, and are divided according to their occupations into different classes. It is noteworthy that among the spiritual Brahmins, the priests occupy the lowest level, and the highest are those who devoted themselves only to the interpretation of sacred books. Lay brahmins are the king's advisors, judges and other high officials.

Only a brahmana is given the right to interpret sacred books, conduct worship and predict the future; but he is deprived of this last right if he makes a mistake in his predictions three times. A Brahman can primarily heal, for “illness is the punishment of the gods”; only a Brahmin can be a judge because the civil and criminal laws of the Hindus are included in their holy books.

The entire way of life of a brahmana is built on compliance with a whole set of strict rules. For example, all brahmins are prohibited from accepting gifts from unworthy persons (lower castes). Music, dancing, hunting and gambling, are also prohibited to all brahmanas. But the consumption of wine and all sorts of intoxicating things, such as onions, garlic, eggs, fish, any meat, except from animals slaughtered as a sacrifice to the gods, is prohibited only to lower brahmanas.

A Brahman will defile himself if he sits at the same table even with the king, not to mention members of the lower castes or his own wives. He is obliged not to look at the sun at certain hours and to leave the house when it rains; he cannot step through the rope to which the cow is tied, and must pass by this sacred animal or idol, only leaving it on his right.

In case of need, a Brahman is allowed to beg alms from people of the three highest castes and engage in trade; but under no circumstances can he serve anyone.

A Brahman who wants to receive the honorary title of interpreter of laws and supreme guru prepares for this through various hardships. He renounces marriage, devotes himself to a thorough study of the Vedas in some monastery for 12 years, refraining from even conversation for the last 5 and explaining himself only by signs; Thus, he finally achieves the desired goal and becomes a spiritual teacher.

Monetary support for the Brahman caste is also provided for by law. Generosity towards Brahmins constitutes a religious virtue for all believers, and is the direct duty of rulers. Upon the death of a rootless Brahman, his property goes not to the treasury, but to the caste. A brahmana does not pay any taxes. Thunder would kill the king who dared to encroach on the person or property of a Brahman; the poor Brahmin is maintained at state expense.

The life of a Brahmin is divided into 4 stages.

First stage begins even before birth, when learned men are sent to the pregnant wife of a brahman for conversations in order to “thus prepare the child for the perception of wisdom.” At 12 days the baby is given a name, at three years his head is shaved, leaving only a piece of hair called kudumi. Several years later, the child is placed in the arms of a spiritual mentor (guru). Education with this guru usually lasts from 7-8 to 15 years. During the entire period of education, which consists mainly of the study of the Vedas, the student is obliged to blindly obey his mentor and all members of his family. He is often entrusted with the most menial household tasks, and he must perform them unquestioningly. The will of the guru replaces his law and conscience; his smile serves as the best reward. At this stage, the child is considered one-born.

Second stage begins after the ritual of initiation or rebirth, which the young man undergoes after completing the teaching. From this moment on, he is twice-born. During this period, he marries, raises his family and performs the duties of a brahmin.

The third period of a brahmana's life is vanaprastra.. Having reached the age of 40, a brahmana enters the third period of his life, called vanaprastra. He must retire to deserted places and become a hermit. Here he covers his nakedness with tree bark or the skin of a black antelope; does not cut nails or hair; sleeps on a rock or on the ground; must spend days and nights “without a home, without a fire, in complete silence, and eating only roots and fruits.” The Brahman spends his days in prayer and mortification.

Having thus spent 22 years in prayer and fasting, the Brahmana enters the fourth department of life, called sannyas. Only here he is freed from all external rituals. The old hermit deepens into perfect contemplation. The soul of a brahmana who dies in a state of sannyas immediately acquires merger with the deity (nirvana); and his body, in a sitting position, is lowered into the pit and sprinkled with salt all around.

The color of a brahman's clothing depended on what spiritual structure they belonged to. Sanyasi, monks, renounced the world wore orange clothes, family ones wore white.

Kshatriyas

The second caste consists of kshatriyas, warriors. According to the law of Menu, members of this caste could make sacrifices, and the study of the Vedas was a special duty for princes and heroes; but subsequently the Brahmins left them only permission to read or listen to the Vedas, without analyzing or interpreting them, and appropriated the right to explain the texts to themselves.

