The perception of the world of the medieval man had many features. One of them (maybe one of the fundamental) was the absence of strict opposition of the world of the Divine and Earth. These areas were in mutual direct contact.

Supernatural literally penetrated everyday life and penetrated into all spheres of life105. It was believed in his ability to remember about him, and the actions committed themselves with the understanding that in everyday life, something wonderful, non-fulfillible laws of ordinary existence can meet.

The famous story about Belgorod Kiere is very significant in this regard, which is one of the stories of the history of many years of confrontation with the Pechenegs described in the "Tale of Bygone Years" under 997.106. Already Karamzin it seemed unlikely107. Indeed, from the standpoint of modern rational consciousness, it seems to be evidenced by the extreme (implausible) of the peculiarity of the Pechenegs who shot the siege, believing that the inhabitants of Belgorod have a "feed from Earth" in the form of a jelly and swell, which they draw from the wells. Yes, and the Belgorodians themselves in this situation look hardly more winning, as the trick of them was, in general, quite naive and the successful result of the conceived operation was ensured as if only even greater naiveness of the enemy.

Typically, a strange combination of naivety and recklessness in history about Belgorod Kisel is made to explain folklorence (meant by an explanation) of the initial part of the PVL. This explanation, however, is quite superficial, because this story was placed in the chronicle, and therefore serious doubts in its truth. At least, the chronicler did not have.

How could this happen? The meaningfulness of the participants in the events and the explanation of the apparent non-criticalness Summer scribe can assume that people of that time had confidence that somewhere far, albeit in Belgorod, there really exists such land where food can be easily drawn with buckets from wells ("Dairy River - fermented banks "Russian fairy tales). Then the actions of the Stara Muga acquire the character of a rationally planned operation, and non-banks. The deception in this case was no longer the fact that Pechenegs were convinced of the very possibility of the existence of a similar miracle, but in the fact that it is revealed directly in Belgorod. And this trick is already a completely different plan. It does not differ in principle from the "tricks" I.V. Stalin, who was trying to create a confidence in the US government and Western allies in the presence of nuclear weapons at the USSR at the moment when its development? It was not completed. The possibility of the existence of nuclear weapons, as well as the ability to draw a kissel from the well, for the participants of these events with a given, and the case remained only for small. Bluff has passed successfully in both cases. The idea worked. The Americans believed that the Soviet Union had a bomb, Pechenegi - in the fact that there is a wonderful well in Belgorod. Muddy liquids manufactured by the old man (and the villagers should also look like a flour chatter, and the "velmi scattered" honey) could well be perceived by them like liquids that really descended from the Earth. The miracle appeared visibly and convincingly. Pechenegs had the opportunity to make sure that the contents of the wells were edible and can sink hunger.

The case is thus not in naivety. With a lot of confidence, it can be assumed that we are dealing with a peculiar state of public consciousness, characterized by a psychological openness to the perception of a supernatural, constant configuration on a miracle, readiness to believe in the principled opportunity. The stories about miracles filled with ancient Russian literature, the literature is serious, official, not allowed jokes and draws. Literature created by smart, subtle, not by naive people. Faith in a miracle was deep and, to one degree or another, universal.

At the same time, it should be noted that, despite the indicated constant readiness, the perception of miracles by man Ancient Russia It was not direct and spontaneous. Analysis of the ancient Russian literature shows that in order to see miracles, to silence a miracle from the flow of life phenomena, give him an assessment, there was some intellectual preparation.

It happened, probably that the amazing phenomenon himself, so to speak, rushed into the eyes: an unusual phenomenon of nature or a randomly built-up chain of facts folding in the seeming causal relationship, etc., but in order for all the above-mentioned "miracle" or "Sign", it should have been meaningfully as such. Even if we assume that miracles (that is, supernatural phenomena) really had a place in reality, this does not change the case: in any case, they should have been at least noticed, realized and perceived accordingly, otherwise they would simply leave the trace In the human consciousness and will be disappeared. This was a successful understanding, and there was the larger resonance as a result of this, the higher the relevant preparing preparation.

An example of the status of the Tale of Bygone Years, written by absutia, a significant proportion of the Byzantine education of southern monks. It pays much more attention to the wonders and their interpretation than in a less intellectually exquisite Novgorod chronicle. The Novgorod chronicler phlegmatically records the phenomenon of nature: "Summer 6615. Shaking land in February 5" 108 The weather record ends. Surprisingly, the chronicler did not consider it necessary to comment in any way, for sure, a spanning event, - what was it? Earthquake? In any case, no, not only supernatural, but also just the household interpretation of Hiji does not give us. The stereotypes of mention of certain signs "in Sun" 109, but that, in fact, these "signs" from further text it is not clear. A lot of similar passages in the Novgorod chronicle. In addition to the sunny, the signs of "in the moon" 110 occasionally, or thunder will hit a certain dejection, singing on a pollist in St. Sophia, so that "the closet of the people of Padosha" 111 is also a "sign", in the sense of which the chronicler of the reader Does not devote. As the events, the participants in the events were realized, as the book described as described, remains unknown. The northern chronicler rises to the maximum before the awareness of the unusual phenomenon of nature as a sign, but the meaning of him remains either unclear, or uninteresting, or so obvious that it does not make sense about it from his point of view. One way or another, the ability to make a mystical component in the narration, such a seemingly obviously suggestive, it is used extremely scoop.

Another thing is a scribe South. Descriptions of miracles and extensive reasoning on their occasion are actively used by them to build narration. Local material is widely compared with the news of the transfer literature, and the interpretation is most often carried out with the involvement of theoretical calculations borrowed from Byzantine chroniclers. In the "Tale of Bygone Years", miracles and signs are filled with deep, more often mis-meaning.

So, for example, 1065 and 1091-92 were especially rich in miracles and signs. We have an almost complete set of all kinds of manifestations of supernatural. In 1065, the star was "the star" with the rays as if bloody. Then out of r. Segomley fishermen was pulled by a recessed child, on the person of which were "intense satisfaction" and something else, about which the chronicler did not consider it possible to tell on the pages of his labor "Warma for". It was an incomplete solar eclipse: the Sun "would not be light, but Aki month would be" 112. No less sinister signs happened in 1091-92. This and the "sign in Sun, I will see care of him," (also, apparently, the solar eclipse), and falling from the sky "Pretty Snake" during the hunt of Vsevolod for Vyshgorod, and the appearance of a circle in the midst of the sky, and finally the most A terrible sign that had to survive the inhabitants of Polotsk: the appearance on the streets of the kind of invisible deceased ("Naviv"), to death by invisible spears of Polotsky people who carelessly peeling out of the house on the sound of horse horses and moans113

The events described are given detailed explanations. Bloody star predicts bloodshed. This sign was definitely "not at good." After him, the "hustling gravestics of the many and the invasion of the fucked in Russian land." Immediately, for comparison, a number of examples of similar events in Jerusalem, Byzantium, Africa and Syria, borrowed from George Amartola114, are also a shining star, and the "brainchild" without eyes, without hands, and with the surrounding "inchsla" fish tale appeared , and much more. And everywhere the appearance of signs was preceded by great troubles. "The signs of Bo vve, or the stars, or the sun, or birds, or the Ether, not for the benefit of the scene, or the manifestation of rati, or a smooth, or to show death," the chronicler summarizes " Analyzed the events of 1092 of the signs are directly associated with the text of the chronicles with the inconsistent invasions of Polovtsy, droughts, fires and massive deaths. They are interpreted as a punishment sent by God for sins, as an incentive to repentance115.

So, the author of PVL sees in the focusing miracles and signs the indication of the highest strength on misfortunes and troubles that happened after. The mechanism of this kind of semi-gypsy looks like as follows. In some cases, an abnormal natural phenomenon, or a continued authority of the future judgment, which made the impression on contemporaries, makes the chroniclers find the "consequences" in the future events - something that gave the meaning of a formidable omen (the benefit of the Russian history gave a lot of material for this) , or judgment - the status of prophecy. In others, on the contrary, a large-scale historical event, which caused the need to be understood, forced the scribe to look (and if he did not find it, it may also advise) "signs", "prophecies", which would show a non-sufficiency, mystical destination, and therefore the highest The pattern of what happened.

Examples of the designs of the first type, a description of the events of 1092 may be recognized, since the Polovtsian invasions, and drought happened, obviously, and before. According to the second type, most of the world's prophecies are built. Such, for example, as the prophecy of the Apostle Andrei, predicted grace of the mountains, "the appearance of the post-Kiev" 116. Approximately the same template is built by the prophecy of some kind of wander, the famous prince-warrior from the horse died, strictly speaking, not from the horse, but from the snake, but as if a special mystical halo attached his death to his death. However, this separation is largely conditional in nature, since natural anomalies and historical cataclysms occur quite regularly, therefore, it is easy to find compliance. So, the appearance of a comet (the above-mentioned "star Great" with bloody rays) In 1065, it became quite a suitable "sign" of all subsequent princely gravities a few years after her appearance and, of course, the arrival of Polovtsy in 1068. The same can be said and About "Prophecies": Not coming - forgotten, and those that at least somehow can be used to the case (like the prediction of the magazine mentioned above Oleg) - being comprehended in a favorable context, rest in history. In any case, a semiotic miracle and "sign" is played in the composition of the composition of the Old Russian literature, and the works of the Old Russian literature), with their help, the relationship of everyday life with other, higher, mystical reality was carried out.

As shown above, the ability to mystically interpret earthly events required a certain intellectual skill. The ability it was an integral part of the ancient Russian book scholarship, the basis of which was the acquisition of the opportunity to comprehend the hidden meaning of things and the development of the ability to interpret the surrounding reality through the prism of the Panish ideology1- "Representatives of the educated elite of revisions but kept the exclusive right to comprehend, interpretation And even the commitment of wonders, signs and prophecies. This is not surprising. Since the "monopoly on a miracle" was very important to manage the mass consciousness of ordinary people of that era. It was important that the representative of the Church or secular power would attract the population's attention to a certain phenomenon and I explained to a miracle or a sign, giving him a corresponding interpretation. Any kind of competitors in the struggle for minds; Iros genes mercilessly destroyed.

The descriptions of the events that occurred in 1071 in the Rostovskaya Earth, where, during an inconvenience of "Vistastadavoli,", which began to perform actions designed to a mystically release the local population from the granted trouble. LI of the nature of the events in the Rostov land is indicated by I.Ya. Froanov117. Come on the graveyard, the Magi called the best women, declaring. What exactly they "hold" the harvest, and then cut off them "for the flash" and took out "any life, any fish", and so on. The action ended with the murder of many wives. What is not a miracle? But I Yang Emboshchich turned out to be nearby, the Kudesniks mercilessly exterminates, and Moachi-scribe, many years later, who described the names of the events, Crychen Ecco, and with rare sensitivity, exposes all these hostile wonders of pagan whals as harmful tricks, and shifts that in reality there is no connection with the highest Forces, dangerous deceivers do not have. Maximum than they have it with a sheep of low-boo demons that led them ultimately to death16 pseudoprormals look in the chronicles of the chronicle (although humor and pretty gloomy): that's just "Volokhv" in Novgorod Savgorod states: "Miracles are great." but he already lies 14

For more about it, see Debt V.V. Essays of the social consciousness by the tree of Russia. Tutorial. Izhevsk: Publishing House "Udmurt University". 1999. P. 170. 15

Froinov I.Ya. Ancient Russia. Experience in the study of the history of the social and І ithymchs struggle. M.-SPb.: Zlatoust, 1995. P. 113-173.

"" PSRL.T. І.Stb. 175-179. Dead from the blow of the prince Gleb118 comic is not compatible with Sacral - the funny wonderworker is unthinkable.

Thus, the ideological struggle was carried out with the most gesting methods. AND I. Froyanov, however, is inclined, as it seems, no lessone is unnecessary to the ideological component of the reasons forcing the representatives of the prince's authority to interfere with the pagan ritual murders. Analyzing similar events in the Suzdal Earth in 1024.119, the researcher sees the reasons) of Yaroslav intervention solely as necessary to produce a "flush" Dani in connection with the lack of town years120 The confrontation on the ideological front is rejected by them due to the fact that at the beginning of the XI century. Suzdal land remained completely in the authority of the paganism, and there can be no talk about any rivalry with Christianity. "With this last situation, it is impossible to disagree, but as an assumption it should be noted that the ideological (religious, in this case) opposition could unfold According to Christian-Little, but also along the line "Mana", the magical power of Knya Zia (Nus 11, already in the Christian shell) - "mana" of the pagan comma-smoshyanov. After all, according to the same . Froyanov in the image of the ancient conference and after Christianization, many relics of the leader of the generic era continue to be maintained. Consequently, the appearance of Yaroslav in Suzdal Earth and the lampsion with wrappers can be regarded including as a desire to protect and once again show its monopoly on mystical (and any other) The championship ("flipping" Dani in this case looks like an integral part of this event).

In addition to emotional means of debunking "imaginary wonderworkers" there existed a rational explanation of how the ei it happens that the supernatural possibilities may also provide in the hands of personalities, which, for church concepts, should not give. In addition to their pagan wals, the ancient cocks, the memory of which came in writing sources could be in addition to their pagan woops. A large theoretical layout on this issue is given in the chronicles in connection with the story of the prophecy of the death of Prince Oleg (912). The history of the death of Prince is notable in that, describing it, the ancient Russian scribe was in a rather difficult situation. On the one hand, it could not, of course, exclude from the story so bright and, probably, the well-known plot, on the other, the ideological filling of all this story seemed very dubious, as the christian holy or ascetic in this case, but a pagan priest That one likely could be interpreted by the impossible minds as an indirect confirmation of the fact that "Pogany" can sometimes be right. For the neutralization of possible unwanted conclusions immediately after the story about the past prediction in the chronicle, there is an extensive insert from the "Chronicles of George Amartol" 121, the beginning of the phrase "CE is not DIVO, IKO from wicked is a sorcery", that is, there is nothing surprising that pagan witchcraft may have The strength, this does not violate the order of things prevented by God and the Church preached by the Church. Then the story of the life and miracles of the wonders of Apollonia Tiana, who arrived in the reign of Diocletian from Rome in Byzantium. In miracles, it, in general, there was nothing bad (he saved the inhabitants of the antioch from mosquitoes and scorpions), but his activity is interpreted as madness and temptation, which has been able to "weaken God's and the creation of the Besynian" 122, because Apollonius was a pagan, for small sorcerers, The scale of whose activities was small (when it was not about mass pagan uprisings, the destruction of whole cities and volosts) the legislation provided for the punishment in private. The Charter of Yaroslav, compiled by the prince together with the Metropolitan, in case the woman will be "Crazennitsa, a naughty, or a male, or Ze Linica" gives the right to "execute" her husband123

We see a completely different attitude in the ancient Russian bookstorming to "our" wonderworkers - holy, monks and miraculous icons. Their activities were widely promoted, the composition of the Ya is one of the pillars of the practice of impact on the minds of believers.

A rich material for studying this type of miracles and the wonderworkers gives us Kiev-Pechersk Cateribs124 Monks turn the Swan to the bread, ash in salt, make supernatural movements in space, resurrect from the dead, etc. Miracle Creation of living monasters and presented in the monastery of saints One of the main indicators of their holiness.

Miracles, accompanying the transfer of the A11-During the Bogolyubsky Icons of the Virgin from the Vigiserad Women's Monastery in Kiev land in Vladimir, about whom the "Tale of the Wonders of the Vladimir Icon of the Virgin" Northeast Blogs turned out to be decent students of southern skills to see in everyday the action of the Higher Forces and Use the results of this "ultra-sufficient" view; ideological needs. On the way to Rostov land with a retinue, accompanied by Prince Andrei, various troubles occur: the conductor, who went on a horse to seek Ford on the river. Vachuz, almost drowned, then the horses barked in the wagon broke out and pounced on the wife of Mikula's wife, knocked her with his feet and cradle so that she fell and Sun E was decided that she was dead, but it turned out that the horse teeth were damaged only to the bachrom Her clothes, and she herself is alive and unharmed. Thus, in the cases themselves there was no, in general, nothing unusual. If in what is described by the Kiev-Pechersk Pattern Modern Man It is difficult to believe, then in the reality of the events described by the "legend" it is easy to believe: a man was silent, but he was lucky - got out; There was a big barley at the eye ("Issue"), and then broke through and passed; "Chyudo 6th" and "Chyudo 8th" are cases of cure of some women from pain in the heart; "Chyudo" 4th and 9-well-increasingly ended threatening childbirth. In another situation, someone hardly began to look for a mystical reality exhausted. But in the "Tale" a safe outcome of these, in general, not particularly significant incidents are definitely interpreted as miracles, the phenomenon of which the victims are obliged to the Virgin and hot prayers, which caused the icon formerly during the critical situations. And this is understandable, because they happened during the acquisition of Vladimir-Suzdal Rusy their main shrine. The protectiveness of the same icon was attributed to the brilliant victory, survived by Andrey Bogolyubsky in 1164 over Volzhi Bulgarians125. For the chronicles, ideologues it was more important to see in a successfully conducted military operation, not evidence of brilliant colonous talents of the Prince, but the proof of the miraculous image, the owner of which was this land. The course is quite logical, because the prince would sooner or later died, and the icon is a peculiar battery of the highest authority for eternal times. In both cases, a decisive role in the awareness of the event that has happened as a miracle played not so much the nature of the events that occurred, how much ideological need to associate political processes with divine fishery, which created the appropriate attitude and a certain psychological readiness to perceive even ordinary facts as a manifestation of mystical predestination, and therefore be the laws of the aspirations of Vladimir Princes to leadership.

An even more virtuosite manipulation of supernatural motifs we find the story of the Suzdal Chronicle of the events of 1169, associated with the campaign of the united rati (Suzdal-Ryazan-Smolensk-Polotsk), directed by Prince Andrey Bogolyubsky to Novgorod. The historical canvas of events emerges quite clearly: the army headed by Mstislav Shey

Andreevich, suffered a gestaining of Novgorod. "And the Kuhniu Sudulytsy for 2 legs," the story of these events is completed by the Novgorod Chronicler21. The Suzdal Chronicler also talks about defeat, but as the material is filed! It turns out that three years before the fashion described in Novgorod in the three churches of the Novgorodsky on three icons we were crying for the Virgin, who was having a womb, "at the time of Novgorod" and his tears dismissed his son not to eradicate cities, as they were eradicated by Sodom and Gomorra. By virtue of this, the Lord was walked and delivered the city from complete destruction, "Zane Christian the essence" (this city did not succeed), but decided to approximately punish the Novgorod residents for all their crimes "HRUK of Blovevnago Prince Andrei" 126. Thus, the victims defeated the Suzdals act as the incarnation of the punishing (and at the same time more than the merciful) Divine, and Novgorod is represented by the city, the inhabitants of which are a little better than the inhabitants of Sodom and Gomorra. It is curious that in Hijl there is no mention of crying icons under 1169, no three years before that.

If it is true that a miracle in ancient Russian culture performed a means of ideological struggle, an important tool for the formation of public opinion, then the question arises, how many ideological leaders believed in miracles? Is there any interpretation of a particular event as a miracle or sign only by propaganda trick? The above passage from the Lavrentievsky chronicle pursues exactly such an assumption. In addition, as it might it happen that things are so obviously implausible as miracles described in Kiev-Pechersk Catema could get on the pages of the literary work, because, as was convincingly proven by Academician D.S. Likhachev, the ancient Russian literary tradition avoided conscious fiction? Or did it allowed?

Most likely, it is impossible to give an unequivocal response to the assigned question. On the one hand, it should not, of course, exaggerate the irrationality of the public consciousness of the Early Middle Ages. Sober pragmatists have enough and then. A very noticeable argument of the boyar Vasily (one of the characters of the Kiev-Peterka) sent by the prince from Suzdal to Kiev with a cargo of gold and silver to catch the tomb of St. Feodosia Pecherski29 The course of his thoughts is so plausible that it is hardly possible to doubt his vitality. Vasily sincerely does not understand that it is a sense to spend wealth to design a coffin. Princely order he attributed not to piety, but the absence of leaning. Neither the slightest sacred trepidation in front of the ovok of St. Feodosia boyar is not experiencing. The sober mind of the Prak-I of a person is felt in the speeches of Yana, I will drop out. I have a picture of the wonderful extract from the human flesh and fish in response to the wonderful removal from the human flesh and the fish said: "The man was sangorous from Earth, was compiled by bones and thals from the blood , Bring nothing to all anyhow, but Tokamo is the whole of God. "

On the other hand, it is unlikely that it will be correct that, for example, the glorification of the wonders of the icons of Vladimir Mother of God was subtly and coldly calculated by the PR-action on the "promotion" of the Vladimir Earth for the role of the communional center. A similar interpretation of the material would be invalid upgrades. Also, the Pechersk monks are also really specially invented by the disadvantages of their monastery.

The existing material indicates that most likely. The news of the miracle (with the appropriate interpretation) was not created specifically for the needs of the "advertising campaign" - this ideological construct developed naturally as a characteristic society of that era, the way of understanding reality. Miracles "were" to people where there arose atmosphere with this. There was an appropriate attitude, the expectation of a miracle, due to social, political, economic or cultural factors. Such a situation arose when the icon of Our Lady in Vladimir was carried. The scribe paradoxical form) Ohm could obviously "customize" the material, feeding it in advantageous to his prince or the monastery, and at the same time to believe, considering that only correctly interpreted, I saw the signs of the highest reality.

