General - the exchange of information using language or gestures, as well as other means of contact, as well as the communication interaction of people or social groups. In the process of communication between the participants of communication, there is an exchange of various kinds of information.

Traditionally, there are three functions of communication:

1) information function: the expression of ideas, concepts, thoughts and their communication to other communicants.

2) evaluative: expression of personal assessments and attitudes,

3) affective: the transfer of emotions and feelings.

Roger T. Bell relates three areas of the humanities to these functions:

1) linguistics and philosophy (cognitive function),

2) sociology and social psychology (evaluative function),

3) psychology and literary criticism (affective function).

K. Buhler (1879-1963) identified three language functions that are manifested in any act of speech: a) the expression function (expressive), correlated with the speaker; b) the function of address (appellative), correlated with the listener; c) the function of the message (representative), correlated with the subject of speech.

The main purpose of communication is to convey a message. The sender of the message expresses himself, appeals to the recipient and represents the subject of communication. There can be several purposes of communication. For example, a film may inform, entertain, warn, explain, and so on. The main reason for communication is the corresponding needs of an individual or a group of individuals. And then - the goals of communication serve the various needs of individuals.

A functional characteristic of a communicative act can be given depending on its orientation and its main communicative task. R. Dimbleby and G. Burton distinguish six functions of messages and communicative acts: warning, advice, information, persuasion, expression of opinion, entertainment. This classification of functions is pragmatic, that is, associated with the use of communicative means to achieve certain goals. Communication takes place not only in human social systems. A certain kind of communication is typical for animals (mating dances of birds, the language of bees, etc.), and for mechanisms (pipelines, transport, telegraph and telephone signals, the interconnection of computers on the Internet, etc.). Communication can take place not only in the process of direct communication through words, but also with the help of road signs, teletext, books, films, etc.

There are the following forms of communication - written, oral, visual, etc. These forms differ from each other by special message encoding systems.

Communication media - combine various forms of communication, often using some technology to fill the temporal and spatial distance between the sender and recipient of the message (for example, a book: words, fonts, pictures, graphics). Mass media (MSK) can also include various forms of communication. For example, television and cinema use spoken language words, pictures, music; newspaper - written language words, fonts, illustrations, etc.

The means of communication can be used both intentionally and unintentionally. Non-verbal signals (facial expressions) very often inform the recipient without much desire of the sender of the message. An outside listener can also be an involuntary recipient of an oral speech message.

The American researcher E. Sapir made a distinction between fundamental means, or primary processes, communicative in nature, and some secondary means that facilitate the process of communication. According to E. Sapir, the primary means of communication are the following: language, gesticulation, imitation of public behavior in the process of inclusion in the lifestyle of society, and "social hint" (implicit processes of new acts of communicative behavior).

Secondary means of communication are aimed at facilitating the primary communicative processes in society: language transformations, symbolism and the creation of physical conditions for the implementation of a communicative act.

Language transformations are associated with code substitution, symbolic "translation" (for example, oral language into writing, Morse code, etc.) and make communication possible in cases where it is difficult by circumstances (for example, time and distance).

Symbolic systems (flags-signals in the Navy, semaphore and traffic light, bugle in the army communicative environment, etc.) translate a possible verbal message not symbolically, but globally, in its entirety. This is required in cases where the speed of perception of the message is necessary, the speed of reaction, when the simplest yes / no answer is expected. In the military, for example, where “orders are not discussed,” or on the road, when there is not much time to turn at high speed, long text messages would be inappropriate.

The development of physical conditions that allow communication, according to E. Sapir, includes railways, airplane (deliver the communicant), telegraph, telephone, radio (deliver the message or its reproduction). At the same time, the increase in the number of means expands the scope of communication.

Two opposite views on these processes belong to M. McLuhan and E. Sapir. McLuhan believed that the means largely determine the very content of the message. He believed that modern culture- visual in its essence, as opposed to, for example, the culture of the 19th - early 20th centuries, predominantly written (printed). The globalization of communication, according to McLuhan, leads to the creation of a single communicative space - the "global village". E. Sapir, on the contrary, expressed "fear of being understood by too many". From his point of view, this jeopardizes the psychological reality of the image of the extended self, as opposed to the non-self. The impossibility of keeping the message within the limits for which it is designed was also recognized as a price for facilitating communication (examples: listening devices or a drop in the level of artistic values ​​with an increase in demand and circulation). At the same time, he realized that it was rather the constraints on communication, such as the diversity of languages ​​and the need for translation, that were seen as a threatening obstacle. He also positively assessed the globalization of the scientific community and the introduction of the language of international communication.

Some of the forms and means of communication are associated with technological limitations. For example, words are heard only at a distance of the power of the sender's voice and the hearing of the recipient. Printed materials are more resistant to time and space.

All forms and means of communication are "an extension of human body”, supplementing and strengthening insufficient functions, especially vision and hearing. For example, loudspeakers and audio transmissions amplify the voice, reducing the distance between communicants.

Types of communication are distinguished by the composition of communicants. This is due to the fact that the technology of the communicator in each case has its own specifics (even the volume of the voice in the case, for example, of talking with oneself, with one interlocutor or with a large group will differ).

There are the following types of communication:

Intrapersonal communication (talking to oneself);

Interpersonal communication (as a rule, two communicants participate, but there are options for an observer, an included observer and an outsider, communication against the background of witnesses present, in a crowd, in a restaurant, etc.);

Group communication (within the group, between groups, individual group);

Mass communication (if a message is received or used by a large number of people, often consisting of groups of different interests and communicative experience (television, radio, Internet, etc.).

Panfilova A.P. distinguishes five types of communication: cognitive, persuasive, expressive, suggestive, ritual. Each of them is characterized by its own goals and expected results, organization conditions, as well as communication forms and means.

Cognitive communication expands the partner's information fund, transmits the necessary information and information. Persuasive communication allows you to evoke certain feelings in a business partner and form value orientations and attitudes; convince of the legitimacy of interaction strategies; make it your ally. Expressive communication allows you to form a psycho-emotional mood in a partner, convey feelings, experiences, induce to the necessary action. Suggestive communication has an inspiring effect on a business partner to change motivation, value orientations and attitudes, behavior and attitudes. Ritual communication reinforces and maintains conventional relationships in the business world; preserves the ritual traditions of the company, enterprise, allows you to create new ones.

These types of communication allow you to determine the specifics,

competently use the genre, communication tools and technologies, get the planned result, prepare more effectively for a particular communicative activity, develop scenarios for verbal and non-verbal behavior in a particular situation business communication and take into account the characteristics of the business partner.

The prominent American researcher Edward Sapir distinguishes the following types of communication:

Intercultural (communication both between peoples who speak different languages ​​and communicative cultures or between states

Interpersonal - between individual representatives of these peoples or states),

Organizational (communication in the business and industrial sphere, including interpersonal, group and personal-group communication).

These varieties are associated not only with the characteristics of the communicative environment in the area where communicative activity, but also with the composition of communicators (one communicator or a community of communicators, or some combination of both).

Among the various types of communications, in addition to personal, interpersonal, mass and specialized (business, professional, political, etc.), visual, mythological and performance communications deserve special attention. This is because the public relations specialist works in a highly organized environment.

Visual communication is the transfer of information through gestures, facial expressions, body movements. According to experts, about 65% of information is transmitted by non-verbal means. Often, in order to make a person understand our attitude towards him, we do not say anything, but only look at him with a certain facial expression. The advantage of visual communication is that it is understandable to the majority.

Mythological communication is based on myths. The use of mythological structures allows the communicator to exercise an obviously unconscious influence on the audience. Due to the unconsciousness and autonomy of the existence of these structures, the audience cannot resist them. In mass political psychology, for example, real social problems are replaced by a simplified idea of ​​the eternal struggle of two mythologized communities: reds - whites, communists - capitalists, East - West, etc. The attitude towards these groups is based on the principle "we - they": we are good, they are bad. M. Eliade, considering the psychotherapeutic function of myth, says that each hero repeats archetypal actions, each war resumes the struggle between Good and Evil, injustice is identified with the suffering of the Savior. Thanks to this approach, millions of people could endure the powerful pressure of history for centuries without falling into despair, without committing suicide and without falling into a state of spiritual withering, which is inextricably linked with the nihilistic vision of history.

The main difference between the system of interpersonal relations and mass communication is that within the framework of interpersonal communication direct contact is established between individuals using interpersonal means of communication, while in mass communication the exchange of information is mediated by technical means of communication.

Intercultural communication - communication between representatives of different human cultures (personal contacts between people, less often - indirect forms of communication (such as writing) and mass communication). This concept was introduced in the 1950s by the American cultural anthropologist Edward T. Hall as part of a program he developed for the US State Department to adapt American diplomats and businessmen in other countries.

Features of intercultural communication are studied at the interdisciplinary level and within the framework of such sciences as cultural studies, psychology, linguistics, ethnology, anthropology, sociology, each of which uses its own approaches to their study.

Initially, to describe intercultural communication, the classical understanding of culture was used as a more or less stable system of conscious and unconscious rules, norms, values, structures, artifacts - national or ethnic culture.

At present, the so-called. dynamic understanding of culture as a way of life and a system of behavior, norms, values, etc. any social group (e.g. urban culture, generational culture, organizational culture). The dynamic concept of culture does not imply a strict stability of the cultural system; to a certain extent, it can change and be modified depending on the social situation.

As a scientific discipline, intercultural communication is in its infancy and is distinguished by two characteristic features: applied nature (the goal is to facilitate communication between representatives of different cultures, reduce conflict potential) and interdisciplinarity.

Research on intercultural communication has recently become increasingly important due to the processes of globalization and intensive migration. In a more scientific aspect, we should talk about communication - as a unidirectional process of encoding and transmitting information from the source to receiving information by the recipient of the message. Communication can also be understood as a certain kind of joint activity of communication participants (communicants), during which a common (up to a certain limit) view of things is developed.

Interpersonal communication is based on various motives, goals and objectives of its participants. The determinants of this type of communication can be the transfer or receipt of any information, the inducement of a partner to take actions, the intention to change his views, the desire to provide emotional support, etc.

Depending on these factors, it is customary to distinguish several models of interpersonal communication: linear, transactional, circular model of interpersonal communication. We will dwell on the circular model in more detail. It is not just a process of transmitting a message from the sender to the recipient, during which the first encodes and the second decodes information. An important element of this model is feedback. This is the recipient's reaction to the message, which is expressed in a response message sent to the sender.

The introduction of feedback clearly demonstrates the circular nature of communication: the sender and recipient of the message sequentially change places.

The circular model, like the linear one, depicts communication as a series of discrete acts that have a beginning and an end, and the key figure in them is the sender of the message, since the reaction of the recipient of information depends on him.

That is why they are considered obsolete compared to the transactional model.

But for describing the processes of intercultural communication and understanding its specifics, it is the circular model that is more suitable, which we will use in the future.

The circular model consists of the following elements: sender (source) - encoding - message - channel - decoding - recipient - feedback.

Rice. one.

The sender (source) is the creator of messages, it can be either a person or an organization (although in any organization messages are people).

Encoding is the transformation of a message into a symbolic form.

Message - information, idea, for the sake of which communication is carried out. It consists of symbols and can be oral, written or visual.

Channel - the path of physical transmission of a message, the means by which a message is transmitted. It can be interpersonal and mass.

Decoding is the decoding of a message, which, as a result of various interferences, may be more or less adequate.

The recipient is the object to which the message is sent. It can also be an individual or an organization.

Feedback - the received message causes some kind of reaction in the recipient, since as a result of communication he has undergone changes in knowledge, attitudes, behavior.

In this process, various interferences, “noises” are created that prevent effective communication. The effectiveness of communication is characterized by the fact that the transmitted information must be understood in accordance with its original meaning. Therefore, communication is not only the transfer, but also the understanding of information.

Communication is one of the most essential elements of human life. The main purpose of communication is to convey a message. Intercultural communication is communication between representatives of different human cultures.

Intercultural communication

Intercultural communication communication between representatives of different human cultures (personal contacts between people, less often mediated forms of communication (such as writing) and mass communication). Features of intercultural communication are studied at the interdisciplinary level and within the framework of such sciences as cultural studies, psychology, linguistics, ethnology, anthropology, sociology, each of which uses its own approaches to their study.

It is believed that this concept was introduced in the 1950s by the American cultural anthropologist Edward T. Hall as part of the program he developed for the US State Department on the adaptation of American diplomats and businessmen in other countries.

Initially, the so-called intercultural communication was used to describe intercultural communication. classical understanding of culture as a more or less stable system of conscious and unconscious rules, norms, values, structures, artifacts of national or ethnic culture.