Kshatriyas should give alms, but not accept them, avoid vices and sensual pleasures, live simply, “as a warrior should.” The law states that “the priestly caste cannot exist without the warrior caste, just as the latter cannot exist without the former, and that the peace of the whole world depends on the consent of both, on the union of knowledge and the sword.”

With few exceptions, all kings, princes, generals and first rulers belong to the second caste; Since ancient times, the judicial part and the management of education have been in the hands of Brahmins (Brahmins). Kshatriyas are allowed to consume all meat except beef. This caste was previously divided into three parts: all the ruling and non-ruling princes (rayas) and their children (rayanutras) belonged to the upper class.

Kshatriyas wore red clothes.

Vaishya

The third caste is the Vaishyas. Previously, they too participated both in sacrifices and in the right to read the Vedas, but later, through the efforts of the brahmanas, they lost these advantages. Although the Vaishyas stood much lower than the Kshatriyas, they still occupied an honorable place in society. They had to engage in trade, arable farming and cattle breeding. The Vaishya's rights to property were respected, and his fields were considered inviolable. He had the religious right to let money grow.

The highest castes - Brahmins, Kshatriyas and Vaishyas, used all three scarfs, senar, each caste - their own, and were called twice-born, as opposed to once-born - Shudras.

Shudras

The duty of a sudra, Menu says briefly, is to serve the three highest castes. It is best for a Shudra to serve a Brahmin, if not a Kshatriya, and finally a Vaishya. In this only case, if he does not find an opportunity to enter into service, he is allowed to take up a useful craft. The soul of a Shudra, who has diligently and honestly served his entire life as a Brahmin, upon migration, is reborn into a person of the highest caste.

A Shudra is forbidden to even look at the Vedas. A Brahman not only has no right to interpret the Vedas to a Shudra, but is also obliged to read them to himself in the presence of the latter. A Brahmin who allows himself to interpret the law to a Shudra, or explain to him the means of repentance, will be punished in the Asamarit hell.

A Shudra must eat the scraps of his masters and wear their cast-offs. He is forbidden to acquire anything, “so that he does not take it into his head to become arrogant to the temptation of the sacred Brahmins.” If a Shudra verbally insults a Veisha or a Kshatriya, his tongue is cut out; if he dares to sit next to the Brahman, or take his place, then a red-hot iron is applied to the more guilty part of the body. The name of a sudra, says the law of Menu: there is a swear word, and the fine for killing it does not exceed the amount that is paid for the death of an unimportant domestic animal, for example, a dog or a cat. Killing a cow is considered a much more reprehensible act: killing a Shudra is a misdemeanor; Killing a cow is a sin!

Bondage is the natural position of a Shudra, and the master cannot free him by giving him leave; “for, says the law: who, except death, can liberate a Shudra from the natural state?”

It is quite difficult for us Europeans to understand such an alien world and we, involuntarily, want to bring everything under our own concepts - and this is what misleads us. So, for example, according to the concepts of the Hindus, the Shudras constitute a class of people designated by nature for service in general, but at the same time they are not considered slaves and do not constitute the property of private individuals.

The attitude of the masters towards the Shudras, despite the given examples of an inhuman view of them, from a religious point of view, was determined by civil law, especially the measure and method of punishment, which in all respects coincided with the patriarchal punishments allowed folk custom in the relationship of father to son, or elder brother to younger brother, husband to wife, and guru to disciple.

Impure castes

Just as almost everywhere women were subjected to discrimination and all kinds of restrictions, so in India the strictness of caste division weighs much more heavily on women than on men. When entering into a second marriage, a man is allowed to choose a wife from a lower caste other than a Shudra. So, for example, a Brahmin can marry a woman of the second or even third caste; the children of this mixed marriage will occupy a middle rank between the castes of the father and mother. A woman, marrying a man of a lower caste, commits a crime: she defiles herself and all her offspring. Shudras can only marry among themselves.

The mixing of any of the castes with the Shudras gives rise to impure castes, of which the most despicable is the one that comes from the mixing of a Shudra with a Brahmin. The members of this caste are called Chandals, and must be executioners or flayers; the touch of a chandala entails expulsion from the caste.

The Untouchables

Below the unclean castes there is still a miserable race of pariahs. They do the lowest jobs together with the Chandals. The pariahs skin the carrion, process it, and eat the meat; but they abstain from cow meat. Their touch defiles not only a person, but also objects. They have their own special wells; near the cities they are given a special quarter, surrounded by a moat and slingshots. They also do not have the right to show themselves in villages, but must hide in forests, caves and swamps.