If you argue in the most general form, the function of the miracle in public consciousness can be defined as follows: it was a niche for "laying" in overall picture The world of facts, inexplicable from the position of trivial everyday experience. Currently, from this "Nici", the "miracle" almost completely displaced the "Science", which took the place of the "universal explanant" for a modern alignment, preferring purely natural (at least in appearance) the theory of metaphysical. The reasons for the appearance of the "bloody star" a modern person will understand from the corresponding section of the Tutorial of Astronomy. Strengthening the political significance of a state today, today will be explained by political scientists, economists, historians (also, by the way, like the ancient "Specialists in Miracles" are not missing opportunities to bring the atmosphere of ideological battles into their interpretations). And in ancient Russia, the above-mentioned and similar phenomena received "registration" in the structure of the worldview through the concept of "miracle".

A major role in the mystical perception of reality played the power of public sentiment. The miracle is a miracle, with the postulation of which this work was launched as one of the basic features of the Old Russian public consciousness, could have different degrees of intensity. It is because of the more powerful mood of the wonders of Kiev-Pechersk pathers, much more "wonderful" than Vladimir - after all, the monks who lived behind the walls of the monastery, brought themselves to the highest degree of religious exaltation, feeling the immediate proximity of the world's world. Reverend Isakia, a story about which is placed in PVL, posting years of voluntary imprisonment in a close cave, where he had never lying around for all this time, a whole company of demons, introduced by the angels, was glad, and almost until the death of a fantastic devoteel 127 fantasized Does the monk telling the brethren about what happened? Given the lifestyle of Isakia preceding their appearance, hardly. So a modern person, in fact, in Eiways, not believing, after watching the horror films, it is sincerely frightened and screams, seeing a whitish silhouette in the darkness. W і saw bringing, or did it seem to him? Everything will depend on l psychological installation. Ultimately, a miracle is not up-to-up-toply event, and its supernatural explanation.

Thus, the ancient Russian witnesses and interpreters of the des and signs there was no need to lie. As a miracle in? i p of the public consciousness of that era with a suitable sieve - 1

pI could be perceived and quite ordinary fact of everyday znzni (past barley), and an unusual natural phenomenon (for example, the appearance of comets), and hallucination, and, in fact, a miracle (question; whether there are miracles in reality It is discussed in to standing work, so let's say this opportunity).

So, the analysis carried out allows the following conclusions: 1.

Wonderful - an integral part of the painting of the world of a man of the Russian Federation of Russian Middle Ages. Public consciousness of the population of ancient Russia was characterized by psychological openness to

: The goodness of the supernatural, constant mood on "before. Readiness to believe. This phenomenon may also be defined as a reduced (compared to modern person) SRNTIC in relation to supernatural explanations of the IBJ entry of the world. 2.

To make a miracle of the total event of events, the everyday of 1C II life needed a certain intellectual skill,: oh ich, as a rule, was the result of a special preparation

i gave the ideological leaders of society (initially language-ІІ.m, and then, after a long struggle, Orthodox frightening, with Åry), powerful weapons of ideological impact on the minds and about the company. As a "theoretical base" of interpreted

Forest Russian scribes were widely used translation, IT; Composition of the Byzantine authors. 3.

The appeal to the "miracle", the "sign" had in the ancient Russian leader of the tour (and therefore, it is necessary to assume, and conscious) the meaning of the indication of the inconsistency, mystical predetermination, pre-chamber associated with a miraculous or sign of the event. If there are certain events, a person or subject discovered a connection with a high-mystical reality, they, thereby, included the use of supernatural motives in a discharge as an ideological weapon in political struggle did not exceed one. The faith of the ideologists themselves in a miracle. For the needs of the "ideological front", miracles did not invent, and in the desired ways were interpreted. The road trap favorable became the interpretation correctly. five.

A constant readiness for the perception of a miracle had a completely defined function in the public consciousness: it was a niche for "laying" into the overall picture of the world of facts, inexplicable from the position of trivial everyday experience. 6.

A major role in the perception of a certain phenomenon as a miracle stump of signs was a major role that the public mood was played, creating more or less philantal conditions in each specific situation.

The unity of Russian lands could not not affect the culture of the released Russia of the 16th century. With a scope of construction, architecture, painting and literature developed.

Architecture

In the 15th - 6th centuries. The construction was mainly from the tree, but its principles were used in stone architecture. The fortresses were restored, the Kremlin was built in the cities of Russia.

Architecture Rus 16th century. It was rich in the outstanding structures of church architecture.

Some of these structures are considered the church of Ascension in C. Kolomensky (1532) and the temple of Vasily bliss in Moscow (1555-1560). Many of the erected churches and temples relate to common at that time (characteristic of the Wooden Temples of Ancient Rus) Test Style.

Under the leadership of Fyodor Konya, the most powerful fortress (in Smolensk) was erected and is surrounded by the walls and towers of the White City in Moscow.

Painting

To the painting of the 16th century Russia includes mainly iconography. The stallal council accepted as a canon in the church painting of the work of A. Rublev.

The brightest monument of icon painting was the "Church of Militant". Icon was created in honor of Taking Kazan, she interprets the described event as a victory of Orthodoxy. In the painting of the Golden Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin, the influence of the West was felt. At the same time, the church was an opponent of the penetration of genre and portrait painting In church.

Typography

In the 16th century The first typography appeared in Russia, a typography began. Now numerous documents, orders, laws, books could be printed, at least their cost and exceeded handwritten work.

The first books are printed in 1553-1556. Anonymous Moscow typography. The first precisely dated publication refers to 1564, it was printed by Ivan Fedorov and Peter Mstislavts and called the Apostle.

Literature

Changes in politics consisting in the formation of autocracy, stimulated the ideological struggle, which contributed to the flourishing of journalism. Literature Rus 16th century. Includes "Stories about the Kazan Kingdom", "Tale of Princes Vladimir", 12-Ternik "Great Chetty Mini", containing all the works in Russia for home reading (works that have not included in the popular compilation, moved to the background) .

In the 16th century In Russia, a cloth is simple and the shape of the Boyar's clothing has acquired extraordinary effects and luxury due to decorative decorations. Such suits attached a form of pomp and magnifier.

In the vast territory of Russia lived different peoplesSo clothing differed depending on local traditions. So, in the northern regions of the state, a female costume consisted of a shirt, Sarafan and Kokoshnik, and in the southern - from the shirt, the pounds and skirts.

A common outfit (averaged) can be considered a shirt-length of sundress, swing sundress, kokoshnik and woven shoes. Male costume: a long shirt from a domain fabric (up to the middle of the hips or to the knees), ports (narrow and tightly tight legs). At the same time, no special differences in the style of clothing and peasants were not observed.

Since the person is soon abides, so to speak, in three hypostatas - as a creature is living, reasonable and social, the material is outlined in three sections: nature, man and society. Of course, such a structure is largely conditional, so many questions "echoes" among themselves. I hope this does not make it difficult to perceive the further lecture material, and maybe it will even allow creating enough volumetric form Systems of spiritual values \u200b\u200bof people of ancient Russia.

Nature

It seems that our vision of the surrounding reality is the only possible and quite "natural". It remitted us direct. In fact, it is indisputable by many categories present in our consciousness in an implicit form and so familiar that we simply do not notice them. And the less they are noticeable, the greater power is over the perception of a person, the more depends on them, which image of the world seems to be normal. And even less they are available for awareness as the carrier themselves of these concepts and images, as well as a person. And yet we will try, as far as possible, to look at the "inner" world of a man of ancient Russia, to see its surrounding nature at least as he saw her himself.

Number and number. Even so distracted, abstract characteristic, as a quantitative assessment of anything, had a rather pronounced value for ancient Russian person. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe sacred properties of the number was widespread and was implemented in various fields of human activity. Numbers and numerical relations, as shown by the work of a number of researchers (V. M. Kirillin, V.N. Toporova, D. Petkanova, etc.), had, in addition to applied importance, and the symbolic-theological meaning. They reflected the essence of the highest unrecognizable truth and performed as a sacralized means of understanding the surrounding world.

In this regard, in the ancient Russian literary works, the numbers were performed not only documented -Factographic functions (when they determined the actual number of anything), but could fill and symbolic (as literary crowns say, tropov) content. In the case, they first transferred sacred information, they stated the divine meaning of the events occurring. Can be found in ancient Russian literary sources and numbers that performed mixed functionsFocused simultaneously both on the phenomena of earthly life and their ideal, divine prototypes.

The basis of such perception of the amount was well developed in the ancient world symbols of numbers .

So, in the Christian tradition troika was considered "full and perfect number" (Augustine blissful); It was the number of Divine Trinity and the number of the soul, arranged in its sample; It was also a symbol of all spiritual. In the most early monuments, the top three acts as a typical epic number. Four It was considered a symbol of peace and material things, marked static integrity, perfectly stable structure. Seven - the number of a person who meant his harmonic attitude towards the world; She symbolized the sensual expression of the universal order, and was also familiar with the highest degree of knowledge of the divine mystery, achieving spiritual perfection. In addition, it was used as a symbol of eternal rest. Ten symbolized harmony and beauty. It was considered as a perfect cosmic number. At the same time, Alchemists denoted by matter. Number twelve Complained in Christianity with the idea of \u200b\u200bperfection and symbolized updated humanity (apparently, through the Old Testament tradition, in which it was associated with the people of God). In addition, it indicated the Earth and Heavenly Church. Typically biblical was the number forty . In Christian practice, it was associated with the idea of \u200b\u200bpurifying sins and hope. It symbolized prayer and preparations for a new life.

The author was often more interested in the real dimensions of the described object, and its symbolic bond - through numbers that expressed its dimensions or proportions - with any sacred manner, say, Solomon Temple (20 x 60 x 120) or Never Ark (50 x 300 x 30), etc. This is especially important to consider when the source meets the "round" numbers. According to the fair remark D. Petkanova,

"The round numbers in the medieval literature were not blind faith, they were not perceived as documentary numbers, they needed to be considered as conditional or approximate, sometimes they could be close to truth, but in no case were not historically accurate."

Symbolic interpretation of numbers (numerology) has a wide scope of application, since most of the letters of the Slavic alphabet borrowed from the Greek alphabet could perform the function of numbers. Consequently, almost every word had a quantitative expression, since it could be considered as the sum of the "digits" from which it consisted. It is enough to remind the already mentioned equating "Latynian" 666 - the number of the apocalyptic beast (antichrist). (See Appendix 5: "Could Kiev be new Jerusalem?")

The specifics of the perception of the world of one or another ethnicity, a particular culture, one or another civilization manifests itself, primarily in the peculiarities of the perception of space and time.

Form space - An integral part of the holistic picture of the world. Objectively, the existing space is subjectively experiencing and is realized by people, and in different historical epochs in different countries in different ways. Middle Ages, both Western European and domestic, was typical of the space of religious and ethical features. The center of the Earth - in the literal and figurative sense - was considered to be Jerusalem, and the center of Jerusalem - the temple of the Lord. "Pup of the Earth" surrounded the countries "righteous" and "sinning". Some of them were "closer" to paradise, others - to hell; Some - to the world Horny, others - to the right one; Some - to the sky, others - to the ground.

Moreover, this sacral topography could change from time to time depending on the righteousness or the sin of a population of one or another land. At the same time, the spiritual center of the world could also stretch. "New Jerusalem" could find a completely concrete incarnation of theoretically in any city, which took care of universal salvation. Almost it became - according to the already mentioned grounds - the city, who claimed the role of the center of the Rusky "land.

This idea explains and extremely high authority in domestic culture. Prince's political activity was aimed at submission of the Northeast and North-West Russia Golden Horde. But the uncompromising opposition to the Catholic world, the defense of the ideals of Orthodoxy from the "appointed" (speaking of a later time) faith "Latinan" did his hero, who took the entire Orthodox world under his patronage.

At the turn of the XV-XVI centuries, after the fall of Constantinople under the blows of the Ottoman Empire, on the basis of these ideas, the theory "Moscow - Third Rome" was formed, it was about the movement of the World Orthodox Center to the capital of the Moscow kingdom. A young single state that emerged on the ruins of the Western ulus of the Great Mongolian Empire was perceived as the last stronghold of the right faith: " two Rome Padosha, and the third stands, and the fourth is not" It is important to note that in this phrase, the logical accent is shifted with the topic of exclusivity (" third cost") On a high responsibility problem (" the fourth is not life") Russian state. The consolidation of this idea was embodied in the wedding of the Moscow sovereign to the kingdom, the organization of the urban space of the capital, the construction of the amazing imagination of the church of the Pokrov-on-rally (Basil Blessed) and, finally, in the establishment of the Moscow Patriarchate. It is significant that, according to the testimony of foreigners who visited Moscow at the end of the XVI - early XVII centuries, the central part of the city, residents called Tsargrad, and the Pokrov Temple - Jerusalem.

The reflection of such sentiment was subsequently strange (for the modern reader), but the symptomatic words that Ivan Peresvetov invested in the fault of Orthodox Greeks, who argued with Latinians in the mouth of Orthodox Greeks, who argued about Magmet-Saltan:

« there iswe have Kingdom wave and king wave, blessed prince Ivan Vasilyevich All Russia, and in the kingdom Great God's Mercy and the Banner of God, the Holy Wonderworkers, Yako first, - from them the mercy of God, Jokes and from the first "

With them "agree" their opponents: " That is true" They allegedly saw themselves that great of God grace in that land».

« Everything is kind, the former you have passed the grateful of Christ to us to Moscow»

« We had a godly king, but now there is no. And in the place of the Lord of God in Moscow Tsar Poiestly».

No less indicative of the assurances of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, addressed to the Greek merchants:

"I assumed the obligation that if God would be pleased, I will sacrifice my army, treasury and even blood for them [Greeks] Reliability».

What is the Greeks, calling the king " pillar of faith», « assistant in Vedakh», « liberator", Ask him

"The perception of ... The prestroll of the great king of Konstantin, the great-grandfather of yours, let the people of pious and Orthodox Christians liberty from wicked hands, from all the animals that they eat a lot of speed."

Nikon's church reforms led to the hardest crisis in the spiritual life of Russia, which resulted in a conflict between the spiritual and secular rulers. As a result, the ideas of the "Third Rome" as the secular center of the "Sacred Roman Empire" and "New Jerusalem" as the spiritual center of the Orthodox world were separated. Building Novojerusalemsky The monastery, the symbolism of whose names found a continuation in the place where he was built (Meridian Jerusalem), and in the guise of the monastery temple (created according to the model of the Jerusalem Temple of the Lord), emphasized what happened.

The final point in the sacred perception of geographical space was delivered by Peter I, who endured the secular capital of Russia to the north, in St. Petersburg, while Moscow continued to be the capital of the Russian Orthodox church. It should probably emphasize that the construction of a new capital began on the basis of the church of the SWV. Apostles Peter and Paul. Let me remind you exactly the appearance in Constantinople church SVV. Peter and Paul marked him to turn him into the capital of the Roman Empire, and the construction of the Cathedral of the Apostles Peter and Paul, the construction of the Cathedral of the Apostles Peter and Paul, is perceived by researchers, in particular, S. Le-Beck, as evidence

"His well-thoughtful policy, the politician of a person who took seriously the recent recognition by his emperor and removed to surround the haroet of holiness, his family, his own power."

Perception not only the "geographical" world in general, but also separate aspects of light Also related to the value characteristics. So, the relationship was quite common to the south As to the "Godisbrarated" side of the world. For example, in the ancient Russian translation of the "Jewish war" of Joseph Flavia over the ground stay of the blessed souls, the fragant southern wind believes; In the Russian church, there is a chorus to the poem entitled " God from Yuga ».

An example of such a relationship may be mentioning " spirit Yuzhna "In the" Tale of Mamaev Boy ". It undoubtedly had a symbolic meaning for a medieval author and reader first.

According to the "Legend", in the midst of the battle the Tatar shelves have strongly fastened Russians. Prince Vladimir Andreevich Serpukhovsky, with pain watching the death " orthodox man "Said the governor Bobroku immediately enter into battle. Bobrock dissolves the prince from hasty actions, calling him to wait "time like", in which " moiferous grace of God" Interestingly, Bobrocks accurately calls an hour when " time is similar» — « osm hour"(Eighth hour of the day, on the ancient Russian clock number system). It was when Volynets predicted, " the spirit of south pulling the zada of them».

"The worshis:" ... an hour come, and the time approach ..., the strength of Bo Holy Spirit helps us. "

From this, by the way, according to a well-founded opinion, V. N. Rudakova, it follows that the entry of an ambulance regiment was not associated with real events Kulikovsky battle. Bobrok Volynsky, if you follow the logic of the author "The Tale of Mamaev Boying", did not at all chose the moment when the Tatars are submitted under the blow of the Russians their flanks (as L.G. L.Grovnaya expected), or when the sun stops shining the Russian shelves in the eyes (as it believed and . N. Bricks). It is not confirmed by the most common opinion in historical literature, as if an experienced governor expects to change the direction of the wind from the counter-pass through. The fact is that the "Southern Spirit", about which mentions the "legend", under any circumstances could not be associated with Dmitry Donsky associates (and, consequently, helping them). Russian shelves on the Kulikov field fell from north to south. Consequently, the southern wind could blow them only in the face, having a hindrance. At the same time, any confusion is completely excluded by the author of geographic terms. The creator of "legends" was completely freely oriented in the geographical space. He exactly pointed out: Mamay moves to Russia from the east, the Danube River is in the West, etc.

Another similar example may be the "testimony" of the robber of Thomas Katsiberi. His " God open ... Vision is great»: « from East»A cloud appeared (Ordans)," aki Nykiky Pliks to the West run». « From half the country"(I.e. from the south)" two young people are arrogant"(There are referee Boris and Gleb), which helped the Russian regiments to overcome the enemy.

Value filling for an ancient Russian man had not only countries of light, but also verkh and niza, right and leva The parties (with a positive and negative sign in that and other cases, respectively).

How it was manifested in the sources, explain on a specific example.

Saturday night from 29 to June 30, 1174, Andrey Bogolyubsky was killed in his rest. In the so-called "story of the killing Andrei Bogolyubsky" preserved detailed story On the last hours of life of the Grand Duke Vladimirsky. Here, in particular, mentioned how in the final of the tragedy, the leader of the murderers, Peter Kuchkovich complied with the "gum" (right) hand of Andrei, which allegedly led to the death of the prince. However, when studying in 1934, the remains of Andrei Bogolyubsky doctors discovered that he had been cut off right (she did not suffer at all), and left hand. Experts suggested that an error was made in the story or the chronicler used this item as an artistic technique, "to thicken the paint and strengthen the effect." At the same time, undoubtedly, the author of the "story" knew what kind of hand the killers were cut off. On a miniature of the Radzivilovsky chronicle, illustrating the story of the death of Andrei Yuryevich, a woman standing beside the defeated prince and holding a severed hand - it was the left, and not right.

What caused the chronicler to "retreat from the truth" (in our sense of the word)?

In the Gospel of Matthew says:

"And if right Your hand seduces you, comparters and throw it from ourselves. " (Italic my. - I.D.)

How could the right hand "seduce" Andrei? The answer can be found in the Apocalypse. People who worshiped antichrist

"There will be an inscription on right Hand "(italics mine. - I.D.)

with the name "Beast" or the number of his name. At the same time, the description of the "beast" herself, seen by John theologian, is very noteworthy - it is very close to the description in the chronicles of Andrei Bogolyubsky himself. "Beast" has the Great Power, his head

"No matter how hardly injured; But this deadly wound heal "

(Andrei was a ramen killer and head, after their care began to call for help and even tried to hide from pursuers under the stairs). His mouth say "proudly and blasphemous",

"And it was given to him to lead the war with saints and defeat them; And he is given power over all his knees and the people and the language and tribe. "

He "has a wound from the sword and alive." The description of the "beast" is completed:

"Who is the sword kills, to the same to be killed by the sword."

No wonder before the murder of the servant Andrei, the Kuner of Anbal kidnapped the sword from Prince, who belonged to St. Boris.

One way or another, the cutting off Andrei Bogolyubsky (according to the "story") exactly the right hand can be completely considered as a conviction of him if not as the antichrist himself, then, in any case, as his servants. It also points to the fact that, according to the author, Andrei " blood martyry washing the lack of "(Italic my. - I.D.), that is, the martyrdom, as it were, the sins hung (and, apparently, considerable!) Prince.

As we see, the mention of "specific" spatial details in the descriptions of events could be performed and performed in old Russian literature A slightly different function than in modern artistic culture, and this happened due to the fundamentally different value orientation of the ancient Russian spiritual culture.

The above examples, among other things, show that in the medieval perception, the space is not separated from time to time, forming a certain space-time continuum, which in the scientific literature is called called chronotope.

Time , like space, in the minds of an ancient Russian man was endowed with moral and ethical value. Almost any calendar date was considered in the context of its real or symbolic filling. This can be judged even at the frequency of certain calendar references. So, in the "Tale of Bygone Years" Monday and Tuesday mentioned only one time, Wednesday - twice, Thursday - three times, Friday - five times, Saturday - 9, and Sunday ("Week") - Assembly 17! Naturally, it says not so much about "love" or, on the contrary, dislike for certain days, how much about the "fullness" of their events who were interested in the chronicler and his readers. For example, the bookmark and the sanctification of temples, the transfer of the relics was usually performed on Saturdays and Sundays.