At present, the so-called. a dynamic understanding of culture as a way of life and a system of behavior, norms, values, etc. of any social group (for example, urban culture, culture of generations, culture of an organization). The dynamic concept of culture does not imply a strict stability of the cultural system; to a certain extent, it can change and be modified depending on the social situation.

As a scientific discipline, intercultural communication is in its infancy and is distinguished by two characteristic features: applied nature (the goal is to facilitate communication between representatives of different cultures, reduce conflict potential) and interdisciplinarity.

Research on intercultural communication has recently become increasingly important due to the processes of globalization and intensive migration.

Types of communications:

1. By the number of participants and distant relations between them: a. interpersonal (2 people, family) - the minimum number of participants, close relationships. The nature of development is narrowing or expanding the distance. b. intergroup/intragroup - the distance is greater, as is the number of participants c. professional (in business) d. mass (through an intermediary - mass media, television) e. intercultural (between different cultures, includes all of the above) 2. With a functional approach: a. informative b. affective-evaluative (feelings, opinions) c. recreational (information for recreation, in a playful way) d. convincing (between people of different statuses, ideological attitudes) e. ritual (various traditions, customs) 3. By language use: a. verbal (35%) - pure information b. non-verbal (65%) - the formation of emotions 3. Features of non-verbal communication 1. non-verbal communication complements verbal 2. non-verbal communication contradicts verbal 3. non-verbal communication replaces verbal 4. non-verbal communication serves as a regulator of verbal

Non-verbal means of communication:

1. kinesics (facial expressions, gaze, gestures, posture) 2. prosody (voice and intonation means) 3. takesika (touches) 4. sensory (sensory perception, manifestation of sensations) 5. prosemics (spatial structure of communication) 6. chronemics (temporal communication structure)

Basic concepts

Communication is an act or process of transferring information to other people or living beings, communication between two or more individuals based on mutual understanding, communication of information by one person to another or a number of people. Information is the result of reflection of a changeable object by a changeable object, mediated by forms of communication, in order to preserve their systemic integrity. Information is primary and meaningful, this is a category, therefore it is introduced into the categorical apparatus of science by a portrait description, through related categories: matter, system, structure, reflection. In the material world (human), information materializes through its carrier and exists thanks to it. The essence of the material world appears before the researcher in the unity of form and content. Information is transmitted through a medium. The material carrier gives the information a form. In the process of shaping, the information carrier is changed. The term information has no definition, since it is not a concept. There is information in the communication channels of control systems. The category of information should not be confused with the concept of knowledge. Knowledge is defined through the category information. Information - according to the legislation of the Russian Federation - information about persons, objects, facts, events, phenomena and processes, regardless of the form of their presentation. Information reduces the degree of uncertainty, incompleteness of knowledge about persons, objects, events, etc. Information is everything that leads to a change or preservation of the state of the object included in the communication. Language is the totality of all the words of a people and their correct combination to convey thoughts, a system of communication consisting of small fragments and a set of rules that regulate the way these fragments are used to make an utterance that makes sense. The system of sounds and written signs used by the population of a certain country or region in order to communicate with each other. Culture is a way of life, especially the common customs and beliefs of a certain group of people at a certain time. Customs, beliefs, art.

Intercultural competence is the ability to successfully communicate with people of other cultures, in the narrow sense, the ability to successfully communicate two-way with people from other cultures. This ability may appear from a young age or may be developed. The basis for successful intercultural communication is emotional competence and intercultural sensitivity.

Interculturally competent is a person who embraces and understands the specific programs of perception, thinking and actions of people from cultures alien to her. Previously acquired experiences are being expanded.

WHAT DO YOU THINK? INTERESTING or NOT? You can make a report on this topic or a speech at a faculty conference, publish an article or abstract within the framework of the conference. There will be a publication. How good!

The interaction of civilizations is becoming an imperative of modern world politics. This interaction reveals contradictions that, while not new, may become central in the 21st century. Together they can be formulated as follows:

the contradiction between the global and the local - gaining the level of a citizen of the world without losing one's own roots. The processes of economic modernization and social change are increasingly eroding the traditional relationships familiar to people. This leads to some weakening of the role of the nation-state as a source of human identification;

the contradiction between the universal and the individual: the globalization of culture is becoming universal.

On the one hand, the world is becoming more and more united on the basis of economic, technological and informational integration. On the other hand, the strengthening of integration leads to the growth of cultural self-awareness. In this process, a conglomerate of cultural societies that differ in their history, traditions, language, religion develop, interact and influence each other on the basis of intercultural communication according to their inherent laws. They are relatively independent, and while remaining different, they collide in a single information space. These differences affect the attitude towards a variety of issues - human rights, trade, environmental protection, etc., which are the essence of modern politics.

Given the unity of the world today, cultural differences necessarily involve clashes, given the fact that cultural characteristics are less subject to change than economic and political ones. It is becoming more and more obvious that, along with economics and politics, intercultural communication is an important factor in the regulation of both internal life and relations between countries. The "Velvet Curtain of Culture" has now replaced the "Iron Curtain of Ideology" as the main demarcation line in Europe.1

In the context of the transformation of modern Russian society, which is painfully searching for its sociocultural identity, striving to create an effective system of social organization, the need to study the problems of intercultural communication is especially growing.

More than a hundred ethnic groups and many other cultural groups live in Russia, adhering to various religions, cultural traditions and customs. As the experience of recent years has shown, the problems intercultural communication turn out to be no less important, and sometimes even more tense, than political and economic ones. They manifest themselves in interaction with the countries of the near abroad, asserting their identity, cultural specificity, their own state language, forming the national intelligentsia. This requires understanding the existing intercultural communication.

Russia's integration into European and global processes has led to the problem of mastering the cultural characteristics of other countries. Entry into a common space is impossible without mastering its cultural context. Awareness of belonging to a single world space requires the achievement of understanding between the bearers of different cultures.

Practice shows that many of our compatriots were not ready for intercultural contacts, they are poorly aware of their own and others' national and cultural characteristics. In the materials of the European

1 Huntington, S. The Clash and Civilization? //Foreign affairs. 1993, 3. P. 22. The cultural convention draws attention to the need to develop interaction through a dialogue of cultures that promotes the establishment of contacts, awareness of the universal "we" and the desire to understand each other. The development of these abilities is inseparable from the assimilation of a "foreign" culture, for "the ability of one people to master the achievements of another is one of the main indicators of the viability of its culture, the most obvious indicator of the progress of culture"1.

The implementation of intercultural communication brings hope for the enrichment of national cultures. At the same time, this process may present a danger of oblivion and repression of one's own cultural origins. Intercultural communication can lead to both positive and negative consequences.

Thus, the practical needs of intercultural communication set the direction for new theoretical searches, lead to a rethinking of traditional ideas and reveal the urgent need for an appropriate scientific paradigm based on the heuristic possibilities of communication and culture.

Academic interest in intercultural communication arose after World War II, when projects were being developed in the United States to help developing countries. The main attention of the researchers was focused on the development of skills and abilities of intercultural communication, taking into account the cultural characteristics of countries. Anthropologists, psychologists, culturologists, and linguists were involved in this work. Information for teaching intercultural communication came from different sciences, so intercultural communication as a field of scientific research from the very beginning had an interdisciplinary character. This affected both the borrowing of concepts and categories, and research methods.

1 Oizerman T.I. Are there cultural universals? // Questions of Philosophy. 1989, 2. p.54.

Over the years, interdisciplinarity is not only not overcome, but also increases, which indicates the exceptional complexity of the phenomenon of intercultural communication. The richness of shades of theoretical understanding of intercultural communication is nothing more than a reflection of its real multi-qualitativeness.

The integration of knowledge accumulated in the field of intercultural communication is carried out by identifying intercultural differences, the specifics of cultures as prerequisites for their mutual understanding and interaction, determining the mechanism of intercultural communication and factors contributing to the successful adaptation of subjects of intercultural communication.

With the development of intercultural studies, new forms of training appear, which are called intercultural or cross-cultural. A new profession arises - a specialist in intercultural communication, the International Society for Intercultural Education, Training and Research (SIETAR) is created, its branch in Europe (SIETAR Europe), Intercultural Press publishing house is opened.

In Russia, the ideas of intercultural communication began to develop actively in the mid-90s. Initially, they were associated with a change in the paradigm of teaching foreign languages: in order to effectively establish intercultural contacts, not only language, but also cultural skills and abilities are needed.

However, long before the emergence of scientific interest in the communication of cultures in domestic science, fundamental works appeared that indicated the prospects of this kind of research. These include studies of dialogue as a stable factor in the interaction of cultures (M.M. Bakhtin, Yu.M. Lotman, B.C. Bibler).

At present, in Russia, intercultural communication has the status of an academic discipline, relies on a developing network of research centers and higher educational institutions, and has a publishing base. However, the practical institutionalization of this area of ​​scientific knowledge is ahead of its theoretical and methodological justification. The problem of creating a theoretical foundation remains relevant.

The study of intercultural communication in the subject field of social philosophy is intended to solve a number of important theoretical and methodological problems. They are associated not so much with the unification of the results and reducing them to a single discourse, but with a reasonable analysis of the subject and object of research, its interpretation in line with social philosophy, based on its inherent problems and conceptual tools that correspond to this disciplinary tradition.

Today, when the prerequisites are being formed for the implementation of comprehensive studies of the most complex sociocultural systems and when systems approach allows philosophy to build an appropriate model of the integral being of culture, it becomes possible to establish productive links between branches of knowledge that study culture and communication both in synchronic and anachronistic sections.

Thus, the relevance of the research topic is due to:

a) the exceptional importance of intercultural communication in the development of human civilization as a guarantor of the existence of cultures themselves. A long and complex process of interaction and mutual influence of cultures requires a thorough study of their prerequisites, paths, centers, personality, national identity, etc.;

b) the need for a philosophical understanding of the problem, since from the very beginning, studies of intercultural communication were of an interdisciplinary nature. Deepening knowledge about the nature, essence, dynamics, structure of intercultural communication requires a socio-philosophical approach, analysis of it as a whole and, at the same time, each of its

parts and facets, as well as the patterns of its modification in the ethno-social space and historical time;

c) the need to systematize the theoretical and methodological foundations, principles and criteria of intercultural communication developed by domestic and foreign researchers;

d) social demand for the training of specialists who are able to function effectively in the conditions of the development of intercultural contacts at all levels.

The state of scientific development of the problem.

The concept of "intercultural communication" entered the scientific discourse in 1954, with the publication of the book "Culture as Communication: Model and Analysis" by E. Hall and D. Trager, in which intercultural communication was considered as a special area of ​​human relations1.

Later, in the work "Silent Language", E. Hall develops ideas about the relationship between culture and communication and for the first time brings the problem of intercultural communication not only to the level scientific research but also an independent academic discipline. Further development of the theoretical foundations of intercultural communication was continued by J. Condon and Y. Fati in their work "Introduction to Intercultural Communication"3.

Initially, research in the field of intercultural communication was focused on the problems of intercultural differences, analysis of the relationship between them and the characteristic behavior of cultural bearers (R. Benedict, D. Gorer, M. Mead, etc.)4.

The basis for intercultural studies of the post-war period is the problem of culture and personality, the creation of

1 See: Trager, G., Hall E. Culture as Communication: A Model and Analysis. New York, 1954.

2 See; Hall, E. The Silent Language. New York, 1959.

3 See: Condon, J. and Fathi, Y. An Introduction to Intercultural Communication. N.Y., 1975.

4 See: Benedict, R. Patterns of Culture. Boston, 1934.

called "cultural model" of personality: each culture forms a certain type of personality, as well as a unique system of values, priorities of behavior patterns. Thus, the main idea of ​​American intercultural studies of the 1940s is developing - the idea of ​​cultural relativism, an ethno-relativistic approach to the description, interpretation and evaluation of cultural differences.

Researchers dealing with the problems of intercultural differences inevitably came to the need to address the issue of the relationship between culture and communication, their relationship and interaction. It should be noted that the very concept of communication in the 20th century has undergone significant changes. Today it is applied in three methodological contexts. These three approaches even contradict each other in certain aspects, which has not yet made it possible to build a coherent theory of communication.

The first methodological approach is based on the classical positivist methodology of subject-object relations. It is represented by the concept of structural functionalism, uses the system method, the concept of the information society, etc. (D. Bell, A. Toffler1). The ontology of communication in this approach is based on system connections and functions. The basis of culture and all cultural values ​​is information.

The second (non-classical) methodological approach (J. Habermas2) is based on the cognitive model of subject-object relations, in which the sphere of communication is singled out as a special ontological object. Its study is based on the methods of hermeneutic interpretation of meanings, critical reflection, and rational reconstruction.