A Brahmin, defiled by the shadow of a pariah, must bathe in the sacred waters of the Ganges, for only they can wash away such a stain of shame.

Even lower than the Pariah are the Pulai, who live on the Malabar Coast. Slaves of the Nairs, they are forced to take refuge in damp dungeons, and do not dare to raise their eyes to the noble Hindu. Seeing a Brahmin or Nair from afar, the pulai emit a loud roar to warn the masters of their proximity, and while the “gentlemen” wait on the road, they must hide in a cave, in the thicket of the forest, or climb a tall tree. Those who did not have time to hide are cut down by the Nairs like an unclean reptile. The Pulai live in terrible untidiness, eating carrion and all kinds of meat except cow meat.

But even a pulai can rest for a moment from the overwhelming universal contempt; There are human creatures even more pitiful, lower than him: these are the pariyars, lower because, sharing all the humiliation of the pulai, they allow themselves to eat cow meat!.. You can imagine how the soul of a devout Hindu shudders at such sacrilege, and therefore the Europeans and Muslims who also do not respect the sanctity of fat Indian cows and introduce them to the location of their kitchen, all of them, in his opinion, morally, are completely in line with the despicable pariar.

CASTES, a term applied primarily to the major division of Hindu society in the Indian subcontinent. It is also used to designate any social group that adheres to strict norms of group behavior and does not allow outsiders into its ranks. The main characteristics of the Indian caste: endogamy (marriage exclusively between members of the caste); hereditary membership (accompanied by the practical impossibility of moving to another caste); prohibition on sharing meals with representatives of other castes, as well as having physical contact with them; recognition of the firmly established place of each caste in the hierarchical structure of society as a whole; restrictions on choosing a profession; autonomy of castes in regulating intra-caste social relations.

STORY

Origin of Varnas . Of the most early works It is known from Sanskrit literature that the peoples who spoke Aryan dialects during the period of the initial settlement of India (from approximately 1500 to 1200 BC) were already divided into four main classes, later called “varnas” (Sanskrit “color”): Brahmins (priests ), Kshatriyas (warriors), Vaishyas (traders, herders and farmers) and Shudras (servants and laborers).

Hindus believe in reincarnation and believe that whoever follows the rules of his caste future life rises by birth to a higher caste, the one who violates these rules will lose social status. See also METEMPSYCHOSIS.

Stability of castes . Throughout Indian history, the caste structure has shown remarkable stability in the face of change. Even the rise of Buddhism and its adoption as the state religion by Emperor Ashoka (269-232 BC) did not affect the system of hereditary groups. Unlike Hinduism, Buddhism as a doctrine does not support caste division, but at the same time it does not insist on the complete abolition of caste differences.

During the rise of Hinduism, which followed the decline of Buddhism, from a simple, uncomplicated system of four varnas, a complex multi-layered system grew, which built a strict order of alternation and correlation of different social groups. Each varna defined in the course of this process the framework for many independent endogamous castes (jatis). Neither the Muslim invasion, which ended with the formation of the Mughal Empire, nor the establishment of British rule shook the fundamental foundations of the caste organization of society. See also BUDDHA AND BUDDHISM; HINDUISM.

Castes in modern India . The Indian castes are literally countless. Since each named caste is divided into many sub-castes, it is impossible to even approximately calculate the number of social units possessing the minimum necessary characteristics of jati. The official tendency to downplay the importance of the caste system has led to the disappearance of the corresponding column in the once-a-decade population censuses. The last time information about the number of castes was published was in 1931 (3000 castes). But this figure does not necessarily include all local podcasts that operate as independent social groups.

It is widely believed that in the modern Indian state castes have lost their former meaning. However, developments have shown that this is far from the case. The position taken by the INC and the Indian government after Gandhi's death is controversial. Moreover, universal suffrage and the need politicians in the support of the electorate they gave new importance to esprit de corps and internal cohesion of the castes. As a consequence, caste interests became an important factor during election campaigns.