Contrary to the theory of probability (and modern common sense), events are unevenly distributed and in relation to certain numbers of months. Let's say, in the Pskov I chronicles there are calendar dates (January 5, February 2, July 20, 1 and 18, August 1, September 1 and 26), which are from 6 to 8 events throughout the chronicle text. At the same time, a number of dates (3, 8, 19 and 25, 1, February 8 and 14, etc.) are generally not mentioned by the compilers of the arch. Such "oddities" of the dates are explained by the value attitude of the ancient Russian scribes.

For example, battles usually took place on Fridays. Mentioning battles so often were conjugate with the word " heels"(Friday) that one of the apparently not too educated researchers of the last century even decided that the combat order of Russian troops was indicated by this word. In his opinion, he reminded Roman figure V. The case then ended with confusion. However, the mythical "combat order" still penetrated the fiction and even in the movie "Rus Priminal". By the way, N. M. Karamzin dated the battle on Kalka 1224, just because that year on May 31 (mentioned in the annals as the calendar date of the battle) accounted for Friday.

How deeply perceived in ancient Russia the symbolic content of the date shows the following example. In the "Word about the regiment of Igor", following the description of the solar eclipse, who observed the army of Novgorod-Seversk Prince when crossing the Don, follows this text:

"I slept the prince of the mind of Lust, and the pity of him the sign of standing in the artisi Don Velikago. "Khozo Bo, - Reta, - Copy Premitis End of Polovtsagago Field with You, Romance; Hard to place your chief, but I walked to eat Donu. "

Its meaning will not be fully clear if not to consider that the eclipse was by May 1, St. Prophet Jeremiah. In the prophecy of Jeremiah there are words that echo in meaning with the "speech" of Igor:

"And now why do you go to Egypt to drink water from Nile? And why are you the way to Assyria to drink water from the river Herh? ".

They are consistent with Igor and, one can say, "scenario" of subsequent tragic events. Igor, however, neglected the prophetic warning, which he himself indinoly quoted, and, accordingly, was punished.

As for the calendar dates, their frequent mention or, on the contrary, the desire to avoid such a mention was primarily due to the fact that this number was considered happy or not. As already mentioned, in ancient Russia there was a huge number of apocryphic "false" (prohibited) books - various "Lunniki", "Gromovniki", "astrology", treatises "On Chihir Star, Cao worth", "On the evil days of the luna", " About the lunar flow "," Books of Rafley ", etc., in which the" qualities "of calendar dates were described in detail and recommendations were given: whether it is possible to" turn out blood "(one of the main methods of treatment) or, let's start starting -Lo it is how the fate of the child born on this day will be formed, etc.

In addition, there were clear church calendar prescriptions are mainly prohibitive. The most well known food and behavioral bans associated with posts: multi-day - great (seven weeks before Easter), Petrov or Apostolic (from six weeks to seven days - depending on the date of the Easter celebration), Assumption or Ms. (from August 1 to August 15 ), Christmas or Philippov (forty-day - from November 14 to December 24), as well as one-day - on Wednesdays and Fridays (except for the Sadmits Easter, Trunk, Saty, Outar and Pharisees, Cheese), on the holiday of Exaltation (September 14), day The advisions of the head of John the Forerunner (August 29) and in the foreclosure of the Epiphany of the Lord (January 5). In addition, there were other restrictions. Let's say, the brainstones were not held on Tuesdays, Thursdays and Saturdays, in the days of the two-month, temple and great holidays, as well as in the continuation of all multi-day posts, a degree (from December 25 to January 7), Maslenitsa, Syroscopic, Easter weeks, in the days of the chapter John the Forerunner and the Exaltation of the Cross of the Lord.

A detailed system for regulating sexual relations, filled with a variety of prohibitions and limited sexual relations about 100 days a year. For example, in ancient Russia, apparently, the conviction was practiced by the parish priests of parents who conceived the child on Friday, Saturday or Sunday:

"The child will be loved, any robber, any clodman, any robbing" .

Symvenic and ethical content and annual (chronographic) dates. More often, however, it was the perennial periods. But there were numbers of the years that occupied the thoughts of our ancestors and themselves. First of all, we are talking about the date very tensely awaited in ancient Russia, as well as, in the whole Christian world, the "end of time" - the second coming of Christ, followed by an inexorable terrible court. In the "Holy Scripture" it is repeatedly emphasized that the date of the end of the world is in the power of God. She can not know neither people nor angels. Nevertheless, many medieval "Promuzgi" tried to calculate it, relying on the prophecy of Daniel, then on the 3rd book, then on the "Gospel of Matthew", then on the Apocalypse, then on some apocryphic writings, not accepted Christian canon.

Undoubtedly, the most common "potential" date of the end of the world was considered to be 7,000 from the creation of the world, such a point of view was based on the Bible Book of Genesis, according to which the world was created in six days, and in the seventh day God had so much from business. This calculation was made on the basis of the Old and New Testament, where it was repeatedly mentioned that one divine day is equal to a thousand "normal" years:

"You are before our thousand years, as a day yesterday, when he passed."

"The Lord has one day, like a thousand years, and a thousand years as one day."

At the end of the seventh millennial "day" and should come "the kingdom of glory." Even the history of mankind was made to break into the "Shestodnev": from the creation of Adam to Flood, from the Flood to Abraham, from Abraham to David, from David to the Babylonian captivity, from captivity to the Nativity of Christ and, finally, from Christmas to a terrible court. This tradition was reflected in many literary monuments of ancient Russia, including in the "Tale of Bygone Years".

They met, however, and other points of view on the possible date of the occurrence of a terrible court. Thus, the first Slavic complete Bible (called the name of the Novgorod Archbishop, which carried out the translation of all the canonical books of "Holy Scriptures" in 1499, Gennadievskaya) completes the following reasoning:

« And on the renunciation of the sameit is understood by the liberation before the end of the Devil's Devil "for a small time"] to the way: Retreat of the evangelist, Yako, the line of the dialer to the thousand years. Does the other connection of it? From the Queen of the Lord of our Jesus Christ in the summer, five-satellite and thirty and thirty and fifty and fifty and thirty and fifteen and three years old. And Taco will dismiss Satan on the righteous court of God and delight the world to the time of time, it's three and half of summer, and then there will be an end. Amen. "

It follows from this that after 6537 from the creation of the world (apparently, 1037 N. e.) Waiting for the end of the world acquired a special tension in Russia. Let me remind you that it was at this point that the already mentioned construction of the construction of Yaroslav in Kiev, the temple of St. Sofia and Golden Gate, Monasteries St. George and Irina, the pronouncement of the word about the law and grace, as well as the creation of the so-called "ancient chronicle arch". Equally "favorable" for the onset of the end of the world was considered - according to the "Revelation of the Patar Methodius" - the years to which the 9th indicact dropped.

In addition, in the domestic literature there was a huge number of descriptions of various signs that were to directly foreseen approximation of the "last" time. Some of them also had a calendar form. Let's say it was believed that the end of the world would come in a year when Easter would have to appeal for the Annunciation (March 25). It is no coincidence that such coincidences were carefully calculated and fixed. Recall, by the way, what exactly is with such a coincidence (although, and not quite accurate: on March 25, 1038 it was necessary for the Great Saturday, when it was read "Word") collided Metropolitan Hilarion when he wrote the "word about the law and grace".

As soon as one of the "appointed" deadlines did not come end time, the society survived a colossal ideological crisis. Disappointment in the never came the "kingdom of glory" led to significant changes in the system of existential values \u200b\u200band became the mental basis of ideological and political upheavals, which our country survived in the XVI - early XVII centuries.

In particular, the horrors of Okrichnina to some extent were explained as follows: Ivan the Terrible until a certain point could not imagine that he would stand on a terrible court next to his victims. Moreover, he accepted the role of a representative of God's court on earth. The justice of "generously" punished them was approved by the thought that God punishes sinners not only in the underworld, but on Earth, not only after death, but also during life:

"Az practicing and veam, Yako is not Tokmo Tamo torment, Yazh, the evil living, breaking the commandments of God, but also here the righteous of God's wrath, in his affairs evil, the Bowl of the Lord of the Lord and the diverse punishment of the Muttz; At the expense of the light of this, the minor condemnation is acceptable ... ".

The gun of such a fair retribution on behalf of God himself considered his power, in the message of Kurbsky he wrote about the need to condemn the villains and traitors to the torment and death, referring to the authority of the Apostle Juda, who soldered to save people "fear" (Jud. 1.22-23). Following tradition, the king confirmed his thought and other quotes from the Holy Scriptures, including the words of the Apostle Paul:

« Those who are illegally tormented will be, siren not for faith, not a twentieth»

Space and time existed for the people of Middle Ages not by themselves, they were inseparable from the Earth on which the man lived. Accordingly, she also acquired the value filling, comprehended.

"Two World" In general, perceived by our ancestors primarily symbolically. At the heart of the world's perception of the inhabitants of Ancient Russia lay, speaking a relatively late language, "silent theology". That is why in Russia we do not meet theological treatises of Western European type. The Orthodox believer sought to comprehend the divine revelation not by scholastic reasoning or observations, not a reason or "external eyes, as, say, Catholic, but" Ochoms internal ". The essence of the world can not be understood. It is comprehended only by "dive" in the supervisory texts and canonical images approved by the authority of the church fathers and the traditions attached. That is why Isicham Georgy Palama found such distribution here.

In ancient Russia, we do not meet images striving for illusiveness, photographic accuracy of transmitting external traits of the visible world, like Western European painting. In Russia until the end of the XVII century. and in painting, and in the literature dominated icon - Special figurative perception and display of the world. It was strictly regulated here all: the plot, composition, even color. Therefore, at first glance, the ancient Russian icons are so "similar" to each other. But it is worth looking to them - because they are designed for the fact that a person will look at them during daily prayer for several hours - and we will see how different they are in their inner world, the mood, feelings laid down by the nameless artists of the past. In addition, each element of the icon is from the gesture of the character until the absence of any mandatory details - carries a number of meanings. But in order to penetrate them, it is necessary to own the language on which the ancient Russian "Icon" is talking to the audience (in the broad sense of the word). It is best to say "open" texts that directly explain to the reader, which is meant by each concrete way. We give a few examples.

Here, as described in ancient Rus, some animals and birds.

Fisiologist and about Lwe. Three natural imat lion. Always boring Lvika moRvo and blindly waders [Cubs], seditzhzh and unobtheye to third days. At the same time, lion will take and blow in the nostrils and will come to life. Taco and about faithful languages \u200b\u200b[about reversed pagans] . Before Bo baptism of the Mjvy, the essence, on baptism, enlightened from the saint spirit.

The second nature of Lvovo. Ever sleeps, and the eyes of his illness. Taco and the Lord are our spectacles to the Jew, I, I, I Sleep, and the eyes of my Divine and the heart of the BDIT. " >

And the third nature of Lvovo: Faugh, the Lvik is running off, his tail covers its feet. Yes can't squint [Find] the trace of it. Taco and you, human ,, really make alms, does not whine the left hand, what does the handle of yours work, and the devil does not have the cause of your thoughts. "

"Oh (Pelican] . There is a dirty penette. To stick bo's wife [female] ribs with her chick. And he [male] comes from the fodder[With feed] . Purge your ribs, yes, the blood is animated with a chick.

So our Lord from Jews [Jews] Copy of the edge of its wicker. In the breath and water. And revive the universe, siren decease. This shall and the riser of the Prophet, Yako like the desert

Already from the above examples it can be seen that in the system of traditional folk ideas about the world around the world, animals simultaneously appear both natural objects, and as a kind of mythological characters. In the book tradition, there are almost no descriptions of the "real" animals, even in the "natural science" treatises prevailing the fabulous element. It seems that the authors have not sought to convey some specific information about real animals, but they tried to form certain ideas about their symbolic essence from the reader. These ideas are based on the traditions of different crops recorded in written sources.

Animal symbols are not "twins" of their real prototypes. The indispensable presence of fiction in the stories about animals led to the fact that the described animal could wear the name well-known to the reader of the beast or birds, but sharply differ from him with its properties. From the prototype character often remained only his verbal shell (name). At the same time, the image was usually not correlated with a set of signs corresponding to the given name and forming an image of an animal in the household consciousness, which once again confirms the separation of two knowledge systems about Nature: "Book" and "practical."

Within such a description of the animal, the following distribution of real and fantastic properties can be noted. Often the object is described in accordance with the biological nature; The basis of such texts is most likely, practical observations. For example:

About Lici. The physiologist is spectable about Lisitsa Yako flattering belly is. Insusha, notice, do not even cut down bokhma [nothing will find at all] , Looking for Prya [Economic building] or Purenitzia [Shed, where they store a straw or poultry] and fall, is awareness and in itself the souls are driving, and I can lie down. And the birds of the bird sio oumel there are, to sit on the wrong and to be sick. Ti then jump soon, praise and demote me

The story of Dyatle is built on the description of the properties of the Dattal to drop the beak trees; In the design of the cuckoo, the focus is put on the habit of this bird to postpone the events in other people's nests; There is an amazing beauty of beaver in the construction of housing, and swallows - in the device of their nest.

Sometimes the real object was released only by fictional properties. In this case, the relationship between the character with real animals has only remained in the name. So, let's say, the relationship of the name " beaver"And descriptions" indian»Beaver, from the internships of which Musk is mined, as well as some kind of predatory beast (perhaps a tiger or wolverine; in any case, he portrayed a striped and huge claws on miniatures). " Vol"Could mean not only the pet Bos Bubalus, but also" indian"The will, who, afraid to lose at least one hair from his tail, costs real estate, if it clings to the tail behind the tree, as well as the mythical sea predator. In addition, it was believed that in India there are huge wheels (between the horns of which a person can sit), oxen with three horns and with three legs and, finally, the wheels " rocks", Whose long horns do not allow them to move forward. Salamander - This is the name of the lizard, as well as a poisonous snake and an animal value with a dog capable of filling the fire.

So, depending on the semantic filling, the same animal name could mean both a really existing animal and a fantastic character. A set of properties that, from the point of view of a modern reader, have no real basis, often correlated with the names of animals of distant countries and determined the idea of \u200b\u200bthe reader of the Middle Ages. So, in the "physiologist" about the elephant, it was described that he was needed for the work on the light of the offspring, he was needed by the root of Mandragora, and falling, he could not stand, because there are no joints in his knees. It also said that panfire (Panther, Bars) has a property to sleep for three days, and on the fourth day to lure other animals to her fragrance and voice. Wellbudopardus (Giraffe) was presented with a fence (lyry) with a camel.

The most widely distributed descriptions in which the animal was endowed with both real and fictional signs. Thus, in addition to the Voron's addiction to Fallen and the usual of these birds to form marriage couples, the old-Russian descriptions included the story that there is no water in July in July, because God has been punished for neglecting to his chicks, as well as the testimony as if the thief knows how to "revive »Cooked eggs with one famous herb. It was believed that the bird yerodiy (Seagull) can distinguish Christians who know Greek, from people " other knee" There was a story that yeahr. (otter) kills the sleeping crocodile, coming through the revealed mouth to its internships. With a sufficiently correct description of the Dolphin's habit (comes to the aid to the aid to the sea in the sea, etc.) the author of such a treaty could call him zelphin Bird, and on ancient miniature a couple of dolphins is depicted ( two Dolphimona), Savings of St. Vasily new, in the form of two ... dogs.

The correspondence of the characters arising from the redistribution of signs was eliminated by assigning one of them to one of them (because of all, in the description of which the fabulous properties prevailed, or it correlated with the "stranger", the exotic region - India, Ethiopia, Arabia, etc.) of an unusual (foreign language ) Name. With this, as it were, a possible inconsistency of any properties of the object with the familiar set of features united under "its", familiar name. So, " indian"Beaver also wore the name" mJSCOUS (Metsus, Musk, Mus))».

It should be borne in mind that the free application of signs for the name of the character played an important role in symbolic interpretation of its properties. The most authoritative specialist in the field of studying animal symbols in the ancient Russian book, O. V. Belov notes cases when a set of signs completely passed from one name to another, and an object that hosts other signs, received a new property. So, being combined first in their signs, Hyena and the bear subsequently "exchanged" and names. In ancient Russian albuchikov ouena Along with the meanings of the "wild beast, imitating the human voice", "the mythical poisonous beast with a human face, circling snakes," "Beast from the breed of cat" has the meaning of "Bear, Major".

From the point of view of the medieval book, such descriptions were not examples of pure fiction. All "natural science" information was perceived as a given, being supported by authoritative sources.

"Inspectorate and truly, or falsely do not know. But the WOT in the books of this is to come together and this should be written. Tako and about Merrekh, and birds, and wood, and grass and fish, and about Kamenech "

- notes the compiler of one of the Azbukovnikov. For the book "scientific" description of animals, a sign of real-surreal is not determining.

Animal names were regarded as initially data defined by divine fishery. The article "On the advent of the names of cattle and the beast and Gad" tells:

During the days of those pronomandannago, Adam Side, the Lord God for the land of Skeep Her and All Ward, southeless himself. And the urban of the Lord all cattle is terrestrial and all the birds are soaring, and I will give before the person of Adam and I have a job, yes, he is named after everyone. And adverly, Adam names to all earthly cattle, and the beast, and birds, and fish, and Gada, and Zhebhelichim [ insect ]

Moreover, these names were given so successfully and so accurately reflected the essence of all the creations that God did not consider it possible to change them even after the sin of the first people.

All animals and all their properties, real and fictional, are considered by the old Russian scribes from the point of view of the secret moral point, concluded in them. Animal symbols gave abundant material for medieval moralists. In the "physiologist" and similar monuments with him every animal, whether it is supernatural creation (unicorn, Centaur, Phoenix), an exotic beast of distant countries (elephant, lion) or a good familiar being (fox, hedgehog, partridge, beaver) amazing. Everything " highestia and GEATSTITY"The creatures act in their innermost function available only to spiritual insight. Each animal "means" something ", and the values, often opposite, may be several. These symbols can be attributed to the discharge of "overhead images": they are based not on obvious similarity, but on difficultly explained, traditionally fixed semantic identities. The idea of \u200b\u200bexternal similarity to them alien.

In the context of the culture of ancient Russia, a live creature, deprived of his symbolic significance, opposes a slim world order and simply does not exist in the separation from its value. No matter how intrinsically engaged in the properties of the described animal, the ancient Russian author always emphasized the primacy of symbolism over the actual description. For him, animal names are the names of symbols, and not specific creatures, real or fantastic. The compilers of "physiologists" did not set themselves the goal to give more or less complete characteristics of animals and birds that were told. Among the properties of animals, only those with which it was possible to find analogies with any aologian concept or make moral conclusions.

Approximately the same perceived by the old Russian scribes stones , their nature, properties and quality, color.

« 1st izh Kamyk, nine sardion [Ruby] Babylonian, the account is the same, I can have blood. Care in Babylon on land traveling to Asiy. There is a transparent. The healing forces in it are the essence, and the otoki [tumor] ulcers, from iron is apparent. Siy Kamyk is likened to eat a list of first [Israel] , Following Silen and Mustows on the case of BASH. "

« 3rd Kamyk Izmaragd [Emerald] Green is. In the peas of the Indian digging them. The bright is also, hedgehog the face of human video in him, Aki in the gloor. Siy is likened to eat Leftgi [son of Israel] - the saint and the Iraea rank, others and the face of the human face without shameing them»

The expanded symbolic system of individual elements of the "creature nature" found an embodiment in derivative texts and images. So, on the icon "Miracle of St. George about Zmie "depicted St. George, squeezing on a snow-white horse, in a red rainwater fluttering in the wind, with a spear in his hand, striking a dark-red Zmia, arguing under the hooves of the horse. In addition to the literal "illustration" of the corresponding living text, this icon is filled with a multitude of symbolic meanings. For example, sv. George symbolizes the whole site of Christ, which, relying on the right faith (it symbolizes the white horse), leads an irreconcilable and tireless struggle with the devilish forces (Zmiy - a steady symbol of the devil, and a spear in the hands of the saint - a symbol of overthrow and victory over Satan). These images are complemented and developed with color symbolics. White color horse is the color of purity, the symbol of the Holy Spirit of the Holy Spirit. Blood-red cloak sv. George corresponds to the color of the ruby \u200b\u200b(the required characteristic can be found in the newly quoted text from the "Legend of 12 stones"). The dark red color of Zmia was associated with the color of the seventh stone - Wakiifa (Yakhonta), which corresponded to the son of Jacob Danu, from the genus of which the Antichrist should be born.

When analyzing the symbolism of the color characteristics of objects in the ancient Russian works of literature and art (with all the conventions of the use of these terms for ancient Russia), it should be remembered that the names of the colors could differ significantly from the modern "generally accepted color of the nomenclature". If you lose this moment from sight, you can get into a very awkward position. I will give an example. In the old Slavonic translation of antioch Xi in. We read the mysterious phrase:

« To whom the blue eyes, who do not be in wine, who does not find a firing to the kud go»

Here the models of ethical and color spaces are fundamentally different from usually. Modern person will never understand what communication can exist between the "blue" eyes and a tendency to abuse with alcoholic beverages, if it does not take into account that during when this text was written, the word "blue" meant "dark, dark red (cherry ), shiny. " Without this, by the way, it is not clear why many icons have red ("Blue, shiny, shining") background.

Retreat from installed canon Not perceived by the medieval Russian reader. He was not interested in new plots. He preferred to reread already famous works. Therefore, the composition of the ancient Russian "flaws" of literary works could remain unchanged over the centuries, and each new chronicle architectory necessarily included the texts of the preceding chronicles.