The third (post-non-classical) approach reduces the nature of the social to subject-object relations, i.e., to the principle of intersubjectivity and excludes objectivity. Society is viewed as a network of communications, and communications create an opportunity for self-description of society and its self-reproduction (N. Luhmann). Communication appears not as an obedient object of management decisions, but as an active self-organizing environment1. Such consideration of the nature of communication brings it to a new level and gives it a societal role.

As a separate research direction, one can single out the problem of speech communication, the appearance of which was preceded by the idea of ​​the plurality of language functions and its interactions with life, put forward by the Austrian philosopher and logician L. Wittgenstein. The works of this direction reveal the nature of the impact of sociocultural factors on the communication process and the sociocultural conditionality of verbal and non-verbal communicative means at any level of functioning.

In domestic studies of intercultural communication, Western scientific traditions are mainly preserved in approaches to this complex and multifaceted phenomenon. Their main feature is aspectualization. They reflect the following research aspects: sociological (social, ethnic and other factors in intercultural communication); linguistic (verbal and non-verbal means of communication, language styles, ways to improve the effectiveness of intercultural communication); psychological (cognitive and emotional components of intercultural communication, value orientations and motivations); communicative

(communicative skills and abilities, conflict management, development of intergroup relations). Accordingly, approaches to the definition of the subject of research and the task of research are differentiated.

A significant contribution to the development of problem areas of intercultural communication is made by research on the history and theory of culture. The field of culturological analysis is expanding: a systematic consideration of the internal structure of culture and its functioning as a subsystem of being reveals its multidimensionality. The concept of "holistic field of culture" introduced by V.M. Mezhuev makes it possible not to oppose, but to link into a single whole "value-axiological and existential (ontological) aspects of human socio-historical activity"1.

A lot of interesting observations and generalizations that reveal the symbolism of culture and give a non-trivial interpretation of various cultural phenomena of the past are contained in books and articles by S. Averintsev, M. Mamardashvili2, in the works of representatives of the Tartu-Moscow semiotic school Y. Lotman, B. Uspensky3 and other scientists. Myth is subjected to detailed study as a cultural phenomenon that belongs not only to ancient times, but also persists in any society (here it should be noted the publication of the earlier works of F. Losev4). In the works of S. Artanovsky, G. Pomerants, A. Bystrov, A. Rapoport and other researchers, the forms and types of culture are considered in connection with intercultural contacts5.

Among the works devoted to the study of the concept and facing the problem of intercultural communication, one can single out the publications of D.S. Likhachev, N.I. Tolstoy, Yu.S. Stepanova, V.V. Kolesov, which analyzes the concept sphere of Russian culture1.

The morphological analysis of culture is significantly deepened, which makes it possible to come to the nature of its dialogism. Development is being formulated by B.C. Stepin and A.Ya. Gurevich's ideas about the categories of culture and the role of philosophy in their explication and rationalization2. In the works of M. Kagan, a deep analysis of the semiosis of culture (the composition of the linguistic means used by it) was carried out, revealing its "polyglot" and, in particular, the existence of two types of language in it - monologue and dialogic3.

With the development of mass media, scientific interest in the communicative function of culture, the problems of translation and preservation of cultural values ​​is increasing. Attempts are being made to analyze the evolution of culture on the basis of the hypothesis of information selection, where the mechanisms of cultural dynamics are the speed of communication, information processing, the visibility of its display, the use of feedback (A. Drikker)4.

An information-semiotic approach to culture is being developed. Initially associated with literary criticism, it later covers, through its central concept of "text" (language), a much larger volume of cultural phenomena. The origins of this approach in the West were E. Cassirer, A. Mol, G. Gadamer, in our country - representatives of the Tartu-Moscow semiotic school Yu. Lotman and other researchers.

The information-semiotic analysis of cultural processes made it possible to consider cultural phenomena as signs that carry meaning, information1, and to reach the construction of information models of cultural processes.

AT last years a significant number of interesting works appeared, which are distinguished by novelty, expansion of ideas about intercultural communication2. A special problematic field unfolds around intercultural dialogue3, the globalization of culture and the interaction of civilizations4.

Two directions should be distinguished here: 1) the study of the culture of Russia and the West (interaction, mutual perception, mutual influence); 2) the study of the uniqueness of Russia as a special world and, at the same time, as an integral part of world civilization.

This indicates that a huge amount of scientific material of different levels of generalization has been accumulated. It requires a theoretical understanding of the essential characteristics of intercultural communication, identification and analysis of the main methodological and ideological core of its theory. However, this aspect was not reflected in any work on the problem areas of intercultural communication, therefore, in a certain sense, the problems of intercultural communication in socio-philosophical aspect is new.

All this together determined the choice of the research topic, determined its goals and objectives.

The purpose of the study is to determine the essence, nature, nature of intercultural communication as an integral part of a holistic vision of global processes taking place in the world.

Research objectives:

analyze the theoretical and methodological foundations of the phenomenon of intercultural communication;

Identify and explore those areas of human life, society in which intercultural communication functions and develops;

To reveal the interaction and mutual influence of culture and communication, communication and communication, to identify trends in their relationships;

To explore the essential characteristics of intercultural communication as a factor in socio-cultural changes, revealing the universal and unique in the interaction of cultural and civilizational complexes;

Analyze dialogue as the basis of intercultural communication, its features in the communicative mode;

Explore intercultural communication at the interpersonal level, substantiate intercultural communication as a special type of discourse, reveal its meaning and conditions of possibility;

Based on the essential characteristics of intercultural communication, analyze the mutual enrichment of cultures in the process of their interaction;

Investigate the socio-cultural factors that contribute to and hinder the effectiveness of intercultural communication;

Analyze spiritual and social changes in the structure of intercultural communication in the context of globalization;

To identify and explore the problems and contradictions of intercultural communication that arise in the process of interaction of cultures in the context of globalization.

The object of research is the socio-cultural space as a general and national-specific space, recreating a picture of the world and the subject itself, belonging to a particular cultural community.

The subject of the research is the social nature and functioning of intercultural communication.

scientific hypothesis. The presence of structural and functional

interrelations and interdependencies between culture and civilization, culture and communication, communication and communication make it possible to consider intercultural communication as a social phenomenon. It provides interaction between subsystems of culture within society, individuals within the same culture or at the level of intercultural communication, as well as between different and different cultures.

In the process of intercultural communication, sociocultural experience is transmitted and assimilated, the interacting subjects change, new personal qualities are formed. As the community develops as a world community, intercultural communication also develops, which is expressed in the growing socio-cultural significance for all mankind of the common achievements of civilizations.

Intercultural communication appears as a dialectical process in which various vectors of sociocultural interaction (integration-differentiation; universalization-particularization; conflicts-cooperation) do not exclude, but mutually determine each other.

The dynamics of intercultural communication is considered by us as a process of continuous development, improvement of the quality of intercultural interaction, growth of mutual understanding in various spheres of social

life and at different levels (civilizational, national, intergroup, interpersonal). In each case, putting forward the goal of achieving and expanding mutual understanding, we also take into account the possibility of inversion, that is, the degradation of relations. Nevertheless, the possibility is not ruled out that with the emergence of new factors and impulses for interaction and communication, mutual understanding will still deepen.

Theoretical and methodological base of the research.

The dissertation research is based on general scientific principles of cognition of social phenomena in conjunction with a systematic approach, dialectical, historical and logical methods.

The work analyzes the works of domestic and foreign scientists, allowing to reveal the versatility of the phenomenon of intercultural communication, its social nature, structure, functioning mechanisms.

The source for the development of the theoretical and methodological foundations of intercultural communication as a social phenomenon was the work of N. Berdyaev, N. Danilevsky, K. Marx, F. Nietzsche, A. Toynbee, O. Spengler, K. Jaspers, and other scientists, in which dramatic dialectics is revealed civilization and culture.

In the study of the social nature and the relationship between culture and communication, the author relied on the provisions of the theory of communicative action by J. Habermas, the culturological theory of communication by A. Mol and M. McLuhan, as well as on the communicative paradigm of N. Luhmann.

Considering culture as a basic category of intercultural communication, the author bases himself on the concepts of culture developed by Yu. Lotman, B. Malinovsky, T. Parsons, P. Sorokin, V. Stepin. These concepts make it possible to talk about...

COMMUNICATION AND ITS TYPES

Communication is a socially conditioned process of transferring and reproducing information both in interpersonal and mass communication, moreover, through different channels with various verbs and nonverbs in comm.

Intercultural communication is a set of various forms of relations and communication between individuals and groups belonging to different cultures.

In rel kmm sc 2 opposite approaches:

1. "Romantic" - language is considered as a dynamic phenomenon in constant evolution and predetermined by the creative energy of the gov-th (Humboldt, Darkening, Vosler)

2. Structuralist - the use of language is considered as the creation, according to predetermined models, of def structures from discrete fixed units that are not subject to serious changes (De Saussure, Jacobson)

Existing monologue and dialogic speech. Bakhtin affirmed that monologue speech does not exist.

K-tion is considered as a process of interaction and mutual coding of the individual ascension of each of the communicants (Leontiev)

There is no transmission of thought between the speaker and his listener. The listener himself creates inf by reducing the indefiniteness by interacting in his own cognitive area. Consensus arises only through cooperative interactions in which the resulting behavior of each of the organisms serves to maintain them both (Maturana)

COMMUNICATION AS INTERACTION-E "GOV-X CONSCIOUSNESS"

This term belongs to Ak-ku Bakhtin. He says that any comm-I is an interaction of "gov-x consciousnesses". The concept of "gov consciousness" is a subdivision of desires, and one of them is language. It is accepted to distinguish three ways:

1. "Global" understanding of the language - in which any sign system is named, as well as their scoop (the language of music, the language of architecture)

2. "Wide understanding" language - in which it is understood as a specific class of signs composed of phonemes, morphemes, lexemes. Those. we are talking about a single universal person yaz-e or yaz-e in general

3. language as a really existing sign system - used in a certain society in a certain time and in a certain space (Kibrik)

culture

According to Kurevich's calculations, there are more than 1000 definitions of the concept of "k-ra":

1. K-ra consists of components and is understood as the sum of these components, namely knowledge, beliefs, arts, morals, cultures, traditions and customs, abilities and habits (Taylor)

2. The "broad" understanding of k-ry according to Lotman: "the peculiarity of h-as k-th being requires opposing it to the world of nature, remembered as outside space. Lotman distinguishes between k-ru and nature. Category the value of the call to remove the issue of separating the material and the spirit of the k-ry because in human consciousness there is no boundary between the mother and the spirit (ideal) and the value of any material object as a k-th phenomenon is determined by the meaning or value of which it is endowed in this society

3. social and individual X-r to-ry, i.e. to-ra can be understood as a form of common being of people and as a form of appropriation of collective experience by a person

4. national and universal x-r k-ry. Within the framework of the nat and univ to-ry, the trace of the so-called. ethno-differentiating and ethno-integrating functions of k-ry.

INTERPERSONAL COMMUNICATION. PERSONAL FACTORS OF COMMUNICATION

ICC appearing in the form of interpersonal comm.

MLK is a process of simultaneous interaction of communicants and their influence on others.

MLK implemented in various forms:

1. Linear - i.e. d-e within which the sender encodes his thoughts and feelings and sends them to the recipient. L.m wear one-way x-r, i.e. from sender to receiver.

2. Transactional - i.e. d-i in which proish simultaneously sent and received inf-ii, i.e. people form their mutual relations.

3. Interactive (circular) - the presence of feedback, r-ii from the side of the recipient and mutual influence. Key figure yavl. send, because from him the head of the r-I received-la.

For any communication model, implement the following chain:

Sender - Encoder - Message - Channel - Decoder (understand and play) - Receiver

In the course of the interpersonal and ICC, priority can be. one or more aspects of communication:

Informational - exchange of information

Interactive - interaction of participants in communication on the subject of communication with def. purpose.

Gnosiological - h-to vyst as a subject and object of knowledge

Axiological - the process of studying communication as a factor in the exchange of values

Normative - stereotypes of behavior, manners of communication are analyzed or studied, in other words, this is the etiquette that is accepted in this society

The main goals of communication: the exchange and transfer of information; forming otn-I to myself, people and about-woo; exchange of activities, technologies; exchange of emotions; change in the motivation of behavior.

Functions of communication: informational; social; expressive (mental), pragmatic - regulates the behavior of the h-ka in the definition of sits in general; interperceptive - understand the partner, his intentions, attitudes.