NATURE OF CASTE

Brahmins. In a typical rural area, the highest stratum of the caste hierarchy is formed by members of one or more Brahmin castes, constituting 5 to 10% of the population. Among these Brahmins there are a number of landowners, a few village clerks and accountants or accountants, and a small group of clergy who perform ritual functions in local sanctuaries and temples. Members of each Brahmin caste marry only within their own circle, although it is possible to marry a bride from a family belonging to a similar subcaste from a neighboring area. Brahmins are not supposed to follow the plow or perform certain types of manual labor; women from their midst can serve in the house, and landowners can cultivate plots, but not plow. Brahmins are also allowed to work as cooks or domestic servants.

A Brahman has no right to eat food prepared outside his caste, but members of all other castes can eat from the hands of Brahmans. When choosing food, a Brahmin observes many prohibitions. Members of the Vaishnava caste (who worship the god Vishnu) have adhered to vegetarianism since the 4th century, when it became widespread; some other castes of Brahmans who worship Shiva (Shaiva Brahmans) do not in principle refuse meat dishes, but abstain from the meat of animals included in the diet of lower castes.

Brahmins serve as spiritual guides in the families of most high- or middle-status castes, except those considered "impure". Brahmin priests, as well as members of a number of religious orders, are often recognized by their “caste marks” - patterns painted on the forehead with white, yellow or red paint. But such marks indicate only membership in a major sect and characterize a given person as a worshiper of, for example, Vishnu or Shiva, and not as a subject of a particular caste or sub-caste.

Brahmins, more than others, adhere to the occupations and professions that were provided for in their varna. Over the course of many centuries, scribes, clerks, clergymen, scientists, teachers and officials emerged from their midst. Back in the first half of the 20th century. in some areas, brahmins occupied up to 75% of all more or less important government positions.

In communicating with the rest of the population, Brahmins do not allow reciprocity; Thus, they accept money or gifts from members of other castes, but they themselves never make gifts of a ritual or ceremonial nature. There is no complete equality among the Brahman castes, but even the lowest of them stands above the rest of the highest castes.

Kshatriyas. After the Brahmins, the most prominent hierarchical place is occupied by the Kshatriya castes. In rural areas they include, for example, landowners, possibly associated with former ruling houses (for example, the Rajput princes in North India). Traditional occupations in such castes are working as managers on estates and serving in various administrative positions and in the army, but now these castes no longer enjoy the same power and authority. In ritual terms, the Kshatriyas are immediately behind the Brahmins and also observe strict caste endogamy, although they allow marriage with a girl from a lower subcaste (a union called hypergamy), but in no case can a woman marry a man from a subcaste lower than her own. Most kshatriyas eat meat; they have the right to accept food from Brahmins, but not from representatives of any other castes.

Vaishya. The third category of "twice-born" castes includes merchants, shopkeepers and moneylenders. These castes recognize the superiority of the Brahmins, but do not necessarily show the same attitude towards the Kshatriya castes; as a rule, vaishyas are more strict in observing the rules regarding food, and are even more careful to avoid ritual pollution. The traditional occupation of Vaishyas is trade and banking; they tend to stay away from physical labor, but sometimes they are included in the management of the farms of landowners and village entrepreneurs, without directly participating in the cultivation of the land.

"Pure" Shudras. Members of the above "twice-born" castes constitute only a minority of the inhabitants of any rural area, while the majority of the agrarian population consists of one or more castes, called "pure" Shudra castes. Although such castes are included in the fourth varna, this does not mean that they occupy the lowest level in the social hierarchy: there are many areas where the peasant caste, due to its numbers and ownership of a significant part of the local land, plays a vital role in solving social and political issues . In ancient times, the Shudra peasant castes recognized the political dominance of the Kshatriyas who ruled the area, but today these relations are a thing of the past, and the superiority of the Kshatriya landowners is recognized only in ritual terms, and even then not always. Peasants employ Brahmins as family priests and market their produce through members of merchant castes. Individuals from “pure” sudras can act as tenants of plots from brahmanas, landowners, and merchants.

All peasant castes are endogamous, and even with approximately equal status, as is observed in many areas, out-of-caste marriages are not allowed. The rules regarding food intake among the farming castes are less strict than among the “twice-born”; they eat meat. Their regulations also leave much more space for social acts, allowing, for example, the marriage of widows and divorced women, which is strictly prohibited among the “twice-born”.