The most common and universal expression of the representations of the Russian Orthodox person about the world around him has always been orthodox church . He retained form (not a model!) The world, who was "his" for a man of ancient Russia.

The word "temple" itself, along with the words "Church", "Cathedral", denotes a special building for worship. Here, over the centuries, the most important Christian rites and actions were committed today. In the temple, according to Christian ideas, a believer can enter into direct communication with God. Here, a person turns to him with a prayer, enters the dialogue with the highest essences imaginable. This is "Mr. Prayer", " ground sky"," God's house ".

For our ancestors, the temple was peculiar mirror The world in which they lived and part of which were themselves, and the mirror is very peculiar. It reflected not an external appearance, but internal, hidden from the uninitiated image. The image of the invisible icon (which means Greek "image"). The phenomenon is incomprehensible. The temple was (and remains for believers) "instrument" rather not even knowledge, but the feeling of truth through earthly, auxiliary images. Such a figurative development went from an accessible "external" outline to what could be comprehended only with the eyes inner.

Wherein " clean meaning"Earth belongings, phenomena and events could be transmitted both through the images" similar "(" similar ") and through images" incomplete "(" non-").

"Similar" images, "For the sake of weakness of our understanding" (John Damaskin, approx. 675-753), in a well-known form displays the primward ("archetypes"). "Inseparable", although they have a sensual-shaped "shell", do not so much displays how much the truth is indicated in certain signs and symbols requiring a special decryption for a modern person. Their external form and the sign of what they are, have nothing to do with each other. The correspondence between the appearance and the content of the image is established by a certain agreement (convention) between people. Therefore, such symbolism Sometimes called conventional. The uninitiated meaning of such images is incomprehensible. Sign says nothing to them. Therefore, we are unable to "hear through the eyes" the voice of those who left these signs.

To whom, let's say, it will come to mind, looking at the bizarre Griffins (the image that came from the Ancient East) or good-natured, sleeping with the open eyes of Lviv on the walls of the Pokrov-on-Nerley temple, Dmitrievsky Cathedral in Vladimir or St. George Cathedral in Yuryev-Polsky, What about us are the events of Jesus Christ?

And the less understandable to us "The flow of metaphor and symbols of the pattern", which is everybody without exception ornamental motive, adorning the temple: from " herbs placed"(Extremely stylized image of a vine), symbolizing, metaphorically depicting and idea Paradise, and the universe (being in a state of continuous creation, and therefore eternal), and the ideas of cyclicity, the rhythm of nature, the change of the time of the year, the alternations of the day and night (i.e. all the basic laws of living life), and concept person- microcosm (private compliance with the whole system of the universe - macrocosm), and a great sacrifice that has become the way to save and immortality, to the infinite alternation of extremely generalized images of the flower and fetus - the symbol of cyclically updated eternity, or the repetition of stylized images of fan-shaped palm leaves - palmette, inscribed in intersecting circles, is the topic known under The name "Eternal Return".

In this case, earthly beauty, brought to the simplest, initial forms in which the idea of \u200b\u200bthe temple is embodied, became the way to know the beauty of absolute - the beauty of the meanings that are laid in idea Temple.

The creators understood the Christian temple as harmonized space. This image was formulated and developed by the theologians of the early Middle Ages - Esvestia Pamphil (264-340), Vasilya Great (approx. 330-379) and others. In their works of the concept of the world and the temple, transfers into each other as artistic divine creations: The world is the temple of God's creation, the temple - the world of God.

"Temple-Cosmos" was created and perceived as a symbolic-artistic and ideological "image of the world". The classic figurative embodiment is the Constantinople Church of St. Sofia. This image of the harmonized cosmos was so universal that after the conquest of Constantinople, the Turks-Osmans, Sofia, was turned into a Muslim mosque.

The initial idea of \u200b\u200bthe temple over time was complemented and developed, complicated by new meanings. The development of the contemplative nature of East Christian spiritual life led, in particular, to the formation of the idea of \u200b\u200bthe temple as a "symbolic image of a person" (Maxim Confessor). The image of the external world (Macrocosm) merges in the temple with the image of the inner world of a person (microcosm). And the merger was not easy. Moreover, both of these images were in an insoluble - and constantly resolved! - contradiction. Their unity and amounted to the foundation of the image of the ancient Russian temple.

Further development The idea of \u200b\u200bthe temple was obtained in Byzantium during the level of iconocructure (VIII - the first half of the IX centuries), when the idea of \u200b\u200bthe Kosmos Temple was transformed into the appearance of the "Temple - the Earth Sky, in which God lives and resides." According to Patriarch, German, now the temple -

"The Divine House, where a mysterious life-quality sacrifice is performed, where there is also the inner sanctuary, and the sacred verdress, and the tomb, and a disbeling life-giving meal."

The temple, thus, turned into a face (border), separating and, at the same time, as any face connecting the person and God, a man and the universe, which surrounded and the same time filled his body shell (soul). The temple becomes not only the place of communication with the deity, but also to the tool (intermediary) of the person of his own divine essence, the eternal irreplacement, the means of becoming it consciousness.

For this, however, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe temple was to be embodied and concrete forms that would well show (revealed) these meanings, made them available to the direct perception of the Organon of the senses,

Like ideas The temple is embodied in image Temple?

The basis of the visual image of the temple is two elementary characters, formed in the east and different paths who came to the Christian world:

— cross ("Earth", a symbol of death and victory over it, resurrection, immortality, Christ) and

— dome, resting on four supports (the packer - "visible, earthly sky").

Therefore, the temples are called Cross-Dome.

The combination of these characters created an extremely complex multidimensional and multivalued image, complete "decoding", "reading" of which is unlikely possible.

The center, the stem of the image - Bogochlovek Jesus, whose godfather has passed (as Christians consider) the only rescue bridge over the abyss, running between a sinful person ("Earth") and the Holy God ("Sky"). Here is the key that opens the basis of the external and internal appearance of the temple, which constitutes its elements and their relationship. This structure has developed in general and Byzantium to the IX century. And at the end of the x century. Was moved to Kievan Rus.

Let's go to the temple.

The temple is the first thing we see, approaching the old Russian city or village. His dome is noticeable when the roofs of other buildings are not yet visible. And this is not only because the temple is the highest of them. The fact is that for the construction of his architect, the special - slim is the place, the most advantageous for construction, which looks at different points well. Thin found harmonic coherence of architecture and nature increased the impact on the viewer. The temple, as it were, grown out of the ground, which threatened it. The image of the "Temple - Sky on Earth" received a visual embodiment.

With a rare exception, externally, the Russian temple (especially early) produces very modest, often even a ascetic impression. Decoration of his white-stone facade (construction from bricks is prohibited by biblical standards), if any, never develop into decoration. There is no in vain, idle Beauty. Everything is subject to one idea. Everything has its own meaning, and even more precisely - meaning.

In each element and consisting of these, the holistic image contains several meanings, at least four: the literal (it is, however, it was also divided into clear and secret), moral, symbolic and allegorical:

"The same Budo, Yak, on a fair teacher, the antoebuo there is a gain: Fossenko, Mlow, Conditional, Vtaina and Employed."

The total number of meanings recoverable ("subtracted") from a particular image could even achieve several dozen.

The appearance of the temple was intended for a citywide stemming and therefore should be the most directly expressing the idea of \u200b\u200bthe "Temple - the Earth Sky" laid into it. This was achieved, first of all, due to the orientation of the temple on the parties of the world: the central axis of the symmetry of the temple is located in the direction of East-West. The entrance (or main entrance) in the temple is located on its Western facade. From the east, the space of the temple is limited by semicircular, graves or rectangular in terms of altar protrusions - apsides. At the same time, the West symbolized the Earth, death, the end of the visible being ("dying" at the end of the day the sun), and the East - the sky, life, revival and, finally, Jesus Christ, often referred to in prayers " Sun truth», « East».

At the head of the domes, perpendicular to the axis of the symmetry of the temple is the cross. The upper end of the inclined lower crossbar indicates north - " union countries" The number of chandeliers of the temple is usually also considered symbolic (for example, a five-core temple - Christ and four evangelists, 13-dome - Christ and 12 apostles, etc.), but early sources do not allow it to be approved with complete confidence.

The axis of the temple does not always coincide with the geographical sides of the world. Obviously, this is due to the fact that in the absence of a compass as a landmark, the builders served as the sunrise and sunset on the day of bookmarks of the temple or on the day of the holiday he was dedicated.

The next important element of the appearance of the temple is the facade decoration. Apparently, the external images divided the surface of the temple into three tiers, or the register. Each of them carried its meaningful load. They symbolized the levels of climbing the sinful land to the sky.

The lower tier symbolized the land actually. First, here the images were filled in the main portals (inputs) and lines of consoles (protrusions in the wall supporting the cornice) of the Arcatopoto Frieze columns. These images meant evil forces that were prohibited from the inside of the temple and on the tops of its walls. Subsequently, the lower tier of the walls was sometimes filled with the images of the plant world.

Fris, who separated the lower tier from the middle, was Cosmodis - " the semi-duty line of the earth and heavenly paradise", Or (possibly) a symbol of the paradise arcade (a number of the same arches resting on columns or pillars).

The second tier was identified with the world of the Divine in his unity with people. The paintings of the earth's mission of God are unfolded here - or through envoys. It is in this tier that we find the most "narrative" images. Characters Here is God himself, people, beasts, and sometimes the most fantastic "creatures" (griffins, centaurians-whale, Sirin, etc.), which, as we know, have symbolic meanings.

Upper, third tier - actually the sky. At first he remained empty. Then he was filled with images of God and Higher Persons of the Church Hierarchy.

So, moving along the walls of the temple from the bottom upwards, the images embodied a special look at the world - gradualismwhich represented a gradual transition from the world of plants and demonic lyrus through the images of people and animals to the image of God, distinguished into the central, the highest and most capacious symbol of Christianity, the crowned temple dome, - the cross.

Moreover, a person who did not enter the temple, the highest tiers are not available. It is doomed to stay at the level of vegetable; The earthly world itself, being only a "moving plant".

Unlike the external (very concise) design, associated with modesty, non-commodity and severity of the external life of a Christian, a complex internal structure and the magnificent decoration of the interior of the temple, borderingides with luxury, symbolizes the wealth of the spiritual life of a believer man.

The inner appearance of the temple is trigine in its structure. Its space is formed by walls, pillars supporting the dome, and special obstacles, in the horizontal plane, the temple is divided into a follower ( nartex), ship ( nave) and altar ( konhu.).

Focus - The western part of the temple separated from the middle - the temple itself is a deaf wall. In the tribe could not only include "truly believers", but also people who have been banned in the main part of the temple - infrared and heretics. He symbolized the land (sofonium, patter. Jerusalem).

Ship - The central part of the temple - was the prototype of the visible sky. A somewhat strange name is connected with the presentation, as if the church, like a ship, in the image of the Noeva Ark, entails a believer by the sea of \u200b\u200blife to a quiet pier in the kingdom of heaven.

Altar - The eastern part of the temple is separated from the NEF with a special obstacle. On the altar barrier is usually located iconostasis. Altar - the throne of God, the most important part of the temple. Here, in the altar, laity, as a rule, are not allowed (for women it is generally excluded). The altar is arranged on the elevation, which has not only symbolic, but also practical meaning; Everyone must be heard worship and can be seen what is being done in the altar. The inside of the altar closes the curtain, which in the course of worship opens and closes.

In the middle of the altar is located throne - Home belonging to the Christian temple. It is a quadrangular table, closed with two bedspreads (" clothes"). It is believed that on the throne it is invisible, God as the king and the lord of the Church is secretly present. On the throne before committing communion and consecration of the new church are placed antimine - quadrangular linen or silk plates with images of the position of Jesus Christ in the coffin and four evangelists. In the corners of his sewn of the saints of the saints (the first time, Christian worships took place on the graves of the saints).

The antimine during the service is put in the pressure of the Gospel and the Cross, the Darochranitor and Daronia. Near the throne, the sacrament of communion is committed, divine services are held.

The throne of the temple is consecrated in honor of any holy or event of sacred history. Hence the temple gets its name. Often in one temple there are several thrones, which are located in special altars - potdach. Each of them is sanctified in honor of his saint (events). But the entire temple is called the main, central throne, only the priest can touch the throne.

Behind the throne there are a semots and (behind him) a renoval cross. The eastern wall of the altar is elevated alpine place, symbolizing the mountain (highest) world. Left from the throne, in the northern part of the altar, costs altarwhere gifts are prepared for the sacrament of communion. With the right (southern) side of the altar is arranged sacristyin which sacred clothes are stored, church vessels and liturgical books.

There are three doors in the altar barrier: "Tsarist" and Dyakonsky (South and Northern) gate. It is believed that Jesus Christ is invisible through the royal gates in the holy gifts - "King of Glory." Only a priest can take place in the royal gate. They are placed images of the honors and evangelists. Over them is the icon of "Last Supper".

The elevation on which the altar and the iconostasis are standing forward, to the ship. This elevation in front of the iconostasis is called salus. The middle of it is called amvon (which means "the edge of the mountain, climbing"). From Ambon, Deacon pronounces Ektenni (prayers), reads the Gospel, and the priest reads the sermons. Here, the believer is taught by communion. At the edges of the saline, the walls are arranged closses For readers and singers.

The central part of the temple, actually the sanctuary, is divided by pillars on the so-called need (ships). Differ central (Limited by two rows of central pillars) and side - north and South (formed by pillars and the corresponding wall) - no oil. Transverse nasties called transparent. The semantic center of the nef (space between the altar and the entrance) is a mediumland formed by the central nave and a translat. Here, if you can say so, there is a vertical "semantic vector" of the temple.

The lamp corresponding to the yard of the Old Testament Temple, where all the people were located, at present almost completely lost its original value, although it is still sent here to stand for corrected gravity sinners and lootes.

The famous symbolism was also kept in the trocherity of the transverse membership of the Central Operation Temple (central and lateral oil, the throne, altar and diaconic; the royal and deacon gates), but it, apparently, was a derivative, and not the system-forming.

In accordance with the semantic membership of the horizontal plane of the temple, distributed in it and distribution cycles. The western part was assigned to the Old Testament ("historical") plots. Partially they occupied the walls of the main premises, but only before the preamplist pillars on which the Annunciation was portrayed. Here was the limit that separated the Doharistian and New Testament history.

Time thus obtained horizontal length. The man who was part of the temple, as we move towards the altar, repeated the entire path of mankind - from the creation of the world to the Christmas and the godfather of the Savior, from his resurrection to a terrible court, the image of which was on the western wall of the central neopa.

However, a cyclic time was present here, which fits the whole life of a medieval person. In the XI-XII centuries. The Byzantine tradition of the location of the temple christological painting was distributed in Russia. She invited the "viewer" to a circular movement in the interior of the temple, which entirely corresponded to the "cyclically-temporal" symbolism of the Central-Dome Construction. The gospel story, according to this tradition, originates in the northern end of the central cross formed by the Central Neum and Remote. Then the story goes into its southern, and from here - in the Western end,

Thus, the meaning and chronological sequence of images is deployed clockwise. In order to be praying could see all the evangelical episodes in turn, he had to make three circles within the central cross. At first they were "read" images on three crops ("Christmas", "Considering", "Baptism", "Transfiguration", "Resurrection of Lazarus", "Entrance to Jerusalem"). The second round consisted of images above the arches of the choirs ("Christ in front of Kaiafa", "Peter's renewal", "Crucifix", "Removing from the Cross"). Finally, the final episodes of the evangelical story were placed in the simplicity of the Lower Yarusa ("Miro-Mire's wife at the Holy Sepulcher", "Descent to hell", "the phenomenon of Christ's Myrova's wives", "Safety of Foma", "Establishment of students for a preaching", " . Spirit "). In the altar part, the image "Eucharist" was placed.

We encounter such sequence of paintings in the temples of St. Sofia in Kiev and Novgorod. However, this Byzantine canon is the location of the evangelical images in Russian churches most often violated. But there is a cyclic, forever repeated time continued to be present in the lyualgy texts. All the events of the Holy History are updated in them. They are committed (judging by the verb forms that are used in the pronounced texts) right now, but in some other dimension.

Interestingly, the whole "way" who came to the temple covers not only the history that currently has at the moment, but also what will happen in the upcoming end of time. In other words, a person sees his life path already completed; Everything has already happened, has become unchanged, eternal. However, this moment ("Today") is not here. He himself - a man standing in the temple and the decisive "recent issues of being" (or - focusing on the "Last Human" - current issues of their mortal life), decisive and crushing their fate. Such a kind of thought dialogue between a person living and experiencing this state, and they, but those who have already completed, who have completed their life path, between the momentary and eternal, temporary and timeless, transient and irreversible gave birth to a special emotional-moral tension, in the "force field" which occurred the formation of the consciousness of the believer, his personality.

A peculiar focus of the horizontal vector of the "Energy Field" of the temple was Deesus (Greek. "Dairy") - icons located in the third (counting the second icon of "Mystery Supper" over the royal gates) a number of iconostasis. They depict Jesus Christ in glory with the upcoming figures. Christ in the bishop closure sits on the throne. He is coming the Mother of God (right, " odessa"From him) and John the Forerunner (left," oshuya"). They act as intermediaries between God and people, are praying for Christ about the forgiveness of human sins. Deesus embodies the idea of \u200b\u200bintercession ( content) For "genus Christian."

Another semantic vector of the temple is vertical structure of his paint. The lower ("earth") register is allocated to the organizers of the "Earth Church" - apostles, saint, the fathers of the Church. The second tier is Christological. There are protoevantia and gospel scenes, which have already been discussed. The third ("Heavenly") register is dedicated to the "Church of the Heavenly", embodied in the images of the angels and the inner space of the church of Christ the Almighty (Pantokratcher, often in the image of "dilapidated days", i.e. in old age, which is inconsistently Father) shown on the central dome.

So, the vertical structure of the interior of the temple also symbolizes the climbing from the "earth", transient - through repeating, cyclical - to the timeless, eternal, universal level, fixing the semantics: "Cross - Universe".

The external and internal images of the temple corresponded not only to the macrocosm, but also a microcosm. From the XIV century The idea of \u200b\u200bthe microcosm gradually becomes the prevailing. The center of attention is transferred to a person, his inner world. At the same time, some changes and the appearance of the temple undergoes. By the beginning of the XV century. It clearly becomes more and more "man", anthropomorphizes. Its proportions change, the vertical axis of symmetry is shifted. The image of the temple is becoming more and more "humane."

Obviously, these metamorphoses were associated with certain changes in the value system. In particular, apparently, it became clear that the inner world of a person is a universe, in general, coinciding with an external divinely harmonized world. And, consequently, everyone carries its "temple" - the images of the microcosm merged with the images of the macrocosm. The temple becomes a place (and the "instrument") of the harmonization of the inner and external world of the person, where he is aware of himself and its place in this world, acquires the meaning of his being.

The idea of \u200b\u200bthe harmony of internal and external is perhaps the most clearly manifested in the descriptions. human appearancewhich we find in the ancient Russian literature. The material and bodily perceived then as visible beauty, testifying to the beauty and feasibility of the world of invisible, spiritual. The dialectical connection of the visible (material) and invisible (supersensible) became the core of medieval Christian aesthetics, which understood a person as dY-17 Creature (« mixed animal"). He is one of the most beautiful phenomena of the surrounding world, in which the creative idea of \u200b\u200ban eternal builder is broken. Invisible and visible worlds - the creation of God. Everything created by God is fine. The source of beauty and good - in absolute beauty and absolute good.

On the contrary, the source of ugly and evil - outside God, in free will. The first died from God Satan. The man was created in the image and likeness of the Creator. In the action of the fall, Adam and Eve have lost similarity, primitive ideal condition of a person. Dmitry Rostovsky wrote:

"The God of the Man of Man's Necrow, the Nrava Dobryotelnaya, is careful, unfortunate, all the virtues is lit., all the benefits, aki, aki, the second, in great [microcosm] , Angela Inago ... King Bulk on Earth [equal angel, king over all that is on earth] .. .»

Spiritual improvement of man ( after The arrival of Christ into the world) is the way to restore the initial harmony. Purpose - ebry of all creatures. Self man is fully responsible for his actionsSince it is endowed with "Samovlasty", the freedom of choice between good and evil. In the interaction (cooperation) of the will of the creature creatures and ideas-wonders of the Divine ( synergy) - The key to the perfect connection with God.

The ideal image of the prince (and no one, except for the princes or people from the closest surroundings, we do not see in the ancient Russian literary works) was built on combination and interpenetration in the "bodily church" of an excellent real and excellent spiritual. For example, as describes the author of "Tale of Boris and Gleb" one of his heroes:

« About Boris, like be harvested [What was the type]. School of the beloved Boris Boris Booga Korene Son Listen to the Fathers Behold, shook with all the fizz. Talm Foysha Krasn, High, Limit Kruglog, the shoulders of Great, T-Stak in Chersla, the cleansing of the predominium, the fun of Leschmmm, the beard of Mala and the mustache - Ja B beard. Cestsarists glow, Klyshyskts bodies are decorated with an aq Color of flowers in the utennacles of their own, in the Hourbar rafts, in the fever and pleasure at all, and the grace of God's wisely on the mute. "

In such a few, the portrait characteristic of Boris contains holistic concept of manrepresenting in an abused form of a system of moral and aesthetic views of the medieval scribe per person. She, by the way, found continued in Russian classic literature new time. Recall at least the KhrestShiy Chekhovskoye: " in a person, everything should be fine... ". Bodily bloom-free"(Welfare) directly indicates the inner enlightenness of man and" limit of Limomatry", That a person (in this case is a prince-passionerpec) at life reached a high degree of perfection in humility, obedience, meekness.