Main types of communication:

1. Informative

2. Affective-evaluative - based on the expression of positive or negative feelings in relation to others. As the main forms of AO vyd: a) ethnic prejudice b) stereotypes c) prejudice d) philistine opinion e) rumors

3. Recreational - includes various forms of entertaining communication. To the basic forms of R. rel: discussions, competitions, competitions

4. Persuasive - is a communication, for example, to stimulate to-l d-i, that is, people are trying to influence the beliefs of I or d-I of other people (mainly m / y superiors and subordinates)

5. Ritual - vyr-Xia in the observance and implementation of socially established norms of behavior.

The style of communication is very important (the way information is transmitted in the process of communication)

Within the framework of the ICC, issue 10 SO:

1. Dominant - striving to reduce the range of others

2. Dramatic - exaggerated emotional coloring of messages (how are you? super!!!)

3. Controversial - i.e. aggressive or assertive

4. Soothing - reducing anxiety in society and in others

5. Impressive - striving to impress the interlocutor

6. Accurate - striving for accuracy and accuracy of messages

7. Attentive - the ability to listen to the interlocutor

8. Inspired - frequent use of non-verbal means

9. Friendly - striving to encourage the interlocutor to further common

10. Open - striving to express one's feelings, opinions, emotions

Goody Kunst, goal learned: In the USA - pay attention, dispute, domino, vpech; in Japan - calm, dramatic, open

Personal communication factors:

Assessing the characteristics of individuals and their influence on communication processes, the main ones are the so-called. formal personality traits, namely gender, age, marital status. There are inoculations in f, m, children's societies. In addition to these x-to-essential ow-e on comm-tion, the individual has psychological traits x-ra

1. Sociability - vyr-Xia in the cost of h-ka contact with other people. A. determined by the type of temperament

2. Contact - the ability to get into contact with a priholog and form trusting bases on mutual consent

3. Communicative compatibility - readiness and ability to create a relaxed atmosphere of mutual satisfaction with others

4. Adaptability - readiness to revise habitual ideas and districts, to be able to respond flexibly to changing circumstances. Good adaptability means the highest measure of personal freedom in contacts

5. Self-control - self-observation and introspection in the sit-ii general-I which are carried out in order to achieve social adequacy

6. Self-consciousness of the individual - a stable property of the individual to direct the outside on their own internal or external e and actions. Self-consciousness has 3 aspects: - personal with - outside of itself and to your thoughts; - public with - knowledge about oneself as a subject of reproduction by other people; - social anxiety - discomfort in the presence of other people. In different cities, these 3 aspects have different priorities for them

7. Communicative understanding-e - typical for each individual orientation to a certain way of general-I. Comm understand, the higher the more h-k is prone to loneliness, is in social isolation. In other words, people who are closed, conservative, and prone to isolation feel h-ka more accurately and more accurately than socially successful people.

Situational factors of communication

The communication of people to.p. occurred in a specific environment or in a specific socio-k-th environment. In addition, we have a community in which we take into account a different number of people.

Social groups are two or more individuals who have common interests, norms and values, who reproduce themselves as members of this group. One h-to m.b. member of different groups (race, family, students, gender)

In accordance with the communication role, each person is expected to define a type or model of behavior. In different k-ra, these types or models can be. different. Ogre value in any k-re role play connection with sexual belongings. He believes that in individual k-rah, the horizon (equal rights) of communication is more important, and for the collective, vertical (boss - subordinate) connections.

Amer psychologist Bern gives the following classification of standard sit-th (forms of social behavior):

1. Closure - borderline when there is no explicit communication between people (on the train)

2. Rituals - the usual repetitive d-I do not carry a semantic load. Rituals give people the opportunity to spend time together without getting close at the same time (greeting, excuse me, receptions)

3. Pastime - the so-called. semi-ritual conversations about problems and events known to everyone. Pastime is always socially programmed. allows talk only in ODA style and on acceptable topics (a party where strangers gathered) Call to support friendly relations and make signs and connections

4. Joint activity - interaction between people at work for the sake of the effect of achieving the goal

5. Games - the most complex type of general in which each side tries to achieve superiority and receive a reward

6. Proximity is a borderline sit-I, free from communication games of communication with warm, interested relations between people. This is the most perfect form of people rel th.

INCULTURATION AND SOCIOLIZATION

Each person will have to live in a society, so social integration is an important factor. From the early childhood h-k assimilates accepted manners of behavior, patterns of thinking until most of them become habitual. Those. this process of mastering by an individual the necessary amount of knowledge, skills and norms of common life to-ry is designated in the humanities by the concepts of inculturation and socialization.

Pattern - sustainable scoop-ti technologies of thinking, behavior, follow-ti d-i and building judgments, various cultural formulas and symbols reflecting certain ideas about reality

Sociolization is the harmonious entry of the individual into the social environment, the assimilation of the value system of the community by him, which will allow him to successfully function as a member of it.

Each warehouse has its own ways of teaching acceptable socialized behavior.

In otl from socialization, the concept of "inculturation" subsumes the teaching of trades and the norms of behavior in the concret. Enculturation includes the formation of fundamental human factors such as general types with other people, the form of behavior with other people, evaluative relation to the various phenomena of the environment of the world.

Prots I. yavl more complex and protracted than S., tk. usv-e k-nyh norms, values, traditions, customs originated much more slowly.

The content of the inc-tion process consists of the acquisition of the following knowledge and skills:

Life support - prof d-t, housework, purchases and consumption of goods and services.

Personal development - the acquisition of a general and professional image, general act, amateur activities (hobbies)

Social communication - formal and informal communication, travelling, sports

Recovery of energy costs - food consumption, personal hygiene, passive rest and sleep

Goals of integration and socialization

Amer, the scientist Nid, under integration we understand social learning in general, and under inculturation, the real process of learning occurs in a specific region.

Practically everything is based on the fact that social-I is more universal, and Inc-I is specific.

In a cut of ink-ii h-to become able to freely navigate in the environment of his social environment, use a large number of objects to-ry conscious of previous generations and exchange the results of physical and intellectual labor.

As a result of social-ii h-to become a full member of the society, freely fulfilling the social roles required of it. At the same time, the k-th specificity of the outside is not addressed.

PSYCHOLOGICAL MECHANISMS OF INCULTURATION

Ch-to changes his views on life, habits, tastes in the course of life. All changes occurred under the direct influence of the sociok-go environment outside of which ink-I is impossible.

Ways to transfer any information:

Vertical transmission - during which sociok-I inf-I is transmitted from genus to children

Horizontal transmission - mastering the cult of experience comes in communication with peers

Indirect transmission - the individual learns from the people around him (neighbors, teachers)

In the process of inc-ii, a large number of people and general institutions are involved, which received the names of agents and institutions, respectively. They can be subdivided into several groups depending on the function performed:

1. Guardians - f-i: caring for a child, satisfying his physical and emotional needs

3. Disciplinators - distribution of punishments

4. educators - purposeful transfer of sociological knowledge and skills

5. Companions - agents and institutions occupying an equal position with h-com and exercising joint d-t

6. Cohabitants - living in the same house with an individual

All these f-ii in the scoop-ty implemented by the family, school, media, interest groups. At different stages of the life path, these f-ii received a different implementation.

Relatives with family (up to 5 years old) are decisive. The main goal of the early period of ink-ii is the formation of motivation for attachment to other people. Vyr-Xia in trust, obedience, the desire to do nice.

5 - 15 years old per child is affected by other factors inc-ii - common with peers, school, contacts with strangers. They acquire the skills of operating with objects in order to achieve a practical result, master abstract thinking, the emotional sphere develops.

Crazy fur-we inc-ii:

1. Imitation - the conscious desire of the child to imitate the ODA model of behavior. As an example, k.p. vyst parents, then teachers, izv people. Years later, he would teach his children the same imitative attitudes he had absorbed.

2. Identification - a way for children to learn parental behavior, attitudes and values ​​as their own

3. Shame, a sense of shame - appeared if caught at the crime scene, exposed and disgraced

4. Feeling of guilt - connected with the same experiences, but for its appearance it is not necessary to expose, it is enough to have the voice of your conscience that says that you have acted badly and you will be tormented by the consciousness of your bad deed. Those. It's about punishing yourself.

CULTURAL DYNAMICS

AND ITS MAIN FORMS

Cultural dynamics - changes occurring in the k-re of a particular people. KD is subdivided into all types of changes occurring in k-re and h-ke under the influence of internal and external factors.

In k-th anthropology, it is accepted that the next sources of k-th dynamics are:

1. Innovation - the invention of new images, symbols, norms and rules of behavior, new forms of activity, for example, to change the conditions of people's lives and the formation of a new type of thought or reproduction of the world

2. Contact cultural heritage- reassessment and use in new conditions of the entire scoop-ty of the achievements of this society and its historical experience

3. Cultural borrowings - the use of objects, norms of behavior, values ​​​​created and tested in others. This type of k-th dynamics develops in cases where one k-ra lends itself to the control of another more developed one. Short circuits take place both with direct contact and with indirect contact (media, consumable goods, image of the institution). However, in the process of borrowing, the recipient of the loans is not everything in a row, but only what is close to him, can bring obvious or hidden benefits and will give as a result acceptance over other peoples. X-r, st-n and the efficiency of k-th borrowings ODA trace factors:

a) intensity of contacts

b) Conditions of ICC contacts (whether it was done voluntarily or through violence)

c) st-n differentiation about-va, i.e. the presence of sociological groups ready to accept the innovation

4. Synthesis - interaction and connection of heterogeneous k-th elements, in the course of which a new k-th phenomenon is raised, which is different from the constituent components and has its own quality. Synthesis of c.p. they have a place in the event that k-l k-ra masters achievements in those areas that are not sufficiently developed in itself, but at the same time remains original (Singapore, Taiwan, South Korea, Macau)

Cultural diffusion and its contemporary contexts

K-diffusion - the mutual penetration of the yavl-th k-ry or entire k-th complexes from one k-ry to others during their interaction

A k-noe interaction is a k-th contact that can pass without a trace or end with a strong influence of the interactions of k-r (the republics of the USSR)

The channels of k-th diffusion were: migration, tourism, doctor of missionaries, trade, war, national conferences, fairs, exchange of specialists, etc.

K-diffusion was of 2 types:

Vertical (stratification) - in which one k-ra is subordinate to the other

Horizontal - at which equal rights are established between to-mi

THE CONCEPT AND ESSENCE OF ACCULTURATION

The study of acculturation processes from the beginning of the 20th century was started by the American anthropologists Redfield, Linton and Herskovitz. In the beginning, the acc-th was considered as a result of a long-term contact of groups representing different k-ry, which was expressed in a change in the initial k-th models in both groups. It was believed that these processes proceed automatically, to-ry are mixed and the state of k-th and ethnic homogeneity is achieved. In other words, ak-ya was understood as a group phenomenon. At the present time, acc-yu began to be considered at the Ur-not of the psychology of the individual.

Akk-ya is a process and result of the mutual influence of different k-r in which all or part of the representations of one k-ry adopt the norms, values ​​and traditions of another k-ry which is called the donor k-ra .

MAIN FORMS OF ACCULTURATION

2. Assimilation - a variant of acc-s in which a person fully accepts the values ​​and norms of another k-ry while refusing his k-th identity (from the norms and values ​​of his k-ry)

3. Separation - the denial of someone else's k-ry while maintaining identification only with one's own k-ry. A kind of separation in which the dominant k-ra isolates the representatives of the subordinate k-ry - segregation (forced separation).

4. Marginalization is a phenomenon that is evidence of the loss of identity with one's own swarm and the absence of identification with a swarm of the majority. This also happened because of the dominants of the k-ry, which carried out violence in relation to the representations of the other k-ry

5. Integration - identification both with one's own and with a new one.

The result and purpose of the acc-ii is a long-term adaptation to life in a foreign k-re. Acc is considered in the following aspects:

Psychological - I represent the achievement of psychological satisfaction within the framework of other k-ry

Socio-k-naya - the ability to freely navigate in a new environment, solve everyday problems in the family, at home, at work

Economic - work

In the presence of all these types of adaptation, a person feels satisfaction.

Akk-i as communication

Through their continued experience in general, people consider exactly what is needed in the new conditions. Any communication with them. 3 aspects:

Cognitive - what we know

Affective - implies the influence of individuals on others

Behavioral - implies the acceptance of norms, values, traditions, customs of someone else's k-ry. We master the following skills: technical (Vlad-e language, the ability to make phone calls, shop, pay taxes); social (a system of rules and conventions that must be adhered to in someone else's k-re);

Full adaptation of a person to a foreign one means that all 3 aspects of communication proceed simultaneously and are well balanced.