Lower Shudras. Below those Shudras who are engaged in agriculture are numerous castes whose profession is of a highly specialized nature, but is generally considered less respectable. These are the castes of potters, blacksmiths, carpenters, joiners, weavers, oil makers, distillers, masons, barbers, musicians, tanners, butchers, scavengers and many others. Members of these castes are supposed to practice their hereditary profession or craft; however, if a Shudra is able to acquire land, any of them can engage in agriculture. Members of many craft and other professional castes have traditionally had traditional relationships with members of higher castes, which consist of the provision of services for which no cash is paid, but an annual remuneration in kind. This payment is made by each household in the village whose requests are satisfied by a given member of the professional caste. For example, a blacksmith has his own circle of clients, for whom he makes and repairs equipment and other metal products all year round, for which he, in turn, is given a certain amount of grain.

The Untouchables. Those whose professions require physical touching of clients (such as barbers or people who specialize in washing clothes) serve members of castes higher than their own, but potters or blacksmiths work for the entire village, regardless of the caste of the client. Activities such as tanning leather or slaughtering animals are considered clearly polluting, and although this work is very important to the community, those who engage in it are considered untouchables. In many respects they are outside the boundaries of Hindu society, they were called "outcaste", "low", "scheduled" castes, and Gandhi proposed the euphemism "harijans" ("children of God"), which became widely used. Members of these castes are prohibited from visiting the houses of the “pure” castes and drawing water from their wells. Most Hindu temples until recently were closed to untouchables; there was even a ban on approaching people from higher castes closer than a set number of steps. The nature of caste barriers is such that Harijans are believed to continue to pollute members of the “pure” castes, even if they have long abandoned their caste occupation and are engaged in ritually neutral activities, such as agriculture. Although in others social conditions and situations, for example, while in an industrial city or on a train, an untouchable can have physical contact with members of higher castes and not pollute them; in his home village, untouchability is inseparable from him, no matter what he does.

Economic interdependence . The various professional castes are economically interdependent, and their functions are complementary rather than competitive. Each caste has the right to perform certain jobs that other castes are prohibited from doing. Its members in any given locality usually form a closely knit group of relatives who do not compete to provide services to other castes, but by mutual agreement share the clientele among themselves. For this reason, they are in an advantageous position in relation to members of the castes standing at the upper levels of the caste hierarchy, who are forbidden to change at their discretion the blacksmith, barber or person who washes their clothes.

Lack of competition does not apply to those cultivating the land. Although there are traditional peasant castes from which people will never become potters or weavers, tillage is not an exclusively hereditary occupation and a member of any caste can work the land. Wherever a group of artisans becomes too numerous and lacks a clientele, or where the advent of machine-made goods creates unemployment, those who can no longer live on the traditional trade tend to turn to peasant labor and become agricultural laborers or tenants.

The special patron-client relationship between the upper, land-owning castes and the professional castes of artisans and laborers is called the jajmani system. To jajman, which means patron-landlord in Hindi, people from other castes provide services in exchange for a certain amount of grain received annually.

Hierarchy. The rigid hierarchy and economic interdependence of castes have the closest connection with the fact that castes and sub-castes are endogamous and represent hereditary groups. However, in practice, a person from a high caste may be accepted into a lower caste; Thus, in the case of an unequal marriage between members of two different castes deviating from the rule, the person who is higher in status has no choice but to ask for his (or her) life partner. Such mobility is always unilinear and directed from top to bottom.

The idea of ​​maintaining social distance between castes is based on the concepts of pollution and ritual purity. Many activities, from performing religious rites and offering prayers to cooking, are permitted only in a state of ritual purity. Thus, a person belonging to a high caste may be defiled not only by an intentional act, such as sexual intercourse with an untouchable, but also unintentionally, such as by eating food prepared by a person of lower ritual status, or even by sharing a meal with a person of another high caste, having, however, lost their ritual purity. Defilement is contagious, and the family or caste group must remain constantly vigilant against any contact with a potential carrier of defilement. Caste members in highest degree are intolerant of deviant behavior on the part of fellow caste members and excommunicate anyone who does not comply with accepted norms. Most castes have their own regional councils, which deal with issues affecting the welfare and especially the prestige of the caste. These councils also function as judicial bodies and have the power to investigate and punish misconduct, expelling the offender from the caste if necessary. Return to it is possible in all cases, except for particularly egregious ones, provided that the violator pays a fine and undergoes a purification ceremony. Being extremely strict regarding the observance of rules and prohibitions within their own caste, Hindus are usually tolerant of the norms of behavior accepted in other castes.