Old Russian culture deeply learned the Christian medieval ideal of the mobility, which was expressed in the so-called ascetic aesthetics. The latter opposed all the material, earthly and carnal spiritual.

The monk leaves the world and preaches abstinence, umring their passions, and kills the body through various deprivation and self-tract. From the point of view of a modern man, there is nothing aesthetically valuable. However, the logic of early-medieval Agiographs (compilers of the living ones, the saints' lives) was different. So, for example, the creator of the "Life of Simeon of the Stattle", carried away by the extremes of monastic ascetic, says his peculiar " aesthetics denial", The essence of which is to nominate the ugly and disgusting. The writer compares the worms who eaten the flesh of the devotee, with precious pearls, a rose ascetica - with gilding. From the body of Simeon

« the unbearable SMRArad emanates, so there is no one to become near anyone, and his bed is sisit of worms ...»

- These details become the object of specific enjoyment, loving and contemplation.

A modern person can understand this "philosophy of the beautiful" can only if it tries to adequately reveal its moral and religious meaning. The randral is in the original source, the evangelical instruction of Jesus Christ about the Pharisees. Pharisees (representatives of the Jewish sect) attributed to themselves exclusive holiness, despised "unclean" people (including tax collectors - solari). In the Christian medieval literature, these pride and deceivers have become the personification of vicious human nature: they are only in words of pious, but genuine essence - in the slave dependence on the material benefits of the "World of Peace", in the worship of false idols. Christ reproaches the Pharisees:

« Still doing their own in order to see their people "

comparing wickedness with "painted coffins",

"Which seems beautiful outside, and inside the bones of the dead and every unclean."

For the Christian Askta, all worldly life became a "painted coffin", in which people already die from the vices and failing for the flesh. The more beautiful and tempting the appearance of the sinner, the worst of his inner essence. And vice versa, the disgusting side of the terrestrial "dying" of the flesh (monk and his bore body sheath with the name dyingfor the world) becomes a symbol of internal perfection. Such symbolism built on the contrast of the sign and the designated, typical for medieval thinking.

Paradoxical logic is very consonant with the moods of a person who is looking for the salvation of the soul, rejecting earthly pleasures. This lies the explanation of the "absurd" behavior of the oborudy, which "returned" into the world in order to express it. They demonstrate their contempt for generally accepted moral standards. Yurozhny eats in the post of meat, dancing with the harlot. His behavior seems ridiculous, but in fact it is fulfilled deep meaning. Moscow Yurodova XVI century. Vasily Blessed, passing through the streets, threw stones into the corners of those houses in which they prayed, and kissed the corners of those houses in which the debauchery was indulging, saw wine and sang shameless songs. He was interpreted by his actions as follows: from pious people should drive demons, and kissing angles - greeting angels, leaving a bad dwelling. However, the extremes of the aesthetics of denial did not conflict with everyday life. One thing - ideal, completely different - code of conduct.

How does ideal open? Should I strive for it? The ancient scribes responded to these questions, guided by the commandments of "Holy Scripture". The Christian doctrine of a person contrasts the "body" "flesh":

"Singing his flesh in the flesh will get angry, and the eternal life sowing in the Spirit will get away."

Ancient Russian writers, brought up on the St. Literature, well understood that sin had not material, but spiritual nature (Satanic began is realized in the action of evil spirits). Speaking about the high dignity of man, they defined it as a measure of things. Therefore, not only a reasonable part and the highest element of human nature - "Spirit" ( pnevma.), but also the body itself with the feasibility and beauty of the proportions inherent in it in the hierarchy of spiritual values.

Beautiful - material and visible - contains information about the beauty of absolute - "spiritual". This concept turned out to be a natural organic element of the Christian system of ethical and aesthetic representations. She received his rationale for Pseudo-Dionysius of Areopagita. The natural cause of many of the benefits and excellent visible and invisible creations were "one-good-and-beautiful".

V. V. Bychkov on the basis of texts Pseudo-Dionysius of Areopagitis establishes the following the hierarchy is beautiful In Russian spiritual culture:

1. Absolute Divine Beauty. Sample, the cause of all the existing, source of expediency and harmony.

2. The beauty of celestial creatures.

3. The beauty of the phenomena of the material world, all visible and bodily.

So, earthly beauty served in medieval aesthetics symbol of beauty spiritual. Consequently, all the overalls could get a material expression in the symbols and even in naive-naturalistic (overlooking) images.

Human

The family was the middle of the human life of ancient Russia. Extensive and detailed prohibitable terminology of related relationships is one of the best confirmations. Unfortunately, written sources are very scooping illuminating this side of the spiritual life of our ancestors. However, even indirect data allow to make quite curious conclusions.

Apparently, the most significant was considered relationships, firstly, between brothers and, secondly, between parents and children. The "depth" of generic memory rarely was beyond the scope of these two generations of relatives. No wonder nouns " brother», « brothers»More often than all other words are used by chroniclers. So, in the "Tale of Bygone Years", they meet 219 times (i.e., an average of 4.6 mentions for each thousand words of the text; for comparison; the most used in the "Stand" noun " summer"- Meeting 412 times - gives 8.8 mentions for each 1000 words, and the next consumption frequency -" son"- meet 172 times, respectively, 3.7 mentions). In general, the children have occupied little chronicler. Words denoting the younger generation (" patterns», « child», « child"), Are found in the" Tale of Bygone Years "ten times less often than nouns belonging to adult men. Male related terminology is a little less than a third of the whole complex of chronicle nouns, despite the fact that in general the "related" vocabulary gives 39.4% of all nouns used by the chronicler. It should also be noted that the older generation (father is a mother; husband - wife) occupies a subordinate position in the chronicle compared to the younger (son - daughter; brothers - sisters; children - Chad); 353 and 481 Mention respectively. Moreover, the problem of "fathers and children" in Russian Middle Ages took the form of the problem of "sons and parents"; Relations between sons, on the one hand, and parents (Father, Mother), - On the other, give 355 mentions.

Approximately the same trends can be traced on the material of East Slavic anthroponymics, when analyzing their own names, who wore people in ancient Russia. These include personal names, nicknames, nicknames, patronymic and surnames.

Personal names - These are the names that are assigned to people at birth and under which they are known in society. In ancient Russia, canonical and non-canonical names were distinguished.

Canonical name - "True", "present" name of a person, enshrined by traditions of the Christian religion. In domestic sources to the number of canonical, Orthodox names are usually taken from the church calendar, where the names of the canonized saints are listed on months and days of their memory (the so-called calendar, or agiographic, names). In the early stages of the development of the feudal society, the canonical were, as a rule, only the godfather (church, church), monastic (inochetic) and sample names.

Cross name It was given a man with baptism. It was usually chosen by the priest from the church calendar in accordance with the name of the saint, whose memory was celebrated on the birthday or baptism of man. There are also other motives for assigning a person to a particular name.

The baptismal name in early sources is rarely mentioned, usually only in messages about the death of this person or in texts written after its death. Perhaps it was associated with superstitious ideas about the need to hide the "genuine" name, binding a person with a heavenly patron, a cartridge, the guardian angel to protect his carrier from "damage", "Schalza".

In ancient Russia, it was popularly denoted by the baptized names and patronymic of customers icons, works of shallow plastics and jewelry, owners of hanging seals (up to the XV century) by image on these objects of saints, which are directly related to family patronage (theezhenic, say, the owner or to the customer, or his father, etc.). Thanks to images of the patrons of the saints, the baptized names and patrony of the owners of the Old Russian seals and attributed many may be restored with these genealogy data. works of art Ancient Russia.

An indirect basis for the restoration of the critical name of the prince may be a certificate of the construction of the church or the monastery, since in the princely environment there was a custom to build church buildings in the name of his holy cartridges. So, the construction of the prince in Vsevolod, Yaroslavich Church of St. Andrei, in which the monastery was founded by his daughter Yanka, considered by V. L. Janin as an indirect confirmation of the affiliation of this prince of the bastile name Andrei. And the message "Tale of Bygone Years" under the 882 g. On the construction of the Church of the Church of Askold Nikola gave the basis of some scientists to suggest that Askold was a Christian and wore the baptismal name of Nikola. For similar reasons, Yaroslav Mudrome is attributed to the foundation of Yuryev, or St. George, the monastery in three versts from Novgorod.

It is important to emphasize that in Russia there was a custom to give children names (both pagan and baptismal) in honor of his grandfather or grandmother, which emphasized (especially before the names of the names) belonging to this family. Based on this, the Custom, V. A. Kuchkin, suggested that the sister of Vladimir Monomakh was not called Catherine, as recorded in the Lavrentiev chronicles, but Irina (reading, preserved in the Ipatiev Chronicle). The researcher substantiated his choice by the fact that the name of the daughter of Vladimir Vsevolodovich most likely repeated the baptismal name of Mother of Vsevolod - Princess Irina, the second wife of Yaroslav Wise.

Sometimes the members of the same kind include a certain relationship between the traditional diving family with pagan and baptized names. So, for example, for Chernihiv princes, a combination is characterized extremely rare for the prince's environment of the Christian name of Nicola (St. Nikolai Mirliysky revered on Russia almost with Christ) with the pagan name Svyatoslav.

Until the second half of the XV century. The baptismal names in the overwhelming majority can be installed only for representatives of the feudal tip - princes, members of their families and boyars. The bulk of the population of that time is the peasants, artisans, merchants - usually preferred nekalladdar, pagan names. Consequently, the reference to the source of the baptismal name (or, on the contrary, its absence - although with a smaller base) can be considered as a sign, indirectly indicating a person's social affiliation,

Monastic name It was the second canonical name that a man received when he was tested into the monks. It replaced his former worldly name. Usually, the victorious received the name of that saint, whose memory was celebrated on the day of the break, or the calendar name, which began on the same letter as the worldly name of the monk or nun. So, the Novgorod I chronicle mentions Boyarin, the Malyshevitsa, who took the name of Porphyry, Inok Vlaraam, in the world, Boyarina Vyacheslav Ploshinich, Novgorod Mikhalko, who was toured under the name of Mitrofan, and others.

Skimnic name It was given a monk with the "third baptism" (adopting a big schima) instead of his monastic name. It was also given to the Moscow kings and Boyars, many of whom were accepted by Schima before death (which provided him with a correspondence to angelic rank). Often Schermnikam, and sometimes monks gave rare calendar names, rarely used in the world as baptized (Sakerdon, Melchizedek, Achesions; Synclitics, Golinduha, Christhodula, etc.). Such names can also be viewed as an additional basis for determining the social position of their carriers.

Over time, canonical names gradually pushed out non-canonic and became used as the only name of the person. At the same time, they often accepted a non-canonical form in pronunciation and writing. At the same time, a number of pagan, neclodar names of the secular and religious figures of the Russian Middle Ages, canonized by the Orthodox Church, transferred to the category of calendar names (for example, Gleb, Boris, Vladimir, Olga, etc.). Using them as names canonical could only take place after the canonization of this saint.

In some cases, the canonical name gave an idea of \u200b\u200bthe religion of its carrier, as many calendar names of the Orthodox, Catholic and Protestant Christian churches differ from each other in shape, and the days of the memory of the same saints are often celebrated in different days.

Unannic (worldly) name It was usually not connected with religious traditions. It was the second, optional name of a secular person. In the ancient Rus worldly name, as a rule, performed

the function of the main name, since it was more famous and used than the godmother. First, this is a nekallandar, pre-Christian name, not related to the name of any saint. It,

as a rule, there was a "internal" meaning and should have rolled its carrier with some kind of useful in life. Later, Christian names are beginning to consume Christian names, usually in their folk, conversational, non-canonical form, for example, Michael and Mikula instead of canonical form Nikolai, Mikita instead of Nikita, Hurgy instead of Georgy, Nefed instead of Methodius, Nero instead of Miron, Pokhodi Instead of Apollo, Fedosia instead of Feodosia, an office instead of Eutemy, Odokya or Avdota instead of Evdokia, etc. Especially actively replacing the pagan names by Christian proceedings in the Prince and Boyar medium.

Often, the sources use decreasing or disregarding-derogatory (persistent) forms of non-canonical names. It is quite difficult to restore the full form of the name. It is especially difficult to do this when it comes to the organophonic (coinciding in pronunciation and writing) forms of various names. In such cases, an incomplete (elipped) name may correspond to two or more complete. For example, the name of Elisa could be formed both on behalf of Elisha and on behalf of the chiropaphor, or Elizar, and maybe from the nekhandar name of the fir; Zinka - on behalf of Zinovia or Zeno; Abbreviated Alyosha could comply with Alexey, and Alexander; Mitka - Dmitry and Nikita, etc. At the same time, various variant forms of one name (allonimes) may occur at the source. Let's say such names like stumbling, walls, steps, are non-canonical variant forms of one name - Stepan.

Nickname Unlike names, always reflect not desirable, but real properties and qualities, territorial or ethnic origin, the place of residence of their carriers and denote the special meaning that these properties and quality for others have. Nicknies could be given to people in different periods of their lives and were known to a rather limited circle of people.

Nicknames should be distinguished from pagan ancient Russian names. However, such a difference is not always easy to install. This is due, in particular, with the usual to give children the names formed from ethnonyms, names of animals, plants, fabrics and other items, "protective" names. Apparently, about such names-nicknames wrote at the beginning of the XVII century. English traveler Richard James in its diary:

"(Nickname), the nickname given by the mother along with the conversation name, and these name they [Russian] are usually called."

Many of these names sound offensively and therefore can be perceived by modern people as nicknames. For example, even among the nobility of the XVI century. There are names of the sickness, Kozarin, Rusin, Cheremisin, Mare, Chevlyaga (Klyach), stallion, cat, goat, beast, cow, woodpecker, grass, wood, radish, lively, cabbage, velvet, asthma, isma-ragd, shovel, chobot , Summer, Nevezhi, Revastry, bad, malice, unusted, dislike, tatt and even pussy (snot), etc. Many of these nickname names existed in individual families for several generations, thereby emphasizing the person's belonging to this family. They were often used in official documents along with certain certain names.

An important clarifying part of the name of the person in Russia was and remains patronymic (Patronized nickname), usually used with personal names and educated on behalf of the Father. Passion directly indicated the origin and related links of this person. Along with the traditional names for this family, it was one of the most important "external" indicators of human belonging to a person or another (in any case, before the emergence of surnames).

At the same time, in Starin in Russia, patronymic indirectly indicated the social affiliation of a person, since it was considered an honorary name. If representatives of the highest feudal aristocracy were called the so-called complete patrony of foundation - HIV, the average estates used less honorary forms of patronized nickname - semi-fatness ending on - OV, - ev, -in., and the lower at all accounted for nothing.

Names, patronymic and nicknames were known from ancient times, the names appeared in Russia quite late. Families - These are inherited official names, pointing to a person's belonging to a certain family. As we have already noted, for several centuries, "labor memory" in Russia completely accounted for two generations of relatives: fathers and children. It was reflected in an unconscious author of the source increased (compared to other terms of kinship) the frequency of the brothers, on the one hand, fathers and mothers on the other. This is confirmed by the fact that the naming of a person with his father's nickname as a birth was considered quite sufficient, and therefore the so-called dedicacy (personal nicknames formed on behalf of the grandfather) were used extremely rarely. Now (apparently, with the development of private land tenure), more "deep" genealogies were required, fixed in generic nicknames, common to all family members. They appeared only in the XV-XVI centuries, and even at the beginning only at the feudal.

Particularly should be part of female non-canonical names. They are almost not known for him. Already one is an important indicator of attitudes towards a woman in ancient Russia. There are even a number of names that cannot be unambiguously attributed to the number of female or male. In particular, we are talking about the names: a guest meeting coming in the Novgorod Berevian diploma of the XIV century. (No. 9); Uncle (by Graffito No. 8 in Novgorod Sofia), Durbument (Author of the Novgorod Berevian Dims No. 59, first. Paul. XIV century.) And others. If it is female names, we get an indisputable testimony of a rather high level of educational ancient Russian women and their struggle For their rights (mentioned Novgorod Berevian gram No. 9).

Position of a woman. Women are rarely mentioned in chronicle sources. For example, in the "Tale of Bygone Years" of messages related to the representatives of the fine sex, five times less than "male". Women are considered by the chronicler mainly as "predicate" of men (however, both children). That is why in Russia to marriage, the maiden was often called on his father, but not in the form of patronymic, but in a mature form: " Volodymereya", And after marriage - on her husband (in the same as in the first case," satellite "," owner "; cf. turnover:" Human wife ", i.e." belonging to her husband "). Almost the only exception to the rule was the mention of the wife of Prince Igor Novgorod-Seversky in the "Word about the regiment of Igor" - Yaroslavna. By the way, it was served by A. A. Zimin one of the arguments to substantiate the late dating "Words". Very eloquently talks about the position of a woman in the family quote from worldly parables"Laid Daniel Sharpener (XIII century):

"Neither a bird in birds to roll; none in the beast beast hedgehog; neither fish in fish cancer; no cattle in the scotch goat; Neither the coolant in the Hophech, HTO works at the Hall; Neither husband in husbands who listens to his wife "

Despotic orders who have received widespread in ancient Russian society did not bypass the family and family. The head of the family, her husband, was a hob in relation to the sovereign, but a sovereign in his own home. All households, but speaking of the servants and holsters in the literal sense of the elephant, were also its complete submission. First of all, it belonged to the female half of the house. It is believed that in ancient Russia to marriage, a girl from a trodovy family, as a rule, did not have the right to go beyond the parent estate. My husband looked for her parents, and before the wedding she usually did not see him.

After the wedding, her new "owner" became a spouse, and sometimes (in particular, in the case of his childhood - this happened often) and the father-in-law. Going beyond the new home, not excluding the visit of the church, the woman could only with the resolution of her husband. Only under his control and with his permission, she could get acquainted with someone, bring conversations with outsiders, and the content of these conversations was also controlled. Even at home, a woman did not have the right secretly from her husband or drink, to give anyone gifts or get them.

In the Russian peasant families, the share of female labor was always unusually large. Often a woman had to take even a hust. At the same time, the work of the bride was especially widely used, whose position in the family was especially difficult.

The responsibilities of the spouse and the Father included the "teaching" of home, which consisted in systematic wakes, which were undergoing children and wife. It was believed that a person who did not hit his wife, " house does not build"And" not happy about your soul", and will be " pogowler"And" in the century and in the future" Only in the XVI century. Society tried to somehow protect the woman, limit the arbitrariness of her husband. So, "Domostroy" advised to beat his wife "not in front of people, alone to teach" and " night not angry" wherein. Recommended " for all the blame"[Because of the smallest things]" Do not be a bit, nor under the heart of a fist, nor a pink, not bother, not to beat any iron or trees. "

Such "restrictions" had to introduce at least in a recommendation order, since in everyday life, apparently, her husbands were not particularly shy in the means at the "explanation" with their wives. No wonder immediately explained that those who

"From the heart or with a clever, it hits a lot of parables from that: blindness and deafness, and hand and the leg will be dislocated and the head and the head pass, and the dental disease, and the damning of pregnant women and the child happens in the womb"

That is why the Council was allowed to beat his wife not for each, but only for a serious propulsion, and not what and how it fell, but

« coymy Shirt, Plet Fieren [carefully ! ] beat by hands holding ":" And wisely, and hurt, and scary, and great»

At the same time, it should be noted that in the Domongolian Russia, a woman had plenty of rights. She could be the heiress of the father's property (before marrying). The highest penalties were paid guilty of " spice"(Rape) and insult women" intenoval words" Slave, who lived with Mr. as a wife, became free after the death of the owner. The emergence of such legal norms in the Old Russian legislation indicated a fairly widespread prevalence of such cases. The existence of the influential persons of entire harem is recorded not only in the Doharistian Rus (for example, Vladimir Svyatoslavich), but also in much later time. So, according to a testimony of one Englishman, one of the approximate king Alexei Mikhailovich poisoned his wife, as she expressed discontent about the fact that her spouse contains houses many mistresses.

At the same time, in some cases a woman apparently could be a real despot in the family. It is difficult, of course, to say that he influenced the views of the author and the editors of popular in the ancient Russia "Miliation" and "Words" attributed to some of the Daniel Sharpen, - children's impressions about the relationship between the father and mother or their own bitter family experience, but in these works a woman It does not look like so defenseless and incigepted, as can be introduced out of the foregoing. Listen to what Daniel says.

"Or speaking, princess: marry a rich test; TU PAI, and TU LAN. Lutche boles cooler; The bole, shock, let go, and evil the wife and to death dries ... Fornogo in the flaw, who will understand the wife of the wife of the joy or the testing of the rich. It would be better if the world's videos in his house, rather than his wife is evil ... It would be better if I can cook iron than with an evil wife of life. Wife Bo is maliciously designed to grasp [combed place] : Fucked here, hurts here».

Is it not true, preference (even in a joke) of the hardest craft - the cooking of iron of life with the "evil" wife talking about something?