FACTORS FOR THE FORMATION OF RUSSIAN CULTURE

geo factors - the first person who turned outward on geo factors was the historian Klyuchevsky, he wrote: "It was the Russian plain, the river steppe and the interfluve, the forest and the steppe, the river and the endless field, all this formed the x-r Russian- of the people, the type of economy and state, as well as mutual relations with neighboring peoples. Participated in the household activity. Dr. famous philosopher Berdyaev wrote that the landscape of the Russian soul corresponded to the landscape of the Russian soul in accordance with the landscape of the Russian land. With all the complexities of the relationship between the Russian people and the Russian nature, its cult was so important that it was reflected in the ethnonym (self-consciousness) of the Russian ethnic group.

historical factors are of great importance for the formation of the Russian mentality and to-ry it became Christ in its eastern, that is, Byzantine, version. The result of the baptism of Russia was its entry into the then civilized world. However, the more important factor was its geopolitical position between west and east. It is from this history of the event that Russia, and then Russia, chooses an orientation to the east, for example, development

religious factors - Khomyakov - the leader of Slavic-philism gov "the true Church of Christ is, first of all, a deep spiritual connection that unites many believers in love and truth. Of all the concessions, only the Orthodox Church corresponds to this ideal. in Catholicism and Protestantism. In Catholicism, catholicity is violated in the name of the sub-I to the Pope, and in Protestantism in the name of the triumph of freedom of individualism. In Orthodoxy, each person is recognized as a person, but not self-sufficient, but manifested only in a conciliar association whose interests are higher than the interests of individual The result was the consolidation of the Russian k-ry as an ideal - striving for authoritarianism and collectivity at the same time.

SELF-CONSCIOUSNESS OF RUSSIAN CULTURE

National x-r - a scoop specifically, physical and spirit-x quality, norms of behavior and activities typical of representatives of a particular nation.

Issled-whether nat x-ra believes that the whole scoop of determinant factors nat x-ra m.b. divided into 2 groups:

Natural and biological factors

Socio-cultural factors

The type of society formed by one or another people had an even greater influence on the nat x-r than nature-bio factors. Nat x-r stock-Xia from a set of values, the bearer of which is one or another people. The measurable form of manifestation of national x-ra is ethnic stereotypes that contribute to the formation of images of "good" and "bad" peoples and orients the nation to the search for allies and / or enemies

An ethnic stereotype is a socially conditioned schematic image of one's own ethnic community (autostereotype) or an idea of ​​other ethnic communities (heterostereotype).

Stereotypes rise because of the desire for an economy of thinking: concretization, simplification, description large group people as one.

S-py formir either with direct interpersonal contact - whom contact, as well as through unorganized forms of information transfer (rumors, anecdotes, last, sayings), as well as through prejudices rooted in historical traditions

An ethno-stereotype is a kind of test that applies to the whole nation, in which k.p. are expressed. psychological features of the reproduction of other people.

Ethnic identity occupies a special place in Russian to-re and takes the form of "ours - not ours." The main criterion for this is religious belonging, as well as attribution to the Western or Eastern world. On this basis, the special Russian concept of "foreigner" is formed. In-tsy in the main for us people from the west.

Also important was the fact that, due to the fall of Byzantium, Russia realized itself as a state in enmity with Christian, but non-Orthodox countries (Germany, Poland, Lithuania). Most of the pagans are Muslims - the Mongols, the Tatars became Orthodox.

The attitude towards the concept of "foreigner" among Russians has always been reserved and alien.

Foreigners for Russia are a kind of mirror through which, on the one hand, we want to get approval for our actions, and on the other hand, we are constantly aware of our originality and want to preserve it.

NATIONAL RUSSIAN CHARACTER

Theme of Russian nat x-ra in Russian of general thought

Study the Russian x-ra divided into 2 stages:

1. Vr-on the Moscow of Russia - the end of the 19th century - study the bliss of the weaver

2. In the beginning of the 20th in the nat x-r began to receive a more objective assessment, where, along with the negative ones, the positive quality of the Russian x-r was given.

Negat quality, Berdyaev vyd:

Illogicality, unsystematic and utopian Russian thought, the absence of the Russian mind of the need for free creative thought

impulsiveness, laziness, disorganization, inability and unwillingness to complete the work begun

carelessness and carelessness in an effort to do everything quickly slipshod

formal religiosity wholesale such qualities as the desire to cheat, deceive, lack of foresight

Kaverin vyd:

striving for youth, revelry, endless freedom, prowess without end

The most important conclusion about the quality of Russian nat x-ra: duality, inconstancy

Put it on, Berdyaev:

softness, passivity, femininity

nationalism connected with messianism, i.e. with the idea of ​​a special mission of Russia in history, therefore, messianism in Russians turns into a denial of any nationalism and the recognition that the Russian people sacrificially served the cause of all peoples

The originality and originality of the church is explained by the religiosity underlying the desire to search for the absolute good in connection with this, the Russ x-ra

unselfishness

lack of interest in material values ​​and private property

ability to sympathize and empathy

These philosophers claim that the quality of the Russian nats x-ra is a continuation of its shortcomings, and does not compensate for them.

Ideas about the most typical features of the national x-ra are generalized into auto and heterostereotypes.

The factors of auto and heterostereotyping determine the type of ICC and the ability to form either "good" or "bad" peoples.

In addition to the immediate interpersonal general, autos and heterostereotypes are assimilated by people from childhood and show him a specific image of other peoples.

The study of 5 basic qualities inherent in most Russians:

Kindness

patience

Hospitality

carelessness

Stereotype - a set of common average properties or traits x-ra, manners of behavior of representatives of one nation.

INTERCULTURAL ASPECT OF THE PROBLEM OF PERCEPTION AND UNDERSTANDING IN TRANSLATION

Translation competence

Competencies

Constitutive (fundamental) Receptive (perception and understanding of a foreign language of the text) Expressive (destruction of the text into TL)

Suburoven (subject to constitutive)

Language Background, sociocultural (outlook, experience)

professional

Epilevel (how KU and SU are used in speech, note yaz ed-ts in speech)

Writing/oral

Per-kaya competence - the sum of knowledge, skills and abilities for the implementation of professional per-koy activities

Receptive competence (perception and understanding) - 2 levels of the signaling system:

1. Sensations, representations (consciousness)

2. concepts, beliefs, inferences, x-s only for h-ka (consciousness and thinking)

Understanding is the resultant thought embodied in judgment

RK means phase x-r (or stadial):

2. understanding what is said or written

3. p-d verbal speech in the language of internal speech

speech - thought

Internally, the speech is simulant (folded), Externally, the speech is successive (expanded)

Expressive competence - speech acquisition competence

thought - speech

Composition of several stages:

1. Planning - search for specific concepts of the corresponding word

2. implementation - linear expansion of syntactic structures

3. control

Fossilization - "petrification" of k-l yaz str-r that were originally presented either by a teacher or a textbook

Agnonyms - rise up mistakes and understand-I

Paranormatives - Defeat Errors

Language competence - sub-chorus knowledge of vocabulary, grammar (morphology, syntax), stylistics

Background competence - a subset of horizons and thesaurus knowledge (a dictionary that contains a complete description of a particular area of ​​activity)

Professional competence - writing / mouth; text-forming; genre style.

LANGUAGE AND CULTURE, THEIR RELATIONSHIPS

Himes has combined all the requirements for understanding the relationship between language and language and the 4 main approaches:

1. Language is primary, i.e. he is a source, cause, factor in the formation and development of k-ry

2. the rest of the part to-ry (except yaz-a) is primary, i.e. yaz is secondary

3. neither language nor the rest of the hours are primary, they are considered as mutually defining

4. neither yaz nor the rest of the hours are primary, and both are determined by the factor underlying them (such factors can be a look at mines or national x-r)

Naib acceptable with the so-called big-va yavl 3. Whitehead: "wh-kaya civilization is a product of a developing civilization"

LANGUAGE, CONSCIOUSNESS, THINKING

Consciousness carrying out internalization (assimilation and understanding) by an individual of the environment in the form of a defined way of structured and systematized knowledge and ideas and responsible for fixing, storing and evaluating the results of activities enters into complex relationships with thought.

Language, conscience and thought are as different hypostases of a certain single essence and an image of a single mental-lingual complex. Morkovkinov: "thinking is primarily a dynamic hypostasis, consciousness is a cumulative-evaluative hypostasis, language is an instrumental and communicative hypostasis.

LANGUAGE PERSONALITY

The language consciousness, existing as a collective consciousness of a specific linguo-to-nogo community, reveals itself and is available for observation only when it is mediated by a specific language personality in its activities. This term was introduced in the 80s. Prof. Karaulov and is still a buzzword

A personality language is a multi-layered and multi-component set of language skills, readiness to perform speech actions of varying degrees of complexity, and actions that are classified on the one hand by types of speech (speaking, listening, reading, writing) , and with other collaborators on the levels of language.

In addition, the definition of Karaulov proposed the structure of the language of personality, consisting of 3 ur-s.

1. verbal-semental - assuming for the carrier a normal command of eating the language.

2. cognitive - the units of which are concepts, ideas that are formed in each language of a person into a more or less ordered, systematized "picture of the world" and representing a hierarchy of values ​​for such a person.

3. pragmatic - including goals, motives, attitudes and interests. This ur-n provides a natural transition from the assessments of her speeches to the comprehension of the real d-ti.

Ch-k talking

language personality communicative personality speech personality

(verbally semantic) (cognitive) (pragmatic)

Karaulov's decree on the existence of a common Russian language of the type is a prerequisite for the existence of an invariant part in the structure of each separate personality. It is this invariant part that provides the possibility of mutual understanding between carriers of different dialects of social and k codes.

TYPOLOGY OF COMMUNICATIVE

FAILURE IN IWC

First of all, communication failures are due not only to code (language) reasons, but also to extra-code (extralinguistic) ones. Comm failures occur in both monoc and ICC, but the frequency of occurrence of such failures is more frequent in ICC.

Classification of comm failures:

1. Failures caused by insufficient possession of the foreign phone, Russian semantic systems (gesture language, body language, etc.)

2. failures due to their national differences or those cognitive aspects of the personalities of communicants belonging to different national to-frames.

3. failures caused by pragmatic factors of various kinds

4. failures caused by different behavioral x-rum foreign phones.

CULTURE AND COMMUNICATION

Culture is an essential characteristic of a person associated with a purely human ability to purposefully transform the surrounding world, during which an artificial world of things, symbols, as well as connections and relationships between people is created. Everything that is made by a person or is related to him is part of the culture. Communication and communication are an essential part of human life, and therefore a part of culture. Emphasizing their importance, many researchers equate culture with communication (communication). Based on this interpretation, many Western scientists figuratively depict culture as an iceberg, which is based on cultural values ​​and norms, and its peak is the individual behavior of a person, based on them and manifested primarily in communication with other people.

Only through communication a person goes through inculturation and socialization, becomes a representative of his people and culture. It is communication in all its forms (verbal and non-verbal), types (formal and informal), types (interpersonal, intergroup, intercultural) that most fully reveals the specifics of human society.

Each specific act of communication is determined by the cultural differences of the interlocutors. Depending on the specifics of cultural differences in intercultural communication, it is customary to distinguish between collectivist and individualist types of culture. The collectivist type of culture is widespread mainly among the Eastern peoples, in whose cultures the main value is the identification of oneself with the collective. This type of culture is dominant among the peoples of Japan, China, Russia and most African countries. Representatives of collectivist cultures often forget their personal interests for successful interpersonal interaction. A person in such cultures is judged by his ability to establish contact with other people, and by this ability others judge his character and competence.

On the contrary, in individualistic cultures, the emphasis is on the individual, and the main value in them is individualism. Every person has their own principles and beliefs. In these cultures, all human actions are self-directed.

It is natural that this or that type of culture generates its own type of communication. Thus, representatives of collectivist cultures try to avoid direct interactions and focus on non-verbal means of communication, which, in their opinion, allow them to better understand and understand the intentions of the interlocutor, to determine his attitude towards them. For their part, representatives of individualistic cultures prefer direct forms of communication and open ways of resolving conflicts. Therefore, in the process of communication, they use mainly verbal methods.

Communication takes place on three levels:

The communicative level is communication through the language and cultural traditions characteristic of a particular language community. The result of this level of interaction is mutual understanding between people.

The interactive level is communication that takes into account the personal characteristics of people. It leads to certain relationships between people.

The perceptual level enables mutual knowledge and rapprochement of people on this rational basis. It is a process of perception by partners of each other, determining the context of the meeting. Perceptual skills are manifested in the ability to control one's perception, "read" the mood of partners in terms of verbal and non-verbal characteristics, understand the psychological effects of perception and take them into account to reduce its distortion.