Indian caste system outside India . This system is widespread throughout the country, with the exception of a few marginal tribal areas such as Nagaland. It also prevails in much of Nepal, where immigrants from India brought with them a social order essentially replicating that of medieval India. The indigenous population of the main Nepalese cities where the Newars live is largely organized on a caste basis, but the idea of ​​castes has not spread to the peoples of the mountainous regions and adherents of Tibetan Buddhism.

In Bangladesh, the caste system continues to operate among the remaining Hindus there, and even in the country's Muslim community there is a similar stratification.

In Sri Lanka, Sinhalese Buddhists and Tamil Hindus are also divided into castes. Although there are no Brahmins or other “twice-born” on the island, here, as in India, the division of labor along caste lines and mutual obligations of a ritual and economic nature are preserved.

Outside India, the ideas and practices inherent in the caste system prevail, often in a modified and weakened form, wherever significant numbers of Indians have settled, such as Malaysia, East Africa and Fiji.

On September 24, 1932, the right to vote in India was granted to the untouchable caste. the site decided to tell its readers how it was formed and how it exists in modern world Indian caste system.

Indian society is divided into classes called castes. This division occurred many thousands of years ago and continues to this day. Hindus believe that by following the rules established in your caste, in your next life you can be born as a representative of a slightly higher and more respected caste, and occupy a much better position in society.

After leaving the Indus Valley, Indian arias conquered the country along the Ganges and founded many states here, whose population consisted of two classes, differing in legal and financial status. The new Aryan settlers, the victors, took over India and land, and honor, and power, and the defeated non-Indo-European natives were plunged into contempt and humiliation, forced into slavery or into a dependent state, or, driven into the forests and mountains, there they led a meager life in inaction of thought without any culture. This result of the Aryan conquest gave rise to the origin of the four main Indian castes (varnas).

Those original inhabitants of India who were subdued by the power of the sword suffered the fate of captives and became mere slaves. The Indians, who submitted voluntarily, renounced their fatherly gods, adopted the language, laws and customs of the victors, retained personal freedom, but lost all land property and had to live as workers on the estates of the Aryans, servants and porters, in the houses of rich people. From them came a caste sudra . "Sudra" is not a Sanskrit word. Before becoming the name of one of the Indian castes, it was probably the name of some people. The Aryans considered it beneath their dignity to enter into marriage unions with representatives of the Shudra caste. Shudra women were only concubines among the Aryans.

Over time, sharp differences in status and professions emerged between the Aryan conquerors of India themselves. But in relation to the lower caste - the dark-skinned, conquered native population - they all remained a privileged class. Only the Aryans had the right to read the sacred books; only they were consecrated by a solemn ceremony: a sacred thread was placed on the Aryan, making him “reborn” (or “twice-born”, dvija). This ritual served as a symbolic distinction between all Aryans and the Shudra caste and the despised native tribes driven into the forests. Consecration was performed by placing a cord, which was worn placed on the right shoulder and descending diagonally across the chest. Among the Brahmin caste, the cord could be placed on a boy from 8 to 15 years old, and it is made of cotton yarn; among the Kshatriya caste, who received it no earlier than the 11th year, it was made from kusha (Indian spinning plant), and among the Vaishya caste, who received it no earlier than the 12th year, it was made of wool.

Indian society was divided into castes many thousands of years ago

The "twice-born" Aryans, over time, were divided according to differences in occupation and origin into three estates or castes, which have some similarities with the three estates medieval Europe: clergy, nobility and urban middle class. The beginnings of caste structures among the Aryans existed back in the days when they lived only in the Indus basin: there, from the mass of the agricultural and pastoral population, warlike princes of the tribes, surrounded by people skilled in military affairs, as well as priests who performed sacrificial rites, already stood out.