However, the woman acquired this freedom only after the death of her husband. Widow enjoyed great respect in society. In addition, they became full mistress in the house. In fact, since the death of the spouse, they passed the role of the head of the family,

In general, on his wife was all the responsibility for homemaking, for the upbringing of young children. Boys-under-sprouts were then transferred to training and education " unladok"(In the early period, really uncle on the maternal line - oam), which was considered the most close men relatives, since the problem of establishing paternity, apparently, could not always be solved).

Parents and children. Despotic orders who prevailed in the family could not but affect the situation in her children. Spirit of slavery, " covered false holiness of patriarchal relations"(N. I. Kostomarov), dominated in relations between children and parents in ancient Russia.

The subordinate position of the child and the teenager and the family is perhaps the best confirmed by the fact that in the overwhelming majority of the terms that denoted socially unequal layers of the population were initially related to the younger family members, the genus. So, the word " men"It was formed from the noun" husband"(" Adult Free, Independent Man "and at the same time" spouse ") with adding a decreasing suffix - IK (Literally "Little Husband"). " Patterns"(" Child, Teenager, Youth "and" Jr. Wrong ", and also, at the same time," servant, slave, worker ") literally meant" not talking ", that is," not having a speech right, the rights of votes in the life of the genus or tribe ". " Halop"(" Charballed, non-free man ") is associated with the word" chicken"-" The boy, boy, a guy "and may have happened from the root * shol.- from which the ancient Russian adjective arose " single, idle", I.e." Unhealthy, celibe, incapable of sexual life "(by the way, therefore, in the" Russian truth ", another word is used to designate dependent women -" rob»). « Servants"(" Slaves, slaves, servants ") initially, apparently, related to younger members of the family, family (Wed: Praslavyanskoye * cEL "AD - "Herd, Rod", Related Irish clan - "The offspring, Rod, Clan", and Olonetskaya "Chelyant" - "Children, Boys", as well as Bulgarian " chely"-" offspring, genus, children "), finally, the word" ÷ åëëââê "in the meaning" The person who is in service from someone; Whose servant "took place, according to most of modern these these ethers, from a combination of two bases, of which one was more relative of the considered Praslavyanian root cel- ("Rod, clan, knee"), and the second - Lithuanian word vaikas. - "Child, young, descendant, boy" and Latvian Vaiks - "Boy, Youth".

To the one we can add that in the ancient Russian miniatures and icons, the beard were depicted only in people over 30 years old. However, this rule was valid only for privileged classes. Representatives of urban and, moreover, rural "bottoms", regardless of age, were depicted by faborlies. From here it is clear why, for example, in the "Russian truth" for " stringing»Beard or mustache relied incredibly high, in the view of the reader of the end of the XX century, fine - 12 hryvnia (as for the stolen beaver and only three times less than a fine for killing a free person). It becomes clear and persistent mention that in St. Boris " beard Mala and Us(but there is!) - young more" The absence of beard served as evidenced by the unitylessness or incompleteness of a person, pulling the beard to insult honor and dignity.

Permanent shortage of working hands led to very ugly phenomena of peasant life in Russia. Hunger for labor hands penetrated into the most attainment of the peasant family. Therefore, children from early age were used in various works. However, since they were clearly infallible employees, parents often married her sons at the age of 8-9 years old on adult women, wanting to receive an excess worker. Naturally, the position of the young wife, who came in such conditions in the family of her husband, was unlikely to really differ significantly from the position of the slave. It was inconspicuously family relationships, giving rise to such phenomena as sneakening and so on.

Beating children in "instructive" purposes was considered the norm. Moreover, the authors of many ancient Russian instructions, including the famous "Domostroja", recommended to do it systematically:

« Execution [punishable] his son from his youth, and I will create your old age and give the beauty of your soul; And do not weaken, baby's babe: it's about boat Bieshy, it will not die, but there will be a health. You bo, having gotten him in the body, and his soul get rid of death ... Loving the Son of His Son, Study Him Wounds, yes, a me to be sanging about him, the execution of the son of his izmlade and you will delight about him in courage ... Do not laugh at him, Creation games: in Male Maja Oslabishi - Grand Mavel [You will suffer] Sorrow ... And you will not give him power in youth, but crushing the ribs, I am growing, and it is growing, and it will not lead to the thieves, and the soul disease, and the Domii disease, destruction estate, and ukrinity from the womb, and defects before the enemies, the payment of the payment [Fine] , and annoying evil»

The norms of attitudes towards children declared in the XVI century, they acted in half a thousand years before they were written only by cited lines. The mother of Feodosia Pechersk, how repeatedly emphasized the author of his "lives", exactly such methods tried to influence her son. Every of his misconduct, whether it is an attempt to deal with the unusual man of his class, or the secret wearing of chains for "depressing the flesh", or escape from the house with pilgrims to the Holy Earth, was punished with an extraordinary, in the opinion of the man of the end of the XX century., Cruelty. The mother beat the Son (even with his feet) until he literally did not fall from fatigue, shook him into the shackles, etc.

Marriage and sexual relationship . In the medieval society, a special value had "dedication of the flesh". Christianity directly connects the idea of \u200b\u200bthe flesh with the idea of \u200b\u200bsin. The development of the "anti-tee" concept, which is already among the apostles, follows the path of "devilization" of the body as a container of vices, source of sin. The doctrine of the original sin, which actually consisted in Gordin, eventually acquired an increasingly distinct antisexual focus.

In parallel with this, in official religious installations, there was all the exaltation of virginity. However, it was not preserved by a girl of "purity" before marriage, apparently, originally appreciated only the top of society. Among " prostontsov", According to numerous testimonies of sources, looked condescendingly on the trunk sexual bonds. In particular, up to the XVII century. Society completely tolerant referred to visits by the girls of Spring-Summer " playing"Providing the possibility of pre-and extramarital sexual contacts:

"Always it will come the most this holiday, not all degrees will take it into the tambourine and in the nozzles ... and all sorts of overwhelming games Sotoninsky splasonia and spill. Wives and girls are glad to throw them out and their mouths are hostile to the cliche, narrowing songs, their wiggy, their kicks and trample. There is a great drop in a female and maidenal bowling. Tako and wives with soreless defects immediately ... "

Naturally, the participation of girls in the like " playing"Led - and, apparently, often - to" planting Name" Nevertheless, even according to church laws, it could not be an obstacle to marriage (the exception was only marriages with representatives of the princely family and priests). In the countryside, the same sexual contacts of both young men and girls were considered hardly the norm.

Experts note that the Old Russian society recognized the girl the right to free choice of a sexual partner. This is evidenced not only for a long-term preservation in Christian Russia's custom of marriage " invuls", By kidnapping the bride on the preliminary conspiracy with it. Church law even provided for the responsibility of the parents who have banned the girl to marry her choice if that "what is about sather." Indirectly about the right of free sexual choice of girls testify rather harsh punishments of rapists. " Cooling girl Osille"I had to marry her. In case of refusal, the culprit was left of the church or punished four-year-old post. Perhaps it is more curious that twice as much punishment was expected in the XV-XVI centuries. those who bowed the girl to intimate proximity " hytroshythia"By promising to enter into marriage: a deceiver threatened nine-year-old Epitia (religious punishment). Finally, the church prescribed to continue to consider the virginly raped by the girl (however, provided that she had resisted to the rapist and screamed, but there was no one who could come to her aid). The slave, raped by the owner, received complete freedom with his children.

The basis of the new, Christian, sexual morality was the rejection of pleasures and bodily joys. The biggest victim of non-ethics was the marriage, although perceived as a smaller evil than a breaking, but still marked by the seal of sinfulness.

In ancient Russia, the only meaning and justification of sex life was seen in the continuation of the kind. All forms of sexuality, which pursued other purposes that are not related to childbearing were considered not only immoral, but also unnatural. In the "Question of Kyrikov" (XII century) they were assessed acre soda sin" Installation on sexual abstinence and moderation was supported by religious-ethical arguments about the sinfulness and lowland "carnal life". Christian morality condemned not only lust, but also individual love, as she allegedly interfered with the fulfillment of pious duties. It may be impressed that in such an atmosphere, sex and marriage were doomed to extinction. However, the abyss between the prescriptions of the Church and everyday everyday practice was very large. That is why the ancient Russian sources pay special attention to sex issues.

According to the "Assignment", the spouses were charged with the duty to avoid sexual contacts during posts. Nevertheless, this is the limitation, apparently, quite often violated. No wonder Kirik worried the question:

« Do you pretend to give a diploma, and in the great post to stretch with my wife?»

Bishop Novgorod Nifont, to which he addressed, despite its indignation of such violations

« Qi learn, speak, take advantage of moving from wives? Sin you are!»

forced to make concessions:

« Next can not [refrain], and in the front week and in the last»

Apparently, even a spiritual person was clear that it was impossible to achieve the unconditional implementation of such prescriptions. Bishop Novgorod Nifont, to which he addressed, despite its indignation of such violations

Idle " on a day [for Easter], crash Pure Great Sign"It was allowed to come despite the fact that those" sometimes cranched" True, it was followed to find out with whom " cranched" It was believed that the forn with " mASS WOMEN"There is more evil than with a unmarried woman. The possibility of forgiveness for such a kind of simpler is envisaged. At the same time, the norms of behavior for men were softer than for women. Only the appreciation was most often threatened, while quite harsh punishments were imposed on a woman. Sexual prohibitions installed for women could not spread at all to representatives of a strong floor.

Spouses, in addition, was prescribed to avoid cohabitation on Sundays, as well as on Wednesdays, Fridays and Saturdays, before communion and immediately after it, since " in this days, the spiritual victim is brought to the Lord" We also remember that the parents were raised by the conception of a child on Sunday, Saturday and Friday. For violation of this ban, parents relied on the parents " two summer" Such bans relied on the apocryphal literature (and particular, on the so-called " Commandments of Saints Fathers"And" Thick nomocanuts"), Therefore, many priests did not consider them mandatory.

A worthy punishment could even become a "unclean" dream. However, in this case, it was necessary to carefully disassemble whether he had seen a gap Sleep was susceptible to the proper flesh (if he had a familiar woman's familiar) or he was tempted by Satan. In the first case he could not have communized, in the second one, he was simply obliged,

« for otherwise the kisser [devil] will not intercetit about him at a time when he must join»

It concerned the priest:

« Simply blusted ["The unclean" dream] Will the devil from the devil in the novain, do you take a servant at dinner, rinsed, prayer with lounge? - Thinking, rummage, you will go to the thought of which my wife, then do not reducate; More ... Soton to grasp, although the church will leave Be [without] services, then rosy servi»

Interestingly, a woman seemed to be a great evil than the devil, since the natural carnal attraction and the associated erotic dreams were declared unclean and unworthy of San Priest (or a man at all), while the same dreams caused by the estimated devilish effects deserved forgiveness.

It is worth paying attention to the fact that the mandatory marriage established by the Orthodox Church for the White Clergy and the household attacked the priest with his flock. And life of a married clergy " put forward the same issues that then had to solve the ass in relation to their "Children" "(B. A. Romanov).

Society

Collective and personality . Russia is a country with deep and sustainable traditions. They are her wealth. The stability of the social structure of Russian society and state forms, life and spiritual culture is amazing and deserve the deepest respect. Generated in many ways relative insulation of the country, they themselves become its component.

Continuation and at the same time provision traditionalism Russian spiritual culture became her collectivism. In the ancient Russia, the peasant community (peace, return) possessed a continued and unbreakable authority. Over the centuries, she remained the most common conservative onset of society. It was the team, his memory was the carriers of the tradition and her defenders. In the city, collectivist trends were embodied in the people's eve.

Collectivism inherent in our spiritual culture gave rise to a number of features that characterize Russian society from ancient times to this day.

First of all, it is - denial of identity value. As far as deeply, it shows that even the vast majority of people an anonymously anonymously - if not literally, then essentially. Even calling names, sources, as a rule, do not retain almost no information about their personal qualities. With great difficulty, and then not always, it is possible to find their biographical data. The individuals of all are "absorbed" by one personality - the sovereign. Our ideas about many outstanding Russian history figures have a clearly "mythological" character.

The tradition of "monitoring" was fixed by economic factors. Throughout Russian history, collective forms of ownership of land were dominated: communal, monastic, state. Private property, as already noted, did not receive such distribution and "weight" here, as in Western European countries.

Power and personality . Collective property and authority of "public assemblies" in Russia were summoned to the life of the idea that only some external force, standing on everyone, and not subject to anyone can manage the life of society. The basis of such representations was rooted, as it seems strange at first glance, and the specifics of the most collective form of managing society.

Despite the fact that legends about the first steps of the ancient Russian statehood as describing specific events are unlikely to trust, nonetheless they have memories of some real facts. In particular, it is possible that among the first Eastern Slavic rulers prevailed (as well as in Slavic Bulgaria, in the Frankish Normandy and many other European countries), ingenic warriors - sometimes the invaders (cues), sometimes specially invited to this (Rurik). The invitation of the princes "from the side" was quite normal (if not natural) phenomenon in the context of the formation of the state.

The elder orders allowed to solve questions only a certain degree of complexity. The interests of small territorial associations presented at the eve of the heads of families and communities were wearing the common interests of the emerging community. Therefore, as such a community expands, the risk of developing a collective decision to an open conflict between communities has become increasingly becoming more and more. Recall that the Novgorod residents who killed at one time were forced to ask them to return due to internal conflicts, at the eve of the procedure for solving common problems a large society had the danger of large conflicts, irreversible disorganization, disasters.

A special institution who was over the interests of the components could prevent conflict. The people who were not large in any of the cells were able to become ironsible, and the general interests were able to become a much larger extent, of which a new social association was evolving. The state represented by such a group of persons or one person became a powerful institution consolidating the society capable of " judge right", Organize joint actions of individual genera (tribes) on the defense of their lands or to master new territories or control over trade routes (which in the conditions of Eastern Europe acquired a special meaning).

Alienation of power functions From the society led to the further denial of the role of the personality of the "ordinary" person. Accordingly, the identity needs in the free willingness as a conscious and adopted by society is valuable. Moreover, leaning on collectivist traditions, society actively suppressed attempts to such an excretion if they still appeared. So, all members of the ancient Russian society, except the ruler itself, refused. As a result, it led to the personification of power - identifying power functions with a specific person who performs them. Becoming the ruler, a person stood out of society, climbed over him. Such trends found a completely definite expression already in the activities of Andrey Bogolyubsky, who tried the first of the old Russian princes to become "self-defense".

However, the despotic personalized power represented the greatest hazard for its carrier. Andrei Yuryevich Bogolyubsky paid his life for an attempt to establish it. If the warriors could " leave"From an objectionable prince, with whom they were in the contractual vassal-suzenarial relations, the Mercles were completely devoid of such an opportunity. They were not equal to him on the situation, did not go with him in a housing, and were servants who received award. They could only get rid of the despotic Mr. - physically removing it.

Personality and freedom . The concept of freedom in Russian spiritual culture had a special filling. Almost it was always perceived as non-dependence, freedom from something or someone. Praslavyansky Word itself * Sveboda. associated with Church Slavonic liberty or satisfy — « persona."In which the root * Svob happened OT svoj (Wed: " its own") And indicated the position of independent of the senior, independent member of the genus.

The place of personal freedom (in the "European" sense of the word) in the Russian spiritual culture took a category will. Interestingly, in Russian, this word is indicated by both "power, the ability to manage", and "Freedom, the ability to exercise their desires." It is formed by the words "told", "bother", "let", "power".

It is curious that the central figure of ancient Russian culture, ancient Russian self-consciousness more often became not the winner, but the victim. It is characteristic that the victims were the first saints of ancient Russia: " innocent"Brothers Boris and Gleb, whose merit was that they did not oppose their own murder. True, it was organized by their elder brother, who, naturally, should obey unquestionably! Yaroslav Wise, who revenged the killer for them, did not receive such honor, although his own contribution and in the development of Russian statehood, and in the development of domestic legislation, and in Christianization and enlightenment of Russia is undoubted.

With the category of sacrifice, many Messianic Estimates of the Events of Patriotic History in Russian Chronicles are closely connected with the category of sacrifice. They seem to justify those sacrifices that were brought in the name of collective interests. In addition, the need for such a victim removed from the agenda the question of the absence of personal freedom, and at the same time responsibility for unjustified losses. It was worth aware of the need for a victim - and voluntary consent to their miscarriage turned into higher freedom.

Personality and law . In the early stages of the development of ancient Russian society, a purely natural (pane-mythological) understanding of the essence of a person freed moral assessments from a sense of human justice, that is, from the consciousness of the guilt. As you know, "Myths are not taught morality." The moral law of the epic consciousness protected the right of an individual arbitrariness of a "strong personality". Consequently, the purpose of the debt and the main virtue of the epic hero was the unconditional implementation of its individual law. In other words, a personal valor was put at the head of the corner, but not the conscience, which, as if, inevitably it was necessary to lead to arbitrariness.

The relations of people in society were regulated by the folk custom. The usual standards were treated as inheld, sacred settings, which used the greatest respect and authority than the oldest they seemed. " Starina"The custom attached to him. Of course, in reality over time, the custom transformed. However, the custom content was corrected, reflecting the changes in the life of the tribe, for the most part, in addition to the consciousness of people. In their memory, custom remained as if all the same. A radical change in the adopted norm was not allowed. And the lifestyle of the traditional society, which changed more on the surface, than essentially, excluded any serious shifts in the right. Normal law - the right conservative.

However, as a complication of public life, it took the regulation of the relationships that went beyond the usual law, did not obey it. "Strong personalities" (Prince and his squad) were primarily to formulate the norms of their relations with the citizens and the peasants-community members from which they received the tribute and which they defended (including themselves!). Thus, they not only enshrined new social traditions, but also guaranteed compliance with certain standards that limited their own arbitrariness. The creation of such legal acts defended those who paid for the failed raid, and those who charged such a fee.

As far as it was relevant, it shows the conflict between Prince Igor and Drevlyans. As we remember, the attempt to recall Dani led to the murder of unfortunate "racketer". The direct consequence of the tragedy was a series of legislative events of his widow, princess Olga. As the chronicler writes, she had to drive to the tribute to the territories, " standing up statutes and lessons».

To change the vital-egoistic principle "I want" in relations between those who stood over Society, and the Society itself was a conscious and volitional principle "necessary." The implementation of this principle was to be based on a certain system of values, until the moment, apparently, absent in society (in any case explicitly). The usual right, millennia, before the regulation of relations between people, was now supplemented by the recorded right, which proceeded not only from the oral and ritual tradition, but also from the tradition of writing. The custom received reinforcement and development in the "Sacred Scripture", from where (along with the monuments of the Byzantine legislation), new legal norms were beneficial.

The first of the "paper" right, the monument that came to our time became Russian truth" Already its name itself included the word ("True"), from which almost the whole modern legal Lexicon - "Law", "Justice", "Directory", "Board" and even "righteous." Meanwhile, its initial meaning in which it existed in ancient Russia is significantly different from our understanding of what is behind the word "truth". Hence the everyday idea of \u200b\u200bthe injustice of the world. What did it mean?

Root * PRO- apparently, Pyranceo European. Immersing with the help of the mapping of related languages \u200b\u200bin the depths of time, these etymologists found out that his earliest values \u200b\u200bwere "strong, outstanding (according to strength or abundance)", later they were joined by "active, bold, standing in front," then "powered power having Law "And finally," good, honest, decent. " In ancient Russia, the first of the specified values \u200b\u200bwas most likely dominant. By the way, that's why gum Hand, how stronger people are called with us right. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe right and truth is traditionally connected within the meaning of With the concept of force, violence.

The establishment of the entities among the peoples of traditional cultures, including our ancestors, was closely connected with the idea of \u200b\u200bdivine justice. The main thing was not so much to establish who is guilty, and who - no, how much is to find out whether the actions of a person received the suggestion of the highest strength, whether they correspond to goodInaccessible to direct human perception and understanding. Therefore, the decision of legal issues is completely and next to the legal norm specified by the person, but if it was committed whether a particular action was committed on God's permissions, "loser" or not. From here - a widespread practice of solving court gravity by "God's Court": a test of iron, water or judicial duel (" field"). The winner visually proved on whose side God, and therefore was right. He was presented right»Gramist - a court decision. The victim defeat (" killed", On the terminology of the XV-XVI centuries.) Recognized guilty or losers. The practice of litigates existed in Russia at least until the middle of the XVI century.

Even the role of witnesses (" vidokov" or " ambush") I came down to testify not so much" about the fact ", how much about" good Glava"That face, whose side they performed in court. Thus, their function, apparently, was primarily in the provision of "moral" support to the plaintiff or the defendant. And such support was determined by the knowledge of the truth and the desire to demonstrate it, but with connections with a person who attracted them to participate in litigation on their side. The purpose of the process was not to clarify and proof of facts - they seemed self-evident or became such as bringing the relevant swirls and performing the necessary actions. Court as an instance designed to establish the truth in ancient Russia, obviously did not exist, he was replaced by the process of competition between heavily. The court was designed to monitor the strict and steady observance by the "Rules of the game". I. Hazing's thought that the ancient peoples litigation largely represented the competition in the literal sense of the word, which gave the participants a sense of moral satisfaction in itself, regardless of its outcome, can be quite attributed to the ancient Russian legal proceedings.