No culture exists in isolation. In the course of her life, she is forced to constantly turn either to her past or to the experience of other cultures. This appeal to other cultures is called "interaction of cultures". In this interaction, an obvious fact is the communication of cultures in different "languages". The fact is that each culture in the process of its development creates various systems of signs, which are its original carriers. The creation of signs is a purely human feature. However, this human ability simultaneously creates the problem of understanding and perception of foreign cultures. For a person, the possession of these signs and sign systems means his inclusion in relations with other people and in culture. Depending on the purpose, several types of signs have been created and are used.

5. Language signs

However, individual signs themselves do not make sense and are of no value if they are not interconnected with other signs and are not included in a certain sign system, for example, there is a sign system of greetings: various kinds of bows, handshakes, kisses, pats on the shoulder.

Any sign has its own form and content. The content of the signs is a complex, multifaceted, concentrated information for those who are able to read it. At the same time, the culture of each society can exist only thanks to the continuity of generations.

In the interrelation of culture and communication, their mutual influence on each other occurs. For example, each culture has its own ideas about politeness.

CULTURAL, ETHNIC AND PERSONAL IDENTITY

Identity is a person's awareness of his belonging to a group, which allows him to determine his place in the sociological space and freely orientate himself in the world around him.

Cultural identity - belonging to a particular culture.

The essence of CI lies in the conscious acceptance of the corresponding numbers and patterns of behavior, value orientations and language, understanding one’s “I” from the standpoint of those k-th x-k that are accepted in this society, in self-identification himself with k-nye samples of this very about-va.

Ethnic identity is a person's awareness of their belonging to an ethnic community.

EI means acceptance of certain group ideas, readiness for a similar way of thinking, shared ethnic feelings, as well as building a system of relations and actions in various interethnic contacts.

With her with the help of determines its place in a multi-ethnic society and learns ways of behaving within and in a non-group.

Personal identity - a scoop of knowledge and ideas about one's place and role as a member of a social and ethnic group, about one's abilities and deeds

THE CONCEPT OF CULTURE, THE FUNCTIONAL COMMONITY OF CULTURES

Culture is an essential characteristic of a person associated with a purely human ability to purposefully transform the surrounding world, during which an artificial world of things, symbols, as well as connections and relationships between people is created. Everything that is made by a person or is related to him is part of the culture. Communication and communication are an essential part of human life, and therefore a part of culture.

Each specific act of communication is determined by the cultural differences of the interlocutors. Depending on the specifics of cultural differences in intercultural communication, it is customary to distinguish between collectivist and individualist types of culture.

In the course of her life, she is forced to constantly turn either to her past or to the experience of other cultures. This appeal to other cultures is called "interaction of cultures". In this interaction, an obvious fact is the communication of cultures in different "languages". The fact is that each culture in the process of its development creates various systems of signs, which are its original carriers. However, this human ability simultaneously creates the problem of understanding and perception of foreign cultures. For a person, the possession of signs and sign systems means his inclusion in relations with other people and in culture. several types of signs are used.

1. Signs-copies that reproduce various phenomena of reality, but they themselves are not this reality (photographs).

2. Signs-signs that carry some information by agreement on the subject (patient's temperature).

3. Signal signs that contain information by agreement about the subjects they inform about (school bell)

4. Signs-symbols that carry information about an object based on the selection of some properties or features from it (national emblem).

5. Language signs

in themselves, individual signs do not make sense and are of no value if they are not interconnected with other signs and are not included in a certain sign system, for example, there is a sign system of greetings: various kinds of bows, handshakes, kisses, pats on the shoulder.

All the numerous signs and sign systems that exist in human society constitute the culture of this or that time, this or that society. Each sign contains some meaning that was expressed and fixed in this sign by previous generations. The transfer of information is carried out through the transfer of signs from one generation to another, as well as from one culture to another. The interaction of cultures plays a vital role for the existence and development of the culture of any nation.

There are significant differences between cultures in how and what means of communication are used when communicating with representatives of other cultures.

In the interrelation of culture and communication, their mutual influence on each other occurs. So, for example, each culture has its own ideas about politeness, etc.

THE CONCEPT OF INTERCULTURAL COMMUNICATION

In cultural anthropology, these relationships between different cultures are called "intercultural communication", which means the exchange between two or more cultures and the products of their activities, carried out in various forms.

Relations are intercultural if their participants do not resort to their own traditions, customs, ideas and ways of behaving, but get acquainted with other people's rules and norms of everyday communication.

For intercultural communication, the sender and recipient of the message must belong to different cultures. It also requires the participants in communication to be aware of each other's cultural differences. In its essence, intercultural communication is always interpersonal communication in a special context, when one participant discovers the cultural difference of another. Intercultural communication should be considered as a set of various forms of relations between individuals and groups belonging to different cultures.

The origin of the language: the current state of the problem

The development of language was a consequence of the general complication of culture and the resulting need to operate with an ever-increasing amount of information, as well as to acquire, store and transmit information.

Anatomy - The biological foundation of the language is the parts of the brain that control the production and perception of signs, and in relation to the verbal-sound language, it is also the organs of the chest, larynx and oral cavity that provide the articulation of the necessary phonemes.

The development of the brain has been and is being studied most intensively.

Another organ associated with speech activity is the diaphragm, which provides the precise control of breathing necessary for rapid, articulate speech. At modern people one of the consequences of this function of the diaphragm is an increase in the number of nerve cell bodies in the spinal cord of the thoracic vertebrae.

There are two main terms. about the origin of linguistic signs. It lies in the fact that they originally had a verbally sound character and grew out of various kinds of natural vocalizations characteristic of our distant ancestors, while the other suggests that the sound language was preceded by sign language, which could have been formed on the basis of kinetic and mimic movements so widely represented in communicative language. repertoire of many modern monkeys. Supporters of the speech direction usually categorically reject the possibility that the original language could be signed, or at least, are very skeptical of it, but their opponents still have some arguments that are hard to ignore

Origin of syntax. There is a point of view that the lack of syntax limited not only the effectiveness of the language, but also had an extremely negative effect on thinking, making it impossible, or, in any case, making it very difficult to build complex logical chains. There are a number of hypotheses regarding the origin of syntax. Some authors believe that this event was like an explosion, i.e. happened quickly and abruptly, due to some kind of macromutation that caused a corresponding reorganization of the brain, while others consider it the result of a gradual evolutionary process.

The time of the origin of the language. Some archaeologists believe that the first reliable signs of its existence appear only in the Upper Paleolithic (that is, not earlier than 40 thousand years) along with art and other innovations in culture. Many archaeologists, without denying the possibility of the existence of language already in the early stages of human evolution, nevertheless believe that a fully modern, developed syntactic language appeared only among people of a modern physical type, and became a catalyst for rapid changes in other areas of culture recorded for this period. .

LANGUAGE AND MIND

In linguistics, the most well-known concept is called the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis.

This concept, often called the hypothesis of linguistic relativity, comes from the assumption that the structure of language determines the structure of thought and the way of knowing. outside world. The nature of cognition of reality depends on the language in which the cognizing subject thinks. People divide the world, organize it into concepts and distribute meanings in the way that language imposes on them. Cognition does not have an objective, universal character: similar phenomena add up to different pictures due to differences in thinking imposed by differences in languages. It follows that complete mutual understanding between representatives of different cultures speaking different languages ​​is fundamentally impossible: languages ​​erect an insurmountable barrier between the thinking of people of different cultures.

Different t.z about the connection between language and thought:

The fur-m of thinking is not connected with the linguistic (verbal, verbal) code and is implemented independently from the language.

Without yaz-and not m.b thinking

Thought m.b. both verbal and non-verbal (sensual-figurative).

The presence of non-verbal forms of thought-I does not refute the concept of thought-I. object-sensory ways of thinking vyp the same function as lang. In the course of the development of language and thought, their interaction did not remain unchanged - unless writing strengthened the influence of language on thought, the possibilities of language themselves increased as and the development of thinking, in turn, had an impact on the language, the meanings of words (polysemy) expanded, the lexical and phraseological composition of the language increased. Thought is closely connected with knowledge. According to the theory of reflection, the first stage of knowledge is the sensory perception of the world around. Outside the world influencing the organs of the senses in a call in the h-ke OPR sensations. These sensations are the material for thinking. At h-ka vozn representation of the subject and on its basis a concept is formed. At the second stage of cognition, as a percentage of distraction from the sensory perception of the concrete object, when the most essential and its general properties are taken into the outside, the concept is clothed in a form, i.e. word. The question of language and thought is closely related to Pavlov's theory of the signaling system. The second signaling system underlies the language of communication. It was she who ensured the transition from feeling contemplation to abstract thought and further to the formation of concepts, judgments, and conclusions that are expressed in words, so the word can mean not only a given concrete object, but also a number of homogeneous objects. (Wood: oak, birch, spruce, ash)

LINGUISTIC AND CONCEPTUAL

PICTURES OF THE WORLD

each language creates a kind of "linguistic picture of the world", which is one of the reasons for the difficulties that arise in translation. The structure of the language, indeed, is able to determine the possible ways of constructing messages, organizing thoughts expressed in a certain way, sometimes imposing on the speakers the obligatory use of certain forms. But it is also true that the linguistic form of the utterance does not unambiguously determine the content of the utterance, which is derived from the interpretation of the meanings of its constituent units, but serves only as an initial basis for understanding the global meaning. The same meaning can be derived from different linguistic structures, and vice versa, the same structure can serve as the basis for the formation and understanding of different messages. Thus, the dependence of expressed thoughts on the method of their linguistic expression turns out to be relative and limited. Speakers can be aware of the difference between the form of the statement and the essence of the matter, overcome the stereotypes imposed by the language. When today a Russian person says that the sun "rises and sets", this does not mean that he does not agree with Copernicus and seriously believes that the sun moves around the earth. He may be aware that what is actually happening is quite different: rotating around its axis, the earth for some time turns to the sun that part of its surface where it is located. The way of expressing this thought, adopted in the Russian language, may reflect the ideas that once existed about the structure of the universe, but in no way predetermines the thinking of modern man.

TRANSLATION AS MEDIATED ICC

Translations play an important role in the receiving culture, that is, in the culture of the target language. It is known that many national languages ​​and cultures were formed under the influence of translations, mainly from ancient languages. Translations played a decisive role in the development of the culture of the Slavic peoples. Translations of religious books from Greek into Church Slavonic (Old Bulgarian) by Cyril and Methodius laid the foundation for the formation of the Russian language, Russian writing and literature.

Within the framework of different cultures at different stages of development, unequal requirements were presented to translations. These requirements had to be satisfied not only by the choice of texts for translation, but also by the strategy chosen by the translator. In part, the choice of strategy could be determined by the nature of the translated texts or by the theoretical attitudes of the translators themselves. Thus, the translators of religious texts, who reverently treated every letter of the sacred original, strove for its most literal reproduction, even to the detriment of the meaning and norms of the target language. On the contrary, many translators of fiction have been very liberal with the original. The outstanding Russian translators Karamzin and Zhukovsky created brilliant examples of free translation, while Vyazemsky, Gnedich and Fet stubbornly defended the need for literal translation. But in any case, translators had to take into account the attitude towards their work that prevailed in their culture at that time.

In modern cultures, the liberties of translators of literary works are usually relatively calmly perceived (who, moreover, often translate from interlinear or through a third language) and impose high accuracy requirements on informative (diplomatic, commercial, technical, etc.) translations.

The dependence of the translator's strategy on the degree of prestige of a foreign author in the receiving culture is also known. Considered classical or exemplary works of famous and famous authors are translated with increased attention to the reproduction of their content and author's style, while in translations of lesser-known authors, standard, approximate versions are often widely used, facilitating the translator's task and leveling the semantic and stylistic features of the original.

G. Turi also points to the dependence of the nature of the translation on the genre of the translated literary work. If the translation belongs to a literary genre that is absent or poorly developed in the receiving culture, then translators more carefully preserve the genre features of the original. In contrast, in genres that are well developed in the host culture, translations comply with the requirements of those genres in that culture.

The socio-cultural influence on the translator's strategy is often reflected in the completeness of the reproduction of the original content in the translation, forcing the translator to reduce or completely omit everything that is considered unacceptable in the receiving culture for ideological, moral or aesthetic reasons.

Various forms of cultural determinism of translation activity constitute a kind of conventional norm of translation - a set of requirements imposed by society on translations at a certain stage of history.