When the Aryan tribes moved further into India, into the country of the Ganges, militant energy increased in bloody wars with the exterminated natives, and then in a fierce struggle between the Aryan tribes. Until the conquests were completed, the entire people were busy with military affairs. Only when the peaceful possession of the conquered country began did it become possible for a variety of occupations to develop, the possibility of choosing between different professions arose, and the new stage origin of castes. The fertility of the Indian soil aroused the desire for peaceful means of subsistence. From this, the innate tendency of the Aryans quickly developed, according to which it was more pleasant for them to work quietly and enjoy the fruits of their labor than to make difficult military efforts. Therefore, a significant part of the settlers (“vishes”) turned to agriculture, which produced abundant harvests, leaving the fight against enemies and the protection of the country to the tribal princes and the military nobility formed during the period of conquest. This class, engaged in arable farming and partly shepherding, soon grew so that among the Aryans, as in Western Europe, it formed the vast majority of the population. Because the name vaishya "settler", which originally meant all Aryan inhabitants in new areas, came to mean only people of the third, working Indian caste, and warriors, kshatriyas and priests, brahmanas (“prayers”), who over time became the privileged classes, made the names of their professions the names of the two highest castes.

The four Indian classes listed above became completely closed castes (varnas) only when they rose above the ancient service of Indra and other gods of nature. Brahmanism, - new religious teaching about Brahma , the soul of the universe, the source of life, from which all beings originated and to which they will return. This reformed creed gave religious sanctity to the division of the Indian nation into castes, especially the priestly caste. It said that in the cycle of life forms passed through by everything existing on earth, brahman is the highest form of existence. According to the dogma of rebirth and transmigration of souls, a creature born in human form must go through all four castes in turn: to be a Shudra, a Vaishya, a Kshatriya and, finally, a Brahman; having passed through these forms of existence, it is reunited with Brahma. The only way to achieve this goal is for a person, constantly striving for deity, to exactly fulfill everything commanded by the brahmanas, to honor them, to please them with gifts and signs of respect. Offenses against Brahmanas, severely punished on earth, subject the wicked to the most terrible torments of hell and rebirth in the forms of despised animals.

According to the dogma of transmigration of souls, a person must go through all four castes

The belief in the dependence of the future life on the present was the main support of the Indian caste division and the rule of the priests. The more decisively the Brahman clergy placed the dogma of transmigration of souls at the center of all moral teaching, the more successfully it filled the imagination of the people with terrible pictures of hellish torment, the more honor and influence it acquired. Representatives of the highest caste of Brahmins are close to the gods; they know the path leading to Brahma; their prayers, sacrifices, holy feats of their asceticism have magical power over the gods, the gods have to fulfill their will; bliss and suffering in the future life depend on them. It is not surprising that with the development of religiosity among the Indians, the power of the Brahman caste increased, tirelessly praising in its holy teachings respect and generosity towards the Brahmans as the surest ways to obtain bliss, instilling in the kings that the ruler is obliged to have Brahmans as his advisers and make judges, is obliged to reward their service with rich content and pious gifts.

So that the lower Indian castes would not envy the privileged position of the Brahmans and would not encroach on it, the doctrine was developed and strenuously preached that the forms of life for all beings were predetermined by Brahma, and that the progression through the degrees of human rebirth is accomplished only by a calm, peaceful life in given to the person position, faithful performance of duties. Thus, in one of the oldest parts of the Mahabharata it is said: “When Brahma created beings, he gave them their occupations, to each caste special activity: for brahmanas - the study of the lofty Vedas, for warriors - heroism, for vaishyas - the art of labor, for sudras - humility before other flowers: therefore ignorant brahmanas, ignorant warriors, unskillful vaishyas and disobedient sudras are worthy of reproach.”

This dogma, which attributed divine origin to every caste, every profession, consoled the humiliated and despised in their insults and deprivations real life hope for a better fate in their future existence. He gave religious sanctification to the Indian caste hierarchy. The division of people into four classes, unequal in their rights, was from this point of view an eternal, unchangeable law, the violation of which is the most criminal sin. People do not have the right to overthrow the caste barriers established between them by God himself; They can achieve improvement in their fate only through patient submission.

The mutual relations between the Indian castes were clearly characterized by the teaching; that Brahma produced Brahmanas from his mouth (or the first man Purusha), Kshatriyas from his hands, Vaishyas from his thighs, Shudras from his feet dirty in mud, therefore the essence of nature for Brahmanas is “holiness and wisdom”, for Kshatriyas - “power and strength”, among the Vaishyas - “wealth and profit”, among the Shudras - “service and obedience”. The doctrine of the origin of castes from different parts the highest being is set forth in one of the hymns of the last, newest book of the Rig Veda. There are no concepts of caste in the older songs of the Rig Veda. Brahmins attach extreme importance to this hymn, and every true believer Brahmin recites it every morning after bathing. This hymn is the diploma with which the Brahmins legitimized their privileges, their dominion.