Another distinctive feature of the ancient Russian law systems was that " right [right] court"Could be such only if he occurred with the strictest observance of all procedures. The slightest evasion from the "Standard" was fraught with failure. The strictest adherence to all detailed instructions of the procedure was considered completely mandatory. The explanations offered by modern researchers to explain the judicial procedures and customs who were reflected in the "Russian Pravda", "Merilah Righteous", "Kurtich Books" and other similar legislative sources, inevitably they are rationalistic. An integral need of thinking of a person of our time is the desire to find some interpretation of certain actions of a person, based on "common sense". However, the rules that we find in the ancient Russian legislative acts are organically connected with the consciousness that otherwise perceived and mastered the social world. There is no confidence that for the participants of the legal procedures themselves, everything in them was quite understandable and they could uncover the meaning of each symbol or symbolic action. Apparently, in such an explanation they did not need at all, and the rational explanation, the usual for a person of the new time, in fact, would not explain anything to them. The effectiveness and legality of regulatory rituals was not related to their understanding for performers. As already noted, the main thing was in accordance with Starne.

A characteristic feature of ordinary and early written law was his publicity. The system of such a right, relying on the detailed formalism and comprehensive ritualization of its norms, represented a kind of mechanism for the inclusion of the individual to society. The subject of social activity was the group to which the individual belonged to the traditional functions prescribed to him, following the categorical imperatives of behavior. The man of ancient Russia is a group of a group, an organic team in which he was born and to which he belonged throughout his life. Only being a member of this team, he could use legal capacity.

All listed features of the ancient Russian legal system are more or less continued to exist at subsequent times. For several centuries, laws operating on Russian lands only were complemented, remaining at the heart of their unchanged. So, the "Russian truth" of the XII-XIII centuries. Bashed at the "Russian Law", mentioned at the beginning of the X century. She, in turn, repeated "litths" 1497 and 1550, and their - "Cathedral Code" of 1649

Ethnic self-consciousness . One of the most important characteristics of a person of any world, including ancient Russia, and remains its idea of \u200b\u200bits own involvement in a particular community (ethnic, political, confessional).

"When studying ethnic development processes, B. N. Flanova writes, - a long time prevailed a tendency to establish" objective "signs of certain ethnic communities (the presence of the territory of the compact residence, the unity of the tongue, etc.). However, as learned, everything became clear that all these "objective" signs are only some conditions for the development of the process that occurs primarily in the sphere of public consciousness. That or another community of people makes the presence of a special ethnic self-consciousness for which it is characterized by a clear awareness of the differences between the ethnic group "its" and "stranger". Therefore, it is leaving the history of ethnic identity development, one can establish the main stages of development of a particular ethnos. All this is fully applied to the history of Slavic ethnic community. "

Sources make it possible to establish at least in general terms, to which report and how the ancient Russian person counted. The chronicles play in paramount importance. They allow them to believe with a lot of confidence that for the compiler and the potential reader of the chronicle the most important involvement was involved, first, to the descendants of Adam, secondly, to the heels of Jafet, third, to Christians, fourth, to the Slavs, Fifth, to the specific branch of the Slavs (including the descendants of the oriental Slavs' descendants) and, finally, in sixth, to residents of a certain city or territory adjacent to him.

In the "Tale of Bygone Years"

"First of all, a commitment to the category of" universal ", without expressive distinction between" their "or" foreign "ethnic groups, division by their boundaries" is noticeable.

"Finding each people a large geographical landmark of resettlement, and not a petrolement to draw ethnic borders ... The chronicler himself formulated the principle of the relationship of peoples with the noticeable places, which summed up to the problem of" his / not ":" On the ground ... where the sector on which is the place: ... on the Reta ... "," Cherry's Village ... on His places ... on the mountain "and ... However, in general, the principle of objective landscape orientation prevailed, not a distinction ... In general, the principle was withstood: the people + a major geographical sign that implied "its / not" ".

These were not accurate political, legal or linguistic categories of "their" and "alien", and relatively blurry feelings and emotional-shaped representations that manifested by no means terminologically and not in uniform statements. At the same time, it is felt that the chronicler constantly looking for some formal criteria for the separation of "their" and "strangers." Such a source, or in any case, a very significant feature was a language for him. This is what B. N. Flani writes about it:

"One of the important signs of the unity of Slavs as a special ethnic community was for people of the Epoch of the early Middle Ages, the fact that all Slavs speak on one, with all the" Slavic "languages \u200b\u200bfor them. The belief that all Slavs speak on one, in general for them, language and that therefore all Slavic peoples can use writing and translations made by Cyril and Methodius, with more power expressed in extensive lives in Kirill and Methodius and in other texts of Cyril Methodius Krug "

However, it is not difficult to see, in this case, it is primarily about the written language, the language of the book, primarily Christian, culture. The own language of one or another part of the Slavic world has become an ethnic "marker" at a later time. According to B. N. Flore,

"In the Epoch of the Early Middle Ages, all Slavs believed that they were talking on one" Slavic "language, but by the XIII century. The position has changed. In the second half of the XII century. We meet the first mention of the "Czech" language, in the beginning. XIII century - About "Polish", in the texts of the XIII century. Begins mentioned and "Bulgarian" language in those contexts, where earlier it was said about the Slavic language. From this time, it is its own special "language" becomes the main sign of special nation. Before the "Slavs" of the Byzantine Cultural Circle, for which in the XIII century. Staroslavansky remained the most important means of mutual communication, the question arose about how this language common to many (and not only Slavic) natives correlates with actually existing, different languages \u200b\u200bof individuals of certain peoples. " (Italic mine. - I. D.)

In the meantime, the language factor served only a sign of belonging to extremely wide, and therefore largely ephemeral, Slavic-Christian community. Neither the ethnic, nor political criterion in the consciousness of the ancient Russian person was not.

Much more concrete was for him involvement in a certain pretty narrow city locus.

"It would seem," writes A. P. Moz, - Mentions on the pages of the Old Russian Chronicles of "Suzdaltsev", "Rostovtsov", "Novgorod residents", "Smolyan", "Ryazantsev", "Chernihiv", etc. allow us to talk about full The ephemeryness of the existence of a national institution-building (or rather East Slavic) community and replacing it by self-consciousness at the ground-principality level. Of course, ethnocultural communications in each particular microregion increased horizontally and vertical. But, in our opinion, and during the times of fragmentation in Russia, the nationality continued to exist at certain levels of public consciousness. It was associated with the peculiarities of socio-economic relations in Russia, and first of all they were in the struggle of centrifugal and centripetal trends, as well as in the specifics of the feudal holding throughout the ancient-Russian period. "

At the same time, however, there is a problem of identifying those traits that would allow all the same to identify the presentation of ancient Russian person on the pages of written sources about its belonging to a certain single "nationality." As long as such, formal, the criterion is not found, will have to agree with the opinion of the author cited above that

"In the Middle Ages, in general, very significant population was non-ethnic."

This applies primarily to representatives of the "bottoms", not covered by the "elitar" book culture:

"Wide masses at this time," says A. P. Moz, - in integration processes they participated very weakly. It is difficult to imagine the high awareness of his unity sideways sitting (for example) under Galichem and Pskov - their "world" was real and occupied much smaller sizes. "

The question of identifying the elements of the identity of the actual "masses" is extremely complicated, first of all, it has not yet been possible to determine the range of sources in which their self-consciousness would have affected quite adequately. I may argue that these texts are known. This is primarily a folklore in which the special place is given to the episodes. In particular, according to B. N. Flor,

"It seems ... it is possible to compare the submissions reflected in the eponymies about the place of their country and the people in the world with the system of representations that we find in the chronicles and other literary monuments of Kiev Rus. For ideas reflected in the eponymies and chronicles, there is a sense of deep patriotism: the main feat of the epic wardiers is the protection of Kiev and the Russian Earth from its traditional enemies - nomads neighbors. For the sake of this they leave peers in princely gridnitsa to long years stand on the boysk "complaints". As in the chronicles, nomads in the eponymies are opposed to the inhabitants of "Holy Russia" as "frowning" who do not read Christ and do not worship icons. However, Paphos "Sacred War" characteristic of the historical monuments of the early refortion society against the incorrect creators of the epic. If the author of the introduction to the initial semicode of the second half of the XI century. praised the "old" princes and their warriors for the fact that they are not only "Ban Rushing Earth", but also "IIAs of the country are near," and in general "feeding, warningly in the country", then the creators of the epic, although they are confident and The superiority of its heroes over the hero of other peoples, the theme of conquering campaigns is also alien. All these comparisons are undoubtedly talking only about one thing: the folk languages \u200b\u200bhave their own views and ideas, not in all those coincided with what we find in the official tradition. "

This thesis is acceptable, unless, of course, distract from the fact that the question remains open; On what basis the texts telling about " bogatychikh"And" jackets of Bogatyrs"Can be attributed to the history of Russia X-XI centuries.? After all, these words themselves appeared in the sources not earlier than the XIII century. " Bogatyri"Reported in the eponymies is described," quite later borrowing from Turkic languages \u200b\u200b(M. Fasmer). Its early mentioned it is recorded in the Ipatiev Chronicles (South Russian Culture of the end of the XIII century) under 1240, 1243 and 1262. It is characteristic that in the first articles with the mention of "Bogatira" we are talking about the Mongolian invasion (in particular, under 1240 it is present in combination " Bowerowyia Bagatyr"). The word " outpost"For the first time, it is mentioned in the same Ipatiev chronicle under 1205 in the meaning of the" ambush ", and in the meaning" detachment left for the protection of any paths "," border outpost "- and in general in the XVII century.

In addition, the names and patrony of the majority of the heroes of the epics ( Ilya, Alyosha, Mikula, Dobrynya Nikitich et al.) - Christian, calendar. Along with the mention of the usual forms of women's midbittions for us ( Amelf Timofeevna, Fun Putyichny, Marfa Dmitrievna) This gives reason to suspect quite later (not earlier than the XVI-XVII centuries) The origin of "old", in any case, in the form in which they were recorded.

Consequently, if Eastern Slavic folklore sources (and they, we repeat, have been preserved only in new time records) are used to reconstruct the mental structures of the early history of Russia, their involvement should have a powerful theoretical substantiation. It should be explained, in particular, what, in fact, allows you to date these texts by time earlier than the words from which they consist? How it happened that the lexical replacements of the basic dictionary of oral works (which is still talking about the earliest Russian epics, as not about the heroes and the heroic complaints?) Did not affect the maintenance of "old"? And finally, on what basis the renewable mental structures are dated not by the time of existence (and records) of these folk works, and the time of their origin? Without solving these issues, any reconstruction of the representations of the Old Russian "bottoms" on the epic materials can be considered, apparently, only as working hypothesis.

It remains to agree with the opinion of A. S. Demin, who writes:

"It can be assumed that in the" Tale of Bygone Years ", especially in the first half, the chronicler began the XII century. I looked at the world of the past as the world, full attractions and riddles and almost absolutely not "stranger", although with many "not their" ethnic groups. The chronicler expressed an active, not feeling obstacle, optimistic globalism and, in essence, continued to live the moods of the XI century. The bitter division of peoples on "their" and "strangers" appeared quite recently and concerned only our modernity at the compiler of the "initial arch", and soon nestor. "

It is characteristic that these new "painful ideas", says A. S. Demin,

"Expressed fragmency, in isolated cases, and only at the end of the" initial arch ". They did not get the development of Nestor, who in the new beginning of the chronicle narrated the history of the habitat of peoples and about various attractions, without affecting the question of "their" or "stranger". Nestor wrote about neutral landbuilders intended for everyone and for each person on his way, without feeling, as if the border between "her" and "stranger" intersects. The whole world is "not someone else." A similar peacefulness of the chronicler, apparently, was associated with the phenomenon that historians, with reference to B. A. Rybakov, were called "hybridization", "international syncretism" of culture as a special qualitative characteristic of the early refortional society.

For such an open worldview, natural was blurred in the delimitation of ethnic poles. Indeed, whom the chronicler originally attributed to "his" on a generic, confessional or other group affiliation, and whom is definitely a "stranger"? This is seen by consuming in the author's speech (not in the speeches of the characters!) Words "We" and "our". "His" the chronicler considered Christians in general, all their community, and it proclaimed at the beginning of the "Tale of the Bygone Years": "We are Krestyan, Eliko Earth, others believe in the holy Troita and in a single baptism, in one" faith, Crafy Imam. This chronicler repeated further: "We, the shitting of ..." (under 1015), "We ... the teaching of the book" (under 1037), etc. Thus thought and his predecessors.

Of course, one more large whole, in which the chronicles included themselves, "Rus, the Russian Earth:" We E E E E Esmo. Russia .... We, Rusi "(under 898)," Our lands ... Our and our city " (under 1093). For the chronicler, it was natural to refer to the princes of Russia as "Prince of Our" (under 1015), to the combined army of Russia as "our": "OUR SO WELL TO KONEX AND PERSIA AIDOSHA" (under 1103), "Our same Side Paint "(under 1107). Russian Earth was meant in frequent condemnation chronicles "the evils of our" and "our sin" (under 1068, and MN. Dr.). He could be represented by "ours", but they remained "their own."

However, the slender system of "our" and "strangers" was absent in the chronicles ... Category "Alien", that is, "alien", sharply opposed "our", was actually not used by the chronicler, until he narrated about past times ... Representative about "Aliens", Absolutely not belonging to "Our", only at the end of the "Tale of Bygone Years", when the chronicler, who once again talking about Polovtsy, suddenly spoke already about the "enemies of ours": "Ovnoshov Our preventer inophelnika and the Paduha of Yazvene "(Under 1093)," Our drumstick ... Ranzing Bypah Inskoplechnii ... Mnosi Vyshi Our Padosha "(under 1096). The chronicler began to emphasize the separation of "their" from "us" with additional designations: "Incaptures", "Sons of Izmail", "Strying the people", "Lukavim the sony of Izmaili ... We have a companion to our hand to the language of the countries and" (under 1093).

But while the chronicler did not feel sharply "strangers", he was focused on an extensive transition region: on ethnic groups and individuals, not absolutely "strangers", but not quite "their", and psychologically strangers "our" or strange for "ours" ... between them some alienation.

It is noteworthy that the proposed by A. S. Demino division on "their" and "strangers" is accurately complying with the issue that we have already discussed about what is the category of the "Rusky Earth" in the ancient Russian sources. If you remember that "Russia" (i.e. «ours," in the terminology of A. S. Demin) is "Christian", "orthodox", then the "sudden" transformation of Polovtsy in the "enemies of ours" (read: enemies Christians) exactly corresponds to the common eschatological

directions of the "Tale of Bygone Years" in Articles 1093-1096. In them, the Polovtsy are described as "Izmaillany", the invasion of which should have been directly preceded by the arrival of the peoples of Gogh and Magog, "Northed" Alexander Macedonian somewhere in the north to the "recent times" ...

From this, it should be very important for us: in all likelihood, the self-awareness of the inhabitants of the ancient Russia (more precisely, elite self-consciousness) did not have an ethnic or political character. Rather, it can be attributed to ethno-confessional ideas. Apparently, it is not necessary to forget about it when it comes to ancient Russian patriotism and love for the "Russia land".

I. N. Danilevsky

From the book "Ancient Rus with the eyes of contemporaries and descendants (IX-XII centuries). Lecture course"

The article discusses the features of the perception of time in Russian landsXV century. It is noted that in the everyday life of society more attention was paid to counting long time intervals (days, weeks, months), less prolonged temporary intervals (hours, minutes) were considered less often. The value of the first mechanical clock is discussed. On the examples of the installation of mechanical clocks in individual cities, it was shown that the clock during this period was considered only as wonderful things that did not have practical value In the daily life of society.

Keywords: Ancient Russia, time, mechanical clock, yather mattress, urban life, calendar, Afanasy Nikitin.

Time is one of the key concepts characterizing the picture of the world of any society. The attitude to the time is an important element of historical psychology. Immediately make a reservation - we will be interested in the perception of time not as many scribes as people belonging to the middle layers of society. The task is quite complicated, since in the sources of instructions on such facts is very rare.

We limited the study of the XV century, when the time in everyday life was increasing with the grid of church holidays. In addition, this is a period of waiting for the end of the world. And at the same time, the first hours appeared in Russian lands, which were established in the monasteries or on the bell tower of the Novgorod and Pskov lands. It would seem that the conclusion that in Russia was pretty early aware of the exact time and mechanical devices fixing it, suggests itself. However, with a deeper review it turns out that clockand time A very weak is connected with each other. This paradox has deep roots, king in medieval culture.

The first mention of the installation of mechanical clocks in Russian lands, or rather, in Moscow, refers to 1404. Their author was the monk Lazar Serbin. Traditionally, the beginning of the hour in Russia is associated with these clocks, and the fact of their installation is interpreted as the first attempt of Russian people to accurately count the time. There are more exotic hypotheses. So, according to R. A. Simonova (2008), setting the clock in Moscow on the courtyard of the Grand Prince Vasily Dmitrievich testifies to the beginning of the chronomantic era. The watches themselves were not intended to calculate time, but above all to identify good and evil hours, i.e. for chronomaniac.

Simons suggests that these clocks were "planets and signs", which indicated the "quality" of an hour. Indeed, in the Moscow chronicle of the late XV century, it is specified that these watches were "with the Luno" (Moscow ... 2004: 233). Mention of the Moon is not surprising - after all, the clock was intended to count the time, which in the most common form was divided into night and daytime, and the image of the moon could symbolize the night time. Other researchers also drew attention to the mention of the Moon. For example, A. V. Aztsikhovsky, referring to the composition of the English historian F. Britten (Britten1911), suggested that the watches of 1404 could (like a number of other hours of this period) show the Luna phases (Arzikhovsky 2004: 128). Moreover, the moon, the sun and the stars are visible and at a much later picture of Baron Meyerberg (the second half of the XVII century), where the author depicted the dial of the clock of the Spasskaya Tower of the Moscow Kremlin. Does this mean that the clock on the Spasskaya Tower in the XVII century was intended for holding chronomantic studies? Unlikely.

But if the moon, most likely, was really depicted on the dial, then the situation is incomprehensible with "planets and signs". First of all, no ancient Russian evidence of the presence of other planets on the watches of 1404 (Saturn, Mars, Venus, etc.) except the moon. We give the famous passage with the description of the clock: "In the summer 6912, Indict 12. The prince of Great intended the privately and put it on his yard for the church behind St. Annunciation. This private one will adopt the ranciess; For the same time he hits the hammer in the bell of the size and counting hours of night and daytime; It's not a man of breathing, but personally, self-name, it is strangely created by the human cunning, prematrably and translated. Master and artist Some Himasch some Chernets, and from the holyness of the mountain, which is called Serbin, named Lazar. The price of this is the harm of the rigger one and a half rubles "( Russian ...1997: 378). We emphasize that this is the most complete description of the clock, other chronicle descriptions are much more concise, and there are no such details in them.

Where did Simonov receive information about the fact that the planets and signs did not really have? It turns out that the message refers to the middle of the XVI century is associated with the name of a completely different Russian ruler - Ivan IV. Speaking about a miniature from the front chronicle arch, where the watch was 1404, Simonov notes: "What exactly could disappear from the miniatures for years and forbidden measures of the king, shows the case associated with the submission of in 1559 Ivan the Terrible Danish envoy of the clock, which He rejected for the reason that he "as the Christian king, nothing to do with planets and signs" "(Simonov 2009: 40). According to the author's logic, the refusal of the king from the gift of the King of Denmark - the clock with astrological symbolism - it indicates that the same symbolism could be depicted on the watch of 1404. Just say the output is more than strange - why for assumptions about the presence of this symbolism on moscow clock early XV century attracted danish clock mid-XVI century? Nevertheless, Simonov takes this hypothesis for the working and further uses it as quite proven.

Permeasibility causes another moment - as an indirect evidence of the hypothesis about the presence of planets on the clock of Simonov refers to the book by V. K. Pipunirov and B. M. Chernyagin (1977), where the authors, speaking of the watches of 1404, suggest the presence of a planetary mechanism . It was the word "planetary" allocated Simonov in his work (Simonov 2009: 40), apparently, having considered it with excess proof of the hypothesis about the presence of planets on the clock. However, the "planetary mechanism" has the most distant attitude towards the planets. Most likely, the authors of the book implied the system of wheels rotating around the central gear, that is, a purely mechanical scheme. With the same success, the chronomantic device can also be considered a bike where there is also planetary sleeve.

So, Simonov's hypothesis is based on rigorous bases. The traditional ideas about the start of counting the short temporary intervals in the Russian lands are not less strained with the XV century.

Much more attractiveness looks like the idea that the installation of the serbi watches was a single act aimed at underlining the exclusivity of the greatness of the power. These watches were intended to calculate the "normal" time or time of the "astrological" - this is not so important in our case. It is important that they were perceived by the chronicler only as an expensive wonder that amazing imagination (it's not entirely clear from the description that the chronicler was more struck - the watches themselves as a product of human thought or their rather big value). In addition, the clock was intended exclusively for the Grand Duke, and not for the city of Moscow.

By the way, Russian people and other watches in Italian Ferrara appeared very similar. The Russian participant of the embassy in Italy to the Florentine Cathedral in 1439 was noted: "... In the same city of Ferrara on the courtyard of the Pope, over the market, the stone tower, high and large, erected. And on that tower there are clocks with a large bell; And when he will hit - hear on the whole city ... And how an hour will come and hit the bell, comes out of the tower on the angel's porch, look like alive, and a pipe in the pipe, and enters other doors to the tower; And all people see the angel and the pipe and the sound of it is heard; And so every hour an angel enters the tower with a large bell and hits the bell ... "(library ... 1999: 475).

The clock was perceived here more on the emotional level as an amazing rarity.