NATIONAL, ETHNIC AND TERRITORIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF COMMUNICANTS

First of all, differences in the use of language means are associated with the living conditions of people using the same language, in different countries or in different parts one country. If a language is used in several countries, then in each of them it acquires some distinctive features, resulting in national variants of this language. So, there are British, American and Australian versions of the English language and varieties of the German language in Germany, Austria and Switzerland, Spanish in Spain itself, in Cuba and in a number of Latin American countries. Within one country, there may be some differences in the speech of the inhabitants of certain territories - the so-called territorial dialects. English language in the northeastern states of the United States differs from the language of the inhabitants of the southern states or states of the Midwest, and the Germans in Bavaria speak differently from the inhabitants of Berlin. There are only minor phonetic, lexical or grammatical differences between some territorial dialects, in other cases these differences are so great that the dialect can be considered a separate language. In some countries, dialectal differences are gradually being erased, in others they are more stable.

In different countries, the social stratification of society, reflected in linguistic features, may be different.

COMMUNICANTS AND THEM

SOCIO-CULTURAL STATUS

The most common are the differences between the speech of people who have received a standard school education and mastered the national language norms, and the speech of poorly educated people, deviating to one degree or another from the literary norm. Such differences are typical for a variety of languages, which makes it easier to reproduce them in translation.

For translation practice, it is very important to take into account the fact that there is often a close relationship between social and territorial dialects: territorial differences usually remain in the speech of poorly educated people and are smoothed out in the process of getting an education. A separate dialect can be delimited both geographically and by social position, that is, to be both territorial and social. Such, for example, is the London "cockney", characteristic of the speech of the "lower classes" of the English capital. Due to the presence of such a connection, additional information, represented by territorial-dialect forms, can be transmitted in translation by means of poorly educated speech.

Some difficulties in conveying the features of social dialects may arise due to the fact that the degree of social stratification in different countries is different, as well as the degree of such stratification in the language. In such cases, equivalence in translation can be established between completely different types of speech. It is only important that differences in speech forms have an appropriate social status.

The speech of sailors, soldiers, students and similar professional groups may have certain features, mainly in the field of vocabulary, which distinguish a number of professional dialects (or jargons) in the language. In most cases, the main occupational groups can be found in different cultures and forms of the respective occupational dialect can be used in translation.

RUSSIAN NEGOTIATION C-RA

No one believes oral promises of the parties. According to obl amer and him, special-in special conduct-I grew up teachers of negotiations yavl:

poor goal orientation

lack of ability to see an alternative, compare different options

the conviction that by the start of negotiations the size of the pie is known and the task of the Russians is to snatch the tidbit

rapid change of mood from friendly to hostile

striving for momentary gain

dishonesty, the ability to deceive a partner

EAST NEGOTIATION C-RA

They talk for a long time beforehand and show their respect to others.

Arabic style

X-but correct attitude and respect for partners. Before expressing their opinion, they consult each other. They honor traditions. Gl - the establishment will entrust the relative between the partners. Negotiations began with mutual bows. An oral agreement and a handshake are enough for Dr. to take effect. Any change in the situation and the receipt of new information is a condition for the revision of the doctor, which is completely unacceptable in the zap to-re.

WESTERN NEGOTIATION C-RA

Amer nat style negotiation

Distinguished by high prof. and competence and high independence of the delegation at the negotiations when making decisions. The main thing is achievable goals, in this sense, for them, they have extreme pragmatism, disregard for traditions, thoroughness of analysis, scrupulous verification of performance, the power of a given word. Producing too assertive, aggressive and even rude negotiators. As well as openness, energy, goodwill. And they prefer not very official atmosphere. Before the negotiations, everyone calculates and turns to Dr. for help on them negatively. Greater value comes from recommendations. Mean th volume of texts of agreements. Revision of the conditional in writing to the lawyer. Start negotiations right away.

English national negotiation style

Also considers qualified. They carefully compose short-term and medium-term forecasts, but are inferior to the Americans in terms of long-term forecasts, where, in addition to economic factors, there are social, political, global and psychological forecasts. For English x-on assertiveness when it comes to momentary profit, about making deals that bring immediate profit. Greater meaning comes to rituals, trad-pits. Start negotiations with discussing everyday problems. They are not chasing obvious big profits. In otl from Amer unacceptable otn to bribes.

PROBLEMS OF THE THEORY OF TEXT UNDERSTANDING

At the moment of reaching the addressee, the message is "empty", but this emptiness appears as the readiness for the work of some signifying apparatus, which should highlight the meaning of such a message. For the text to "speak" the work of understanding is needed, performed by a person. And the body of the text, taken by itself, without the h-ka that signifies it, does not contain any internal energy and cannot be structurally self-organized.

Text noun in k-re. It is collective knowledge that sets the guidelines, according to which the author of the text gives it a definition of a page that meets certain requirements for the language design of the content of the statement, and real d-i on the search and organization of language wed-in commits producing text h-to. That. The “impact” of a text on a person’s conceptual system appears in the process of designating a text as a complex linguistic sign, when an individual turns to his verbal and non-verbal, perceptive, cognitive and affective experience with the obligatory combination of what is understood with the experience of what is understood.

Also important is the specificity of knowledge on which the recipient of the text relies. Knowledge is understood as a dynamically functional formation - a product of the processing of verbal and non-verbal experience. It is believed that they retain their original "roots" and form an image of the world, in which no understanding can occur. Such living knowledge provides understanding of the text through the counter construction of the situation based on knowledge about the real or imaginary world. That. there is not only the actualization of knowledge included in the "internal context" of previous experience and the experience of the relationship to this knowledge in connection with the current situation, but also the prediction of possible ways to continue the message.

In accordance with the two positions of the reader named above, it is necessary to distinguish between two types of understanding of the text:

Understand-e - comprehension, including spontaneous interpretation and experience of what is understood

Understanding - as a purposeful interpretation, with the recognition that the second kind of understanding is impossible without the first, basic one.

Understanding is a psychic process in which the language emerges as one of the sides of a single whole. Thinking, speech, memory, external, perception, understanding, emotions, etc. function in a single ensemble. Understanding the meaning of the text, expressed in words, occurred depending on the age, place and subjective current situation. It might. primary, i.e. spontaneous and secondary, i.e. purposeful in the head of the given goals and positions.

THE CONCEPT OF CULTURAL SHOCK

AND ITS SIGNS

KSh is a stressful air new to-ry on h-ka

The concept of KSh was introduced in 1960 by the Amer scientist Oberg. There are basic parameters, forms of manifestation of KSh:

tension due to efforts made to achieve psychological adaptation

feeling of loss due to deprivation of friends, position, profession

feeling of loneliness or rejection in a new k-re which can turn into a denial of this k-ry

anxiety turning into indignation and disgust after realizing k-th values

feelings of inferiority due to inability to cope with the situation

Mech-we development KSh:

Oberg proposed a model of the so-called adaptation curve, a U-curve that consists of 5 steps:

1. honeymoon - any immigrant is full of hopes, aspirations

2. critical - an unusual environment and the beginning of the negative impact on the h-ka. A period of disappointment, depression. During this period, the e-you try to limit the social only with their fellow countrymen

3. supercritical - KSh reaches its max. At this stage, physical and mental illness often arose.

4. optimistic - h-to become more confident and satisfied with their position in the society and k-re

5. complete adaptation, occurring after 4 - 5 years.

Returning migrants go through a process of readaptation and experience return shock. W-shaped readaptation curve

The degree of severity of KSh and the duration of adaptation depends on many factors that can be combined into 2 groups.

1. internal (individual) - gender, age, traits x-ra. How older than, the more difficult it is for him, it is more difficult for women than for men, if he is sociable, then it is easier for him, among the traits of x-ra psychologists, there are trace traits for adaptation: professional competence, high self-esteem, sociability, extroversion, openness to different views, tolerance, interest to the environment people, internal self-control, courage, perseverance. Also to the internal rel of the environment of life experience h-ka, motives for adaptation. High level of x-motivation for students, emigrants for permanent residence

2. external (group) - k-th distance, i.e. st-n differences between native and new cut; features of the to-ry to which the migrants belong. K.p. people from dominant to-r, the so-called. great powers. K.p. poorly adapted representations of individualistic to-r.

In the last decade, in connection with the expansion of Russia's international relations with other countries, issues of intercultural communication have become of particular theoretical and practical interest. International relations are not limited to the discussion of various issues and problems at a high governmental and diplomatic level, but are increasingly becoming part of Everyday life of people. Therefore, in our time, mastering the art of intercultural communication is becoming increasingly relevant and significant.

The concept of "intercultural communication" is derived from the concepts of "culture" and "communication". In order to define what "intercultural communication" is, let's find out what culture is. The term culture is one of the most ambiguous, and this is explained by the fact that culture itself is an extremely complex and multifaceted phenomenon that expresses all aspects of human existence. In this interpretation, culture appears as an integrity that differs from others due to religious, national-state boundaries or a set of ethnic characteristics. Such an understanding of culture is also the most functional in relation to the topic under consideration - intercultural communication.

Intercultural communication is characterized by the fact that when representatives of different cultures meet, each of them acts in accordance with their own cultural norms. The classical definition is given in the book by E.M. Vereshchagin and V.G. Kostomarov "Language and Culture", where intercultural communication is understood as an adequate mutual understanding of two participants in a communicative act belonging to different national cultures.

The problem of intercultural communication is not reduced solely to the language problem. Knowledge of the language of a native speaker of a different culture is necessary, but not yet sufficient for an adequate mutual understanding of the participants in a communicative act. Moreover, intercultural communication implies the existence of not only differences between two different languages, but also differences when using the same language. Thus, representatives of the English-, French- and German-speaking countries, despite mutual language, do not necessarily belong to the same culture. In this regard, we can talk about communication, for example, between the Americans and the British, the French and the Walloons, the inhabitants of the "old" and "new Lands" in Germany.

The life activity and relationships of people are determined by the norms existing in a particular culture that regulate broad areas of human thinking and behavior and have a great influence on the nature of perception, evaluation and interpersonal relationships. Education and upbringing, historical memory, traditions and customs, the rules dictated by society, the very language in which people communicate, develop an orientation system that helps them cope with various everyday situations and problems in their own way.

However, a single culture is not a homogeneous structure. There are group deviations from the generally accepted standards of thinking and behavior in a particular culture. If such deviations vary within acceptable limits, then they coexist in a given culture. In this case, one speaks of the existence of subcultures within one culture (for example, youth subcultures). For all their differences, subcultures have the same basis for the worldview, values, norms and patterns of behavior that indicate their belonging to a particular culture. This basis arises from the socio-cultural experience that determines what is considered necessary, normal, reasonable and acceptable in a given situation. Deviations that go beyond acceptable limits are most often rejected within the culture.

Any person sees the world in a certain cultural framework. But these cultural frameworks (norms), as a rule, are not recognized by the individual, because most often they are so inherent in him that they form part of his personality. Awareness of the norms of behavior and thinking of one's own culture is possible only when there are contacts with people who, in their behavior, are guided by other cultural norms. People, to one degree or another, expand the boundaries of their cultural horizon by visiting other countries, learning foreign languages, reading foreign literature talking to foreigners.

However, such interaction can cause discomfort or even lead to conflicts, often difficult to explain. The mechanisms of behavior and evaluation that worked as long as communication was carried out within the same culture begin to fail, communication becomes difficult. This causes uncertainty, loss of internal stability, incorrect interpretations of the partner's behavior, misunderstanding of each other. Therefore, if until now someone did not notice and was not aware of the peculiarities of his behavior, due to his cultural context, then now these subconscious models of perception, emotional reactions, thinking, behavior and evaluations are becoming more obvious and subject to reflection, accounting and correction in relation to the communication partner.

The behavior of people belonging to other cultures is not at all unpredictable, it can be studied and predicted, but it requires special educational programs aimed at preparing for intercultural communication. The study of other cultures, their characteristics, the laws of their functioning and development enriches a person, transforms his attitude to the world and other people, and can radically change his attitude to life situations.

When communicating, our cultural differences affect the meaning of what is said, even if we speak the same language. One of the most difficult moments in intercultural communication is the difference in the contextuality of the cultures of the participants in communication. The author proposes to pay attention to some aspects of intercultural communication with the hope that this will help us feel more confident and better understand each other in our fast-paced, multicultural world.

The processes of globalization lead to the fact that great amount people move around the world to get an education or to find a job. Cultural diversity in such metropolitan areas as Moscow, London, St. Petersburg, Dubai, Tokyo continues to grow, and there are plenty of opportunities for misunderstanding. When communicating, our cultural differences affect the meaning of what is said, even if we speak the same language. Probably the most noticeable differences are determined by ethnicity. Representatives of different ethnic groups are guided by different rules for constructing and interpreting messages. This is also true for people of different ages, genders, or creeds. For example, in our country, people of the older generation believe that it is impolite to address a person older or occupying a higher position in the social hierarchy by name, without a patronymic. And young people quite often address everyone by name, not intending to express disrespect.
One of the most difficult moments in intercultural communication is the difference in the contextuality of the cultures of the participants in communication. Representatives of low-context cultures (researchers include the cultures of the USA, Germany, and Northern European countries) pay more attention to the content of the message - to what is said, and not to how it is said. In high-context cultures (characteristic of the countries of the East: Japan, China, Korea), information is transmitted indirectly, and others must make conclusions about the meaning of the message based on the physical and social context. This feature is manifested in giving special significance to the form of the message - how it is said, and not what is said.
Representatives of low-context cultures place high demands on the fluency of speech, the accuracy of using concepts and the logicality of the speaker's statements, and strive to develop their speech skills. Thus, the content of the statement is highly valued in American culture. A typical American in everyday communication is laconic, says what is needed right now and for a specific case, and quickly ends the conversation. When participating in a discussion, the Americans first of all put forward the main argument, formulating it clearly and precisely, in order to make opponents want to hear the rest of the information.
Representatives of high-context cultures, on the contrary, are characterized by a high dependence of communication on the context. It manifests itself in the vagueness of speech, the abundance of non-categorical forms of expression, words like "maybe", "probably", "possibly". For example, in business relationships, the Japanese usually talk in a streamlined way, talking at length about everything but the main subject of discussion. This strategy allows them to better know the intentions of the partners in order to either adapt to them, or resist, without dropping the dignity of the opposite side.
Russian culture, in terms of its contextuality, occupies an intermediate position, approaching high-context cultures. There are many uncertainties in the Russian language: “someone”, “something”, “something”, vague forms of expression are often used: “for some reason”, “should be”, etc.
In high-context cultures, more attention is paid to non-verbal behavior: eye contact, facial expressions, gestures, postures, spatio-temporal organization of communication. For example, in Japan, during a conversation, people try to direct their gaze to a point at the level of the Adam's apple and avoid direct gaze. The Chinese, Indonesians and Mexicans in the villages lower their eyes as a sign of respect: for them, too direct a look is a sign of bad manners.
Russian culture, on the other hand, is “staring”, which is reflected in proverbs and sayings (“if you lie - you won’t blink your eye”), in increased sensitivity to your partner’s gaze in critical situations (“seek the truth in your eyes”), in the constant repetition of the phrase “look in eyes" in educational conversations with the child. At the same time, Americans, as true representatives of a low-context culture, look into the eyes only when they want to make sure that their communication partner has understood them correctly. For the British, eye contact is more familiar, they have to look at the interlocutor who blinks to show that he is listening. However, in England it is considered indecent to look so intently into the eyes, as is customary - and even encouraged - in Russia.
In modern research on ethnopsychology, one can find numerous evidence that representatives of different cultures have significant differences in expressive behavior, including facial expressions. These differences mean that facial expressions are a language that, like any other, a person masters in the process of socialization. For example, in some Eastern cultures, children are taught to restrain their emotions, not to upset others with their experiences. And representatives of other cultures, on the contrary, try to be more expressive.
Another type of expressive human behavior is gestures. In everyday consciousness, there is an idea that with their help people of different cultures, even without knowing each other's language, can communicate with each other. In recent years, many studies have appeared that describe and systematize gestures. The results of these studies show that most gestures are culturally specific and not only do not contribute to intercultural communication, but also make it difficult. In different cultures, gestures can have completely different meanings. For example, when a person forms a circle with the thumb and forefinger, this is the "OK" sign in the USA, and in France this gesture means zero or worthless business; in Germany, Brazil, Australia it is a vulgar, obscene gesture. Gestures of the same technique can be interpreted ambiguously even in different regions of the same country. Thus, regional differences in the meaning of nodding and shaking the head from side to side as agreement or disagreement are known in Greece and Turkey. All these studies made it possible to formulate a recommendation - in order to avoid misunderstandings, use gestures as rarely as possible in a foreign cultural environment.
A variety of gestures are touch gestures (stroking, patting, shaking hands, kissing, hugging). The handshake is one of the most common touches adopted in various cultures. But the frequency of its use is limited by cultural norms. In Japan, the handshake is rarely used, usually replacing it with traditional bows. In Europe and America, this is one of the most common forms of greeting, but Russians use it even more often in a greeting situation.
All peoples have developed rules governing the use of interpersonal space. People act in accordance with them automatically, but in interethnic communication it should be borne in mind that in different cultures they can vary significantly. A high need for close contact during communication is characteristic of the cultures of Latin America, Arab countries and Southern Europe, and a low one distinguishes the cultures of Northern Europe, Central and Southeast Asia. Although the choice of communication distance is made unconsciously, a person always reacts if the distance chosen by the partner does not correspond to the norms of culture. Violation of cultural distances is perceived negatively, people try to change it. If one of the partners comes too close, the other retreats at this time, trying to maintain a comfortable distance for himself.
A less obvious aspect of our communication - time - is considered to be one of the attributes non-verbal communication. The temporal characteristics of communication also have culturally specific variability. There are monochronic and polychronic cultures. In monochronic communication, a person focuses undividedly on one event, does one job, or communicates with one person (one group of people) before moving on to the next. He takes deadlines seriously, appreciates quickness, and attaches great importance to short-term relationships. With polychronic communication, a person's attention is drawn to many things: he can communicate with two or three different people, answer phone calls, "pop out" to drink coffee with a friend almost at the same time. Differences in relation to time are explained by the fact that polychronic communications are primarily an emotional exchange (whether with a kind word or abuse), and monochronic communications are primarily an exchange of content. The two uses of time make interactions between, for example, English-speaking and Hispanic Americans, a series of micro-tragedies. A Spanish-speaking resident of America, who unexpectedly had to visit his grandmother, is seriously offended by the reprimand of an English-speaking employer, outraged by his next delay. Russians mostly live with a polychronic perception of time. Americans seem to us overly preoccupied with time, and Americans, in turn, believe that being late is an integral feature of the Russian character.
There are other systems of non-verbal behavior, such as intonation, voice volume, smell culture. Here, cultural differences are still little studied, although this does not negate the very fact of their existence and the difficulties of intercultural interaction that arise on their basis. But we all live in one small world, and if we do not want to face unpleasant surprises, but want to succeed, then we should learn to understand each other.

At present, the expansion of communication in the field of culture and politics, education and science, sports and tourism, as well as globalization and intensive migration in the world caused by these connections, determine the problems of intercultural communication as relevant, deserving separate theoretical and practical consideration.

Thanks to its enormous potential, culture is able to unite people of different nationalities and professions, linguistic and religious communities, and age categories who can build their communication solely on the basis of mutual understanding.

In the field of international relations, business and politics, issues of intercultural communication acquire a professional character.

International educational and scientific relations are today the main forms of intercultural communication, they can also be classified as the most promising, since students and scientists are characterized by academic mobility (internships, exchange), a steady desire to acquire new knowledge.

Sport as an international phenomenon with deep historical roots, as well as international tourism are forms of intercultural communication.

Intercultural communication (IC) is communication between representatives of different cultures; “... adequate mutual understanding of two participants in a communicative act belonging to different national cultures. The fact is that, even if they speak the same language, people cannot always correctly understand each other, and the reason is often precisely the divergence of cultures.

Following E. M. Vereshchagin and V. G. Kostomarov, MC researchers believe that good knowledge foreign language not enough for effective communication with its carriers. Each nation has its own traditions of communication, which are expressed

Reaction types Comments
Denying cultural differences Protecting one's own cultural representation	Reactions are based on the belief of representatives of a particular culture that beliefs, customs
Minimization of cultural differences (a typical human reaction to intercultural differences within a country)	and the values ​​of people all over the world should be the same. However, a protective reaction may occur ( negative attitude) population groups of one culture to another in the form of aggression (Nazism, Islamism, etc.)
Acceptance of the existence of intercultural differences	The reaction is characterized by knowledge of another culture, a benevolent attitude towards it, which does not involve active penetration into another cultural environment.
Adapting to a new culture	The reaction is connected with the desire of a person to adapt to the conditions of another culture, without fundamentally changing his identity, preserving his traditions, moral and ethical values. Example: Millions of European tourists embrace Asian culture while traveling by greeting in the language of the host country using local gestures
Integration into a different cultural environment	An individual lives outside his historical homeland for a long time, creates a family, engages in professional activities (emigration of the 20th century)

in behavior, gestures, facial expressions, way of thinking, etc. Moreover, the authors distinguish six types of reaction to another culture and its representatives.

The most important conditions for full-fledged intercultural communication are knowledge and understanding of the peculiarities of one's national culture, as well as respect for the cultural values ​​of other peoples with whose representatives we interact, restraint in assessments, appropriate behavior and balanced decisions made in the MC.

The American researcher Richard D. Lewis conventionally divides the cultures of the world in terms of communication into three types: monoactive, polyactive and reactive.

Table 4

Monoactive culture	Polyactive culture	Reactive cultures
Plan your life, act according to the schedule. Representatives: Americans, British, Germans, Swiss, Swedes, etc.	They determine the order of cases not according to the schedule, but according to the degree of their attractiveness at the moment. Representatives: sociable peoples (Italians, Hispanics, Arabs, etc.)	They attach the greatest importance to courtesy and respect. Representatives: residents of Japan, China, Taiwan, Thailand, Singapore, Korea, Turkey, Finland
The main way of communication is dialogue		Preferred mode of communication: monologue - pause - reflection - monologue

A simple linear diagram of a communicative act in the process of communication includes such components as a message, a sender and a recipient of information. However, it is possible to illustrate the speech action in the course of intercultural communication by supplementing the sample with some other structural elements. Big Picture will look like this:

Scheme 1. Model of a communicative act in the process of intercultural communication

A native speaker of one language (A), an individual who plays a major role in the transmission of a language, a language tradition, according to Arutyunov, transmits a message, any information, thoughts, ideas to a native speaker of another language (B), who has his own linguistic foundations and experience, individual characteristics speech. This idea is confirmed by O. A. Leontovich, who writes that behind each linguistic personality there is a national character (A1, B2), “the nature of self-identification of partners” in communication.

The national character as an element (variable) of the model of communication with intercultural specifics stands aside, has a latent, hidden image, and therefore requires a deep understanding, the process of its actualization, so that there are no gaps, gaps that can lead to misunderstanding, failure in intercultural communication.

When determining national customs, they generalize typical features character of one people, a peculiar set of universal human traits attributed to one people by other people.

The concept of "national character" first appeared in the travel literature in order to express the specifics of the way of life of a particular people. The motive of travel in literature is plot and genre-forming in the poems "Odyssey" by the ancient Greek poet Homer and " Dead Souls"N. V. Gogol, in the novel" Gulliver's Travels "by Jonathan Swift and others.

The concept of "national character" is also considered in publicistic literature. Thus, “Vokrug Sveta”, one of the first magazines in Russia, founded in St. Petersburg in 1861, publishes news about historical events, stories about the fate of famous people, information about new scientific discoveries and technical advances. However, in the first year of publication, nine articles were published in six issues of the magazine from January to November, which were devoted to the lifestyle and reality of a particular people and reflected the national character.

Today, Internet travel sites are not only interactive guides in the field of tourism, but also modern sources of information about the national character, as they continue the tradition of articles and essays about its features.

An analysis of publicistic literature also shows that the names of nationalities are followed by their geographical location: Great Britain, Mexico, Germany, America, etc., therefore, hot topic and the problem is the study of the geographical features of national characters. Thus, there are studies by Y. Alik, R. McCray and others who make the assumption that the nature of a nation is largely determined by temperature, climate, as well as national wealth, values ​​and beliefs.

travel sites	Articles
http://www.otpusk.com/ (online guide to the world of tourism)	Peculiarities national character, or why the British love the queue. Mountain people of Indochina. Walk around Japan. About Japan, the Japanese people and "henna gaijin". Delhi: a journey into the past and the future
http://maxyweb. ha/ osobennosti-nacionalnogo- (tourist portal)	Mexico - Features of the national character. Egypt - Features of the national character
http://www.vokrugsveta. ha/ all_vs_articles (electronic archive of the magazine "Vokrug sveta")	Features of the national character, or why the Germans wash the streets with soap. Features of the national character, or why Scandinavians love ice cream. Features of the national character, or How to become a real American. Features of the national character, or Unknown Italians

• Richard D. Lewis, the world's leading linguist and expert in cross-cultural studies.