Some Brahmins are not allowed to eat meat.

Thus, the Indian people were led by their history, their inclinations and customs to fall under the yoke of the caste hierarchy, which turned classes and professions into tribes alien to each other, drowning out all human aspirations, all the inclinations of humanity.

Main characteristics of castes

Each Indian caste has its own characteristics and unique characteristics, rules of existence and behavior.

Brahmins are the highest caste

Brahmins in India are priests and priests in temples. Their position in society has always been considered the highest, even higher than the position of ruler. Currently, representatives of the Brahmin caste are also involved in the spiritual development of the people: they teach various practices, look after temples, and work as teachers.

Brahmins have a lot of prohibitions:

Men are not allowed to work in the fields or do any manual labor, but women can do various household chores.

A representative of the priestly caste can only marry someone like himself, but as an exception, a wedding with a Brahman from another community is allowed.

A Brahmana cannot eat what a person of another caste has prepared; a Brahmana would rather starve than eat forbidden food. But he can feed a representative of absolutely any caste.

Some brahmanas are not allowed to eat meat.

Kshatriyas - warrior caste

Representatives of the Kshatriyas always performed the duties of soldiers, guards and policemen.

Currently, nothing has changed - kshatriyas are engaged in military affairs or go to administrative work. They can marry not only in their own caste: a man can marry a girl from a lower caste, but a woman is prohibited from marrying a man from a lower caste. Kshatriyas can eat animal products, but they also avoid forbidden foods.

Vaishyas, like no one else, monitor the correct preparation of food

Vaishya

Vaishyas have always been the working class: they farmed, raised livestock, and traded.

Now representatives of the Vaishyas are engaged in economic and financial affairs, various trades, and the banking sector. Probably, this caste is the most scrupulous in matters related to food intake: vaishyas, like no one else, monitor the correct preparation of food and will never eat contaminated dishes.

Shudras - the lowest caste

The Shudra caste has always existed in the role of peasants or even slaves: they did the dirtiest and hardest work. Even in our time, this social stratum is the poorest and often lives below the poverty line. Shudras can marry even divorced women.

The Untouchables

The untouchable caste stands out separately: such people are excluded from all public relations. They do the dirtiest jobs: cleaning streets and toilets, burning dead animals, tanning leather.

Amazingly, representatives of this caste were not even allowed to step on the shadows of representatives of higher classes. And only very recently they were allowed to enter churches and approach people of other classes.

Unique Features of Castes

Having a brahmana in your neighborhood, you can give him a lot of gifts, but you shouldn’t expect anything in return. Brahmins never give gifts: they accept, but do not give.

In terms of land ownership, the Shudras can be even more influential than the Vaishyas.

The untouchables were not allowed to step on the shadows of people from the upper classes

Shudras of the lower stratum practically do not use money: they are paid for their work in food and household supplies.You can move to a lower caste, but it is impossible to get a caste of a higher rank.

Castes and modernity

Today, Indian castes have become even more structured, with many different subgroups called jatis.

During the last census of representatives of various castes, there were more than 3 thousand jatis. True, this census took place more than 80 years ago.

Many foreigners consider the caste system to be a relic of the past and believe that the caste system no longer works in modern India. In fact, everything is completely different. Even the Indian government could not come to a consensus regarding this stratification of society. Politicians actively work on dividing society into layers during elections, adding protection of the rights of a particular caste to their election promises.

In modern India, more than 20 percent of the population belongs to the untouchable caste: they have to live in their own separate ghettos or below the line settlement. Such people are not allowed to enter stores, government and medical institutions, or even use public transport.

In modern India, more than 20% of the population belongs to the untouchable caste

The untouchable caste has a completely unique subgroup: society’s attitude towards it is quite contradictory. These include homosexuals, transvestites and eunuchs who make their living through prostitution and asking tourists for coins. But what a paradox: the presence of such a person at the holiday is considered a very good sign.

Another amazing podcast of the untouchables is Pariah. These are people completely expelled from society - marginalized. Previously, one could become a pariah even by touching such a person, but now the situation has changed a little: one becomes a pariah either by being born from an intercaste marriage, or from pariah parents.