Returning to Moscow o'clock, we note that neither Lazar Serbi nor his students are not mentioned in sources. This suggests that the clock on the high-time courtyard did not become in the XV century the first swallow, who made the "spring" of the watch business, and appeared, rather, "nasty duckling". Why?

In the middle of the Old Russian cities of the XV century, with their lifestyle, close to rural, and relatively small sizes there was no need to regulate urban life by setting hours - to call for church service or notify about the eve of the evening, a good old bell at the cathedral bell tower or belfry . The lack of a developed system of public administration with the official apparatus made an unnecessary clear routine of the day and in large cities. In the absence of rigidly structured workshop production, it was not necessary and "production" time.

The harder society, the greater the time and the more complex the structure and attitude towards it. The life of Russian society until the XVI century, apparently, was not so difficult, otherwise more attention would be paid in written sources.

The complication of society gradually led to a complication of relationships by time. At first, this was expressed in purely demonstration promotions: clock settings in the second half of the XV century in independent Russian lands - Novgorod and Pskov. Places where the clock was placed, as a rule, the same type are monasteries and churches.

So, in 1436, in Novgorod "... Archbishop of Eufimia again to lean the saint John of Zlatoustago to other rings and clock clouds are closing the callers" (full ... 1950: 418). In 1476, during his stay in Pskov, Novgorod Archbishop Ferofil "Watches Talen Your Master Savory to deliver on the Snoveogorsk yard, and the watches of the Lord of the Lord's His boyar in the House of Liabody sent to the house, and they stood like it even before him" (Pskov ... 1945: 207).

But here everything is not so simple. In the first case, the installation of the clock was carried out in a number of other work on recreating (or restoration) of the Church of John of Zlatoust and, as it were, these works were crowned. The clock was located not for the universal Friend of Novgorod, but on the dominious courtyard (as in Moscow 1404). The second case is more interesting.

The fact is that the clock set by Archbishop Ferofil in 1476 was manufactured earlier than 1476 and brought to Pskov Novgorod bishop ion (perhaps in 1470), but due to disagreements between Pskov and the Novgorod diocese were not supplied to Trinity Cathedral, Where were originally intended. The clock brought by ion was, if you can say that the "bribe" Pskovichs from the Novgorod bishop for the fact that Pskovichi will refuse their own church governance and return to the tenn of Novgorod bishop. However, Ion made a tactical mistake, a little later, by adopting the embassy from Novgorod widow Popov and approving the provision that they could re-marry. Pskov, apparently could not enter the position of the widowers and offended by Ion. The Novgorod bishop lost their confidence, and his gift, intended for the main Pskov Trinity Cathedral, was "Susota" to the country Snetogorsk Monastery, where she dust and rust was rusting for almost six years, while the new Novgorod Lord Feofil commanded the clock in the same Snegogorsk monastery. In this story, watch play secondary roleHowever, a very clearly visible attitude towards a mechanical wonder (and to count the exact time!) From the Pskov Society - the urban population was not needed. Otherwise, Pskovichi would put them on the central cathedral of the city, despite the attitude towards the donor - Metropolitan Ion. The Snetogorsk Monastery, of course, was very respectful and known, however, it should be recognized that the installation here such a expensive mechanism was more likely to keep a good mine with a bad game and not give the abyss of an expensive gift.

So, we can only talk about the desire of the church to monopolize the laity time. If such a desire was, then the installation of the clock here also did not have a serious meaning - the Pskov society of the first half of the XV century was not needed.

Setting the clock in the monasteries and at the churches of the Northern Russian territories testifies to one thing: the regulation touched mainly only the church life, where the life on the schedule was and so ordinary. Today we have insufficient information about the routine of everyday life in Russian cities. True, Ambrodzho Kontarini glomilly noted that the routine of the life of Moscow citizens is not distinguished by a variety: "... Their life proceeds as follows: in the morning they stand in the bazaars about noon, then they go to the taverns and drink; After this time, it is already impossible to attract them to any case ... "(Barbaro ... 1971: 229). This description, with all the incompleteness and tendency, nevertheless shows the main one: in the city Russian society the second half of the XV century, the daily scrupulous (up to minutes inclusive) counting time was irrelevant. Still for everyday life, long-term time segments are calculated, and no hours or minutes.

At the same time, in the XV century, ancient Russian calendar, based on church holidays, has become somewhat greater. It was used and in agriculture, and in addition, he partly regulated the spiritual life of the Russian man. This calendar, apparently, in the XV century perceived already quite organically and completely merged with Russian everyday life. Loss of temporary continuum was, apparently, a heavy blow for a Russian man. This is clearly visible by memorizing the most famous Russian, lost in time, - Athanasius Nikitina. He is not so worried about the lostness in space (there are people everywhere and everywhere there will be ready to help), as a separation from Orthodox time: "And when Easter, the feast of the Resurrection of Christ, I do not know; According to the signs, I guess - Easter comes before the Chermen Bayrama on nine or ten days. And there is nothing with me, not a single book; Books took with me in Russia, yes when I was bobbed, the books disappeared, and not keep me the rites of the faith of Christian. Holidays of Christian - neither Easter, nor the Nativity of Christ - do not fulfill, do not sing on Wednesdays and Fridays "(Hozing ... 1986: 50).

Time at Athanasius Nikitina is equal to faith. Loss of the opportunity to track the Christian time is akin to the loss of faith. The "Compass" - Easter books lost, lost the temporary vector, is broken by the system of checks (posts), the person is granted himself, he is out of the tough grid of church holidays and, as in deep antiquity, is forced to try to consider time on a big bear and pleiades. This example is very clearly visible, as a change of such an ordinary category, as time, leads to a crisis in the consciousness of a separate personality.

The foregoing makes it possible to believe that the exact counting of the time (up to hours and minutes) in the life of the Old Russian manifiers of the XV century was not so important as for the scribes. In part, this can be explained by the slow spread of the mechanical clock in the Russian lands.

Literature

Arzikhovsky, A. in . 2004. Old Russian miniatures as a historical source. Tomsk; M.: Aquarius Publishers.

Barbaro. And Contarini about Russia. M.: Science, 1971.

Library Literature Ancient Russia: at 20 t. T. 6. SPb.: Science, 1999.

Moscow The chronicle of the end of the XV century. M.: Languages \u200b\u200bof Slavic Culture, 2004.

Pipunyrov, V. K., Chernyagin, B. M.1977. Development of chronometry in Russia. M.: Science.

Full Meeting of Russian chronicles. T. 3. NovgorodI. Chronicle. M.; L.: Science, 1950.

Pskov Chronicles. Vol. 2. m.; L.: Science, 1945.

Russians Chronicles. T. 1. Ryazan: Patrowel, 1997.

Simonov, R. A.2008. On the emergence of Russian Yathersuki at the beginning of the XV century. - In the century earlier than it was thought. Questions of the history of natural science and technology 2: 38-65.

Ham For the three seas, Athanasius Nikitin / under the Red Ya. S. Lurie. L.: Science, 1986.

Britten., F.. J.. 1911. Old. Clocks. And. Watches. And. Their Makers.. London: B. T. Batsford.

1. Symbolic perception of the world of an ancient Russian person.
2. Icon language.
3. Animals are real and mythical.
4. Animals as symbols.
5. Moranical meaning of narratives about the world around.
6. The primacy of symbols over the facts.

Today, our conversation will go about the world in which the man lived an ancient Russia, we will talk about how it was perceived what was called the world of creative. That is what was created by God, and what was surrounded by a person. These are primarily different animals, stones, plants - the world around the world as a whole. It must be said that the creature world was perceived by our ancestors predominantly symbolically. At the heart of the worldview of ancient Russia lies, speaking with a relatively late language, what was called silent theology. That is why in Russia we do not meet theological treatises, which tell detail about how a person sees the world, as he perceives him, as it lives. The Orthodox believer sought to comprehend the divine revelation not by scholastic reasoning or observations, not a mind, not an external eyes, as say, Catholic, but - the eyes of internal. The essence of the world, as it was believed could not be understood. It is comprehended only by immersing in the supervisory texts, in canonical images, in the church approved by the authority and the statements attached by the tradition. That is why there are no theological treatises in Russia. Moreover, in ancient Russia, we do not meet images seeking illusiveness, photographic accuracy of transmitting external traits of the visible world, like Western European painting. In Russia until the end of the 17th century. And in painting, and the icon dominated the literature - a special figurative perception and mapping of the world. Everything is strictly regulated here: plot, composition, even color. Therefore, at first glance, the ancient Russian icons are so "similar" to each other - despite the fact that they can be completely different, even if they are written on the same plot.
It is worth looking to them - after all, they are designed for the fact that a person will look at them during the daily prayer for several hours - and we will see how different they are in their inner world, by the mood, by feelings laid by Unnamed artists of the past. In addition, each element of the icon is from the gesture of the character before the lack of any mandatory details - carries a number of meanings. But in order to penetrate them, it is necessary to own the language, which is talking to the audience ancient Russian "Icon", in the broad sense of the word - and texts and images. It is best about the meanings that the ancient Russian person laid into the world around him, they say the texts who have acquainted the reader with the surrounding world, which directly explain to the reader, which refers to every concrete way. I will give a few examples.
Let's say, in Russia quite peculiarly perceived animals. With real, ordinary animals, people of ancient Russia, of course, came across, although not with everyone. About animals who lived in other lands, a man of Ancient Russia read in various "physiologists", "cosmography", which were described by distant countries. Take, for example, lion. Naturally, with a lion, ancient Russian person faced extremely rarely, except for images that appear in the Old Russian temples in the 12th century. In the "physiologist" about Lev told extremely interesting things. In particular, they wrote that the lion has three nature, and when the lioness gives rise to a young, then this cub is dead and blind. And the lioness sits on it three days. And after three days the lion will come and dunet in the nostrils of a young, and that comes to life. It had a symbolic meaning, which clarified in the "physiologist": it is also necessary to speak about the reversed pagans - they are dead before baptism, and after baptism, they come to life from the Holy Spirit. As for the second nature of the lion, it clarified this: when the lion sleeps, his eyes are like. This also has a symbolic meaning: so the Lord says that I sleep, and the eyes of my divine and the heart are lifted, they are open to the world. The third nature of the lion: when the lioness runs away from the pursuers, then she sweeps the tracks to the catcher could not find her on them. We know the Russian fairy tales about a fox-sister, which removes its tail tracks. It would seem - a purely popular part that appears in fairy tales, but it turns out that it has a book origin, goes back to such "physiologists". The symbolic meaning of the third property of Leo is explained in the "physiologist" too: so you are a man when you are doing alms, but does not know your left hand that creates the right - so that the devil does not intervene in the thoughts of a person who have a positive meaning.
And here's another text - a story about Pelican or, as he was called in Russia, neuasy. Trying was described as a dilded bird, the female of the Neusati sprinkles the ribs and feeds (revitalizing) the chicks of her blood: "They feed their ribs, and the blood is frightened by the chick." So, they clarified the symbolic meaning of this image, and the Lord was performed by a spear, blood and water came out of his body, and thus the dead universe was revived. Therefore, the prophets likened Christ such a desert, that is, Pelican. It is curious that now the image of Pelican is used in a symbolic meaning: in particular, at the Teacher's Teacher's Competition, teachers handed crystal pelicans, tearing their body with a beak - a hint that the teacher gives life to his disciples.
Already from the above examples it can be seen that in the system of traditional folk ideas about the world around the world, animals simultaneously appear both natural objects, and as a kind of mythological characters. In the book tradition, there are almost no descriptions of real animals, even in the "natural science" treatises prevailing the fabulous element. It seems that the authors sought to transfer not any specific information about real animals, but they tried to form a reader of the idea of \u200b\u200bthe symbolic essence of the world who surrounded a person. These ideas are based on the traditions of different crops recorded in treatises.
Animal symbols are not "twins" of their real prototypes. The indispensable presence of fiction in the stories about animals led to the fact that the described animal could wear the name well-known to the reader of the beast or birds, but sharply differ from him with its properties. From the prototype character often remained only his verbal shell (name). At the same time, the image usually did not correlate with a set of features that corresponded to this name and formed an image of an animal in an ordinary consciousness. This once again confirms the isolated from each other of two knowledge systems about nature, which existed at the same time - "practical", with which a person faced in his daily life, and "book", which formed symbolic views.
Within such a description of the animal, the distribution of real and fantastic properties can be noted. Often the animal is described in accordance with the biological nature; The basis of such texts is most likely, practical observations. For example, they wrote that the fox was very flattering and the cunning: if she wants to eat and nothing can find, she is looking for a shopping building, the barn, where they keep a straw or a poultry, will fall around him, preventing that she died, and So "Yako Kroddshchi lie down." And the birds that go around, think that she died, sit on her and begin to peck. Then she jumps back quickly, grabs these birds and eats them.
This is a fairly famous plot, and it goes back to the descriptions of the "physiologist." Or here is a story about Dyatle. It is built on the description of the Dyatla Properties - skills to hammer the beak trees; In the description of the cuckoo, the focus was put on the habit of this bird to postpone the eggs in other people's nests; The amazing beauty of the beauty in the construction of the dwelling was noted, and the swallows are in the device of his nest.
But sometimes the actual object was released only by fictional properties. In this case, the relationship between the character with real animals has only remained in the name. So, let's say, in Russia, they knew perfectly well who was hunted on him, his skins were an important subject of trade. At the same time, in Physiologues, there is a description of the "Indian" beaver, from the interns of which Musk is mined, as well as a description of some kind of predatory beast, more like a tiger or wolverine; In any case, on miniatures, he was sometimes portrayed with striped, with huge claws and teeth. By the way, Vladimir Ivanovich Dal recorded the dialect name of the Ussuri tiger - "Beaver". Apparently, the idea that has already formed at an ancient Russian person was subsequently transferred to the new beast, with whom the pioneers were met by the Far East.

But another animal, which was well known to the ancient Russian person - ox. Under this name, not only a pet, but also the "Indian" will, who had a curious property: fearing to lose at least one hair out of his tail, it costs real estate if it clings to the tail behind the tree. So on him and hunted, substituting the spiny branches of the shrub, so that, having clinging for them, the Indian ox stopped. "The will also called the mythical maritime creature. In addition, it was believed that in India there are huge wheels, between the horns of which a person can sit (it is possible that the impression of an elephant is the impression of this image). The wills were mentioned with three horns and with three legs and, finally, the wills of "Rocks", the long horns of which did not allow them to move forward, and therefore they could eat, only moving backwards.
Descriptions of elephants in turn are extremely curious in "physiologists" and "cosmography". So, it was believed that the elephants do not have knee joints, so if the elephant is lying, then it will not be able to stand up. And he sleeps, leaning against a tree or to some other high and powerful subject.
They were also described, and such ancient Russian animals like Salamander were described. Under Salamandra, there was a lizard, sometimes a poisonous snake and an animal of a magnitude with a dog that can fade fire.
Depending on the semantic filling, the same animal name could mean both a really existing animal and a fantastic character. A set of properties that, from the point of view of a modern reader, have no real basis, often correlated with the names of animals of distant countries and determined the idea of \u200b\u200bthe reader of the Middle Ages. So, the "physiologist" told that the root of mandragora was needed for the work of the heaven for the light of offspring. It also said that Panfire (Panther, Bars) has a property to sleep for three days, and on the fourth day to lure other animals with his fragrance and voice. An unknown to ancient Russian person Giraffe - Velbudopardus - seemed to make the sings of the country (lynx) with a camel.
The most widely distributed descriptions in which the animal was endowed with both real and fictional signs. So, in addition to the fading of the raven to fell and the usual of these birds to form marriage couples, the old Russian descriptions included the story that the Waran did not drink water in July. Why? Because God has been punished for neglecting to her chicks. It was stated as if Raven is able to "revive" the cooked eggs with the help of one famous herb. How not to remember the fairy tales in which the crow brings live or dead water! It was believed that the bird's bird (heron) is able to distinguish Christians who know Greek, from the people of "other knees." There was a story that Yeudr (otter) kills the sleeping crocodile, coming through the revealed mouth to its internships. By the way, the crocodile could be drawn in the form of a beast with a huge mane, tail with a tassel, with claws and teeth. With a fairly correct description of Dolphin's habits (it comes to the aid to the sea to the sea, people, etc.), the author of such a treatise could call him "Zelphin Bird", and in ancient miniature, a couple of dolphins, saving St. Vasily, are depicted in two dogs.
Arising from the redistribution of signs The character coincidence was eliminated by assigning one of them (most often in the description of which the fabulous properties prevailed, or it correlated with "strangers", the exotic region - India, Ethiopia, Arabia, etc.) of an unusual (foreign language ) Name. With this, as it were, a possible inconsistency of any properties of the object with the familiar set of features united under "its", familiar name. So, the "Indian" beaver also wore the name "MJSCOUS."
It should be borne in mind that the free application of signs for the name of the character played an important role in symbolic interpretation of its properties. The most authoritative specialist in the study of animal symbols in the ancient Russian book, Olga Vladislavovna Belov, notes the cases when a set of signs completely passed from one name to another and an animal, taking other people's signs, received a new property. So, being combined first in their signs, Hyena and the bear subsequently "exchanged" and names. In the ancient Russian Azbukovniki, the word "Ouen" along with the meaning of the "wild beast, imitating the human voice", "the mythical poisonous beast with a human face, accomplished by snakes," "Beast from the cat's breed" has the meaning of "Bear, Major".
From the point of view of the medieval book, such descriptions were not examples of pure fiction. All information was perceived as a given, being supported by authoritative sources - if it was written about this in the books, it means that it was, despite the fact that the ancient Russian person could not check the stories. For book, "scientific" description of animals, a sign of real-unreal is not determining.
Animal names were regarded as initially data defined by divine fishery. Moreover, these names were given so successfully and so accurately reflected the essence of all the creations that God had no longer changed.
All animals and all their properties, real and fictional, are considered by the old Russian scribes from the point of view of the secret moral point, concluded in them. Animal symbols gave abundant material for medieval moralists. In the "physiologist" and similar monuments with him every animal in itself amazing, whether it is supernatural creation (unicorn, centaur or phoenix; exotic beast of distant countries (elephant or lion) or a good familiar being (fox, hedgehog, partridge, beaver;) . All the mentioned creatures act in their innermost function available only to spiritual insight. Each animal means anything, and the values, often opposite, maybe several. These characters can be classified as "overhanded images": they are not based on obvious similarity , and on difficultly explained, traditionally fixed semantic identities. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe external similarity to them alien.
The ideas about the animals were so peculiar that a modern man completely thinks, looking at this or that image that this image goes back to pagan antiquity. For example, on many Temples of Vladimir-Suzdal Earth, we see the image of the griffin. It is often written that this is a consequence of the appeal of the ancient Russian kamnezes to the pagan sources. In fact, the griffin is a creature that Christian "physiologists" wrote about. Under the griffin, there was a mythical creature, which combines the features of the bird and lion. It was depicted in the form of a four-way creature with a sharp beak, the peculiar to the tongue, the wings and the tail, similar to the lion. At the same time, it was written that the flu is a huge mythical bird that collects the wings of the solar dawn. Griffin could be the designation of Archangel Mikhail and the Virgin. And the lamb is usually the symbol of Jesus Christ as the victims, the atonement of human sins, denoted and the martyrs for faith, - could at the same time portray the antichrist. True, the appearance of such a lamb was somewhat unusual: he was depicted without Himba, his body was in his pendans, paws with sharp claws, he had sharp ears, a toothy mouth with a peaked tongue and a long tail. Such a Lamb Antichist was very different from Lamb - the symbolic image of Christ.
In the context of the culture of ancient Russia, a live creature, deprived of his symbolic significance, contradicts a slim world order, and simply does not exist in the separation from its value. No matter how intrinsically engaged in the properties of the described animal, the ancient Russian author always emphasized the primacy of symbolism over the actual description. For him, animal names are the name of the symbols, and not specific creatures, real or fantastic. The compilers of "physiologists" did not set their goal to give more or less complete characteristics of animals and birds, which were told. Among the properties of animals, only those with which it was possible to find analogies with any aologian concept or make moral conclusions.
Approximately the same perceived by the old Russian scribes, their nature, properties and quality, color. This is how the Ruby Ancient Russian author describes: "Stone Sardion (or Ruby) Babylonian is red as blood, find it in Babylon on Earth, traveling to Assyria. This stone is transparent, the power of the healing in it is, they are treated with tumors, ulcers, as well as meadows, for this this scray should be anointed. " At the same time, it was said that this stone was likened to ruvel - the son of Jacob, because this stone is strong and strong ones. It must be said that the color designation of stones and symbolic meaning was transferred then to the colors that were used in miniatures and in iconography. Each of the colors had its own symbolic importance and gave an extremely rich range of meanings, which brought the author to his work. It is the color symbolic meanings that allow us to completely even understand what is depicted on the icon, which character is depicted and what qualities this character has.
The culture of ancient Russia is a multi-level culture. In each text, regardless of whether this text is written or depicted using visual elements, there are several meanings, at least five: literal explicit, literal secret, symbolic, allegorical and moral. And therefore, each of the texts of the ancient Russia, which we read, is always extremely deep. Deeper than we are used to thinking, focusing on the literature modern. We, current, more interested in the plot. The ancient Russian reader was much more interested in the meanings that they read that they read that they saw, for those animals, birds, stones and plants with which they came across. This is another world, and it is necessary to listen to it very carefully to understand